An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c14.s2: 9.2 Deserts
An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c14.s2
- Language
- English
9.2 Deserts
v1.c14.s2.1
The desert or arid zone of India covers an area of 317090 km, of which 62% lies in Rajasthan, 20% in Gujarat, and the remaining 18% in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Dts lying wholly or largely in the arid zone are Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jalor, Jodhpur, Churu, Nagaur, Jhunjhunu and Sikar in Rajasthan, Kutch and Jamnagar in Gujarat, Ferozepore and Bhatinda in Punjab and Hissar in Haryana. Since the maximum area of arid zone in any single state lies in Rajasthan, this part of the desert has received the largest attention from researchers and is dealt with here.
v1.c14.s2.2
The e. boundary of the Rajasthan desert is formed by the Aravalli hills. There is no other major mountain range in the desert. In its s. and c. part—in Dts Jalor, Barmer and Jodhpur—low hills and inselbergs of granite and rhyolite occur. Around Jodhpur and to its n. are seen isolated outcrops of Vindhyan sandstone, and to its s. of limestone. In and around Jaisalmer occur flat-topped outcrops of marine shales, sandstones, clays, etc. Extensive rocky plains occur between Jayal and Nagaur, between Nagaur and Jodhpur, between Dhechu and Jaisalmer, and from Jaisalmer to about 50 km towards Barmer. Much of the desert however consists of a flat alluvial plain. In its w. and n. parts the plain is thickly covered with sand-dunes which rise up to a height of 50 m. Contrary to the popular image of the desert, large tracts are completely or very largely free from blown sand.
v1.c14.s2.3
Perhaps the most significant aspect of the desert is the absence or scarcity of surface water. In the s. part there is a network of seasonal rivers formed by the Luni and its tributaries all of which rise in the Aravallis and join the Luni, the latter losing itself in the sands of the Rann of Kutch. In the extreme n. is the dried-up bed of the Ghaggar/ŚRASVATĪ. Between these two rivers in an area of roughly 300 km n.-s. and 400 km e.-w. there is no stream channel of any consequence. There are however a large number of saline lakes of varying sizes which receive the drainage of neighbouring hills and dunes but remain dry for most part of the year. Even away from the lakes the subsoil water is often brackish. Sweet water is a scarce and precious commodity.
v1.c14.s2.4
Rainfall is both scarce and uncertain. It ranges from 450 mm in the e. to 100 mm in the n.-w. There are frequent failures of rain, leading to famine and large-scale migration of men and livestock. There is considerable seasonal and diurnal variation in temperature. The mean maximum temperatures in summer is 40°C but highest recorded temperatures reach up to 48 to 50°C. High temperatures and parched earth cause strong dust storms on several days during summer. In winter the mean minimum temperatures range between 3° and 8°C and lowest temperatures recorded are −4°C. Chilly winds blow during this season and frost occurs frequently.
v1.c14.s2.5
Because of low rainfall and lack of irrigation facilities winter cultivation is restricted. Only during the rainy seasons millets, lentils and other crops are grown. Both alluvial and sandy soils are however very fertile and in spite of low rainfall support good tree, shrub and grassy vegetation. Pastoralism is therefore an important part of the local economy. This also leads to nomadism as people have to move in search of fodder and water for their livestock. There are also certain habitually nomadic groups like the Vanvagri, the Kal-Beliya and the Shanshi who make a living by hunting-gathering, labour, petty crime and offering entertainment.
v1.c14.s2.6
The first significant archaeological discoveries in the desert were made by Stein in 1940-41 (Stein, 1942), when he located some early historical settlements along and on the dry bed of the Ghaggar in the then Bikaner state, now Dt Ganganagar, and in addition Harappa [4.9] sites in Bahawalpur state, now part of Pakistan, where the same river is known as the Hakra. Later, in 1950-52, Ghosh of the ASI carried out further exploration and trial diggings in the SARASVATĪ VALLEY and located some 25 Harappa [4.9], 20 PGW [4.15] and a large number of early historical [4.18.2] sites of what he called RANG MAHAL culture between Hanumangarh and Anupgarh (Ghosh, 1952). Excavation at RANG MAHAL itself was conducted by Hanna Rydh in 1953 (Rydh, 1959). Large-scale excavation at another site, KALIBANGAN, by Lal and Thapar of the ASI from 1961 to 1969 not only uncovered a large fortified Harappa settlement with the characteristic Harappa pattern of citadel and lower town but also an older fortified settlement of pre-Harappa [4.8] age. The pre-Harappa pottery turned out to the same as what had been found by Ghosh at SOTHI in the valley of the DṚṢADVATĪ, an affluent of the Sarasvatī, also now dry, and other sites.
v1.c14.s2.7
Explorations by the writer in the Luni and its tributaries in Pali. Dts Jodhpur, Barmer, Jalor and Sirohi from 1958 to 1961 produced evidence of two Stone Age cultures in s. part of the desert. The earlier phase was represented by diminutive and well-made handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, points, borers, knives and Levallois flakes and cores. These tools made of chert, jasper, agate, silicified wood and rhyolite occurred in the cemented sandy gravel of the rivers and on limestone outcrops between Sojat and Bilara. The second and younger industry was represented by microliths which occurred on top of sand-dunes and on limestone outcrops. The climatic sequence suggested by these deposits was: (a) rainfall higher than at present, more water in the rivers, sluggish streams and/or ponded situations, forming a clayey deposit; (b) sharp disconformity between the clay and overlying gravel, suggesting a period of erosion; (c) increased rainfall, more water in the rivers, formation of coarse sandy gravel, Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] man present; (d) reduced rainfall, graded stream beds, formation of silt; (e) highly arid conditions, formations of sand-dunes; and (f) amelioration in climate, microlithic [4.5] man appears.
v1.c14.s2.8
Excavation on a sand-dune at TILWARA in Dt Barmer by the writer in 1967 yielded a highly developed geometric microlithic industry, circular arrangements of stones suggesting outlines of wattle huts, bones of wild and domesticated animals, sling balls and stone hammers.
v1.c14.s2.9
In the winter of 1966-67 the writer and L.S. Leshnik explored the Luni valley from its source to its mouth in the Rann of Kutch in search of prehistoric farming settlements, but no such settlements were found.
v1.c14.s2.10
About this time Gurdip Singh carried out palynological studies in Lunkaransar, Didwana, Sambhar and Pushkar lakes [7.4] and propounded the following climatic sequence for end-Pleistocene and Holocene times: Phase I, before *c.* 10000 B P., arid climate, formation of sand-dunes. Phase II, *c.* 10000 to *c.* 9500 B.P., wet climate, formation of lakes, rainfall at least 25 cm more than present. Phase III, *c.* 9500 to *c.* 5000 B.P., slight decline in rainfall but freshwater lakes persist. The appearance of Cerealia-type pollen and considerable rise in carbonized vegetable remains in lake sediments is interpreted by him as suggesting the burning of vegetation by man for slash-and-burn agriculture. And Phase IV, *c.* 5000 to *c.* 3000 B.P , divisible into three sub-phases, IVa (*c.* 5000 to *c.* 3800 B.P.), IVb (*c.* 3800 to *c.* 3500 B.P.) and IVc (*c.* 3500 to *c.* 3000 B.P ). During sub-phase IVa rainfall increased considerably, being about 50 cm higher than at present. This period saw the emergence of pre-Harappa and Harappa civilizations in n. Rajasthan, and Singh believes that increased precipitation was one of the causative factors in this sudden cultural efflorescence. After 3500 B.P. rainfall began to decline and by about A.D. 1000 the present-day arid conditions were established.
v1.c14.s2.11
Between 1971 and 1976 a team consisting of B. Allchin of Cambridge Univ., A.S. Goudie of Oxford Univ. and K.T.M. Hegde of M.S. Univ. of Baroda carried out extensive field and laboratory studies for reconstructing the palaeoclimatic and archaeological history of the desert. Though they explored widely, their work was mainly concentrated on the dune sites at Pavagarh e. of Baroda, Budha Pushkar near Ajmer and Benara, e. of Jaipur. The major conclusions of their study are: (1) The active dunes today occur in Rajasthan only in the w. and n. Dts, w. of the 250 mm isohyet. Therefore the dunes are formed in a climate with annual rainfall of 250 mm or less. (2) Fossil dunes on the other hand occur over a much larger area, their e. limit defined by a line running from Pavagarh in the s., through Budha Pushkar and Benara in the centre to Hissar in the n., the annual rainfall along this line being roughly 900 mm at Pavagarh, 600 mm at Jaipur and 400 mm at Hissar. It follows therefore that in the past the rainfall along this line was 250 mm or less when the dunes were formed here. (3) There are two major phases of dune activity in the area, the first one occurring during the earlier part of the Upper Pleistocene [9.8.2], followed by a period of increased rainfall when the dune surfaces were deeply weathered to a brown colour by complete leaching of calcium carbonate. Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] man occupied this weathered surface in the Budha Pushkar basin. (4) This was followed by a second arid phase when fresh dunes were formed that covered the older weathered surface. The surface of these later dunes is covered with carbonate nodules and root casts formed by leaching due to increased rainfall after the dunes were formed. On this surface microlithic industries occur widely suggesting increased human occupation in response to an improved climate.
v1.c14.s2.12
Since 1977 a team comprising S.N. Rajaguru of the Deccan College, Ḍ.P. Agrawal of the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, and the writer has been engaged in a project on the early man and his environment in n.-w. India. It has carried out extensive exploration in Dts Sirohi, Pali, Ajmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Jaisalmer, Barmer and Jalor for the study of the distribution, morphology and stratigraphy of sand-dunes, collection of geomorphic and sedimentological data from wells, river sections, quarries and dune cuttings, and location and excavation of early occupation sites. In the January-1980 fieldwork, the team was joined by Gurdip Singh, palynologist, and R.J. Wasson, geomorphologist, of the Australian National Univ., Canberra. The main findings of this team so far are as follows: (1) There is only one major phase of dune formation in w. Rajasthan. The manifestation of this phase is best seen in the w. part of Dts Jaisalmer and Barmer. (2) This arid phase was followed by a wet climate which led to considerable weathering and compacting of the dune surface. This weathered horizon seems to extend over the entire arid zone as it has been seen at such far-flung places as Budha Pushkar near Ajmer, Nawa on the n.-w. shore of Sambhar lake, Didwana, Dhechu s. of Phalodi, Sam w. of Jaisalmer, a point 50 km s. of Jaisalmer on the way to Barmer and several other places further s. and w. Although occasionally large flakes and cores are found on this weathered horizon, the industries most commonly associated with it are those of geometric microliths. (3) Near Jayal in Dt Nagaur a more than 10 km long and over 50 m high ridge of well-rounded pebbles and boulders of metamorphic quartzites has been located. The surface of this ridge has a thick concentration of Acheulian industry [4.2]. Acheulian tools also occur to a depth of 50 cm within the ridge (4) At Didwana a rich early Acheulian industry occurs in alluvial clayey and sandy deposits overlain by blown sand. (5) Stratigraphic observation and preliminary study of sediment samples collected from freshly dug wells in the Didwana lake suggest that the lake existed before 1000 years but it had a very fluctuating water regime.
v1.c14.s2.13
Finally scientists of the Central Arid Zone Research Inst., Jodhpur, especially the geomorphologists B. Ghose and S. Singh and pedologist R.P. Dhir, have collected over many years a large body of data on palaeochannels, palaeolandforms, and palaeosoils of the desert which is of great value in understanding the geomorphic and climatic history of the desert.
v1.c14.s2.14
After critically examining the evidence from multiple sources outlined above the following picture of the palaeoclimatic and archaeological history of the desert emerges. At this stage it is not possible to provide an absolute chronology to various events because only a few ¹⁴C dates are available for the end-Pleistocene and Holocene stages. These are obtained from the measurement of residual carbon in calcium carbonate—a technique which is still in experimental stages.
v1.c14.s2.15
1. At the end of Tertiary and the beginning of Quaternary periods w. Rajasthan was a basin through which flowed the drainage from the Himalayas as well as the Aravallis. Thick and extensive gravel formations as seen at Jayal in Dt Nagaur and at Mokhari s. of Phalodi in Dt Jodhpur strongly show that the rivers flowing through the desert were of considerable size and were carrying high discharges. This drainage slowly filled the basin with sediments of up to 100 m thickness. Evidence for this aggradation occurs all over the desert from Jayal in the e. through Dhechu in the c. to Dhanana and Gadra on the Pakistan border in the w. and Jalor in the s.
v1.c14.s2.16
2. Probably by the middle of the Middle Pleistocene the plain was already considerably aggraded. The drainage from the Himalayas seems to have started getting disorganized. In addition to a decline in rainfall, tectonic rise of land in the upper reaches of the rivers played a role in this process. The unusual height (70 m) of the Jalal gravel ridge above the present-day plain can hardly be explained except by invoking neotectonics. By the early Upper Pleistocene the drainage system of n. Rajasthan seems to have become totally defunct. Much of the evidence of this ancient drainage system has been completely obliterated by subsequent widespread aeolian aggradation and localized fluvial erosion and aggradation. But traces of these palaeochannels are visible on air photographs and landsat imageries and have been traced in Dts Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and Barmer by scientists of the Central Arid Zone Research Inst. The fragments of these palaeochannels survive in Dts Ajmer and Nagaur between Kuchaman city and Got-Manglod e. of Jayal. During years of unusual rainfall the flood waters flow through these otherwise dry channels.
v1.c14.s2.17
3. Before this drainage system became totally extinct, Stone Age man had appeared in the region. The surface of the gravel ridge between Kathoti and Chajoli in Dt Nagaur is thickly littered with Acheulian tools in the form of handaxes, pebble tools, scrapers, flakes and cores. The extent of the area covered and the density of artefacts make it one of the richest Acheulian sites not merely in any arid region but in any climatic setting in the world. These same factors imply a long duration of occupation and also large populations in the area. Another Acheulian site occurs at Didwana. Here the artefacts occur at several localities embedded in a thick clayey deposit overlain by aeolian sand. There is no gravel in the deposit and the tools are fresh. These localities appear to be camp sites either on the banks of sluggishly flowing channels or along lake shores. The assemblages consist of handaxes, choppers, chopping tools, polyhedrons, scrapers and flakes. The general technological characters of the industries and the total absence of cleavers both at Jayal and Didwana imply an early stage for these industries.
v1.c14.s2.18
4. By the end of the Acheulian times or early upper Pleistocene the conditions in the n. part of w. Rajasthan seem to have become very dry and the drainage system totally disorganized. Stray traces of the Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] occur in the Jayal region, in the Bap Boulder Bed, and in palaeochannels near Jaisalmer suggesting that small human groups could locally survive in the desert even after the conditions had started becoming arid. The Luni system to the s., however, was not affected by the climatic change to the same degree and continued to function. The presence of a large number of late Acheulian to Middle Palaeolithic sites on limestone outcrops in the Bilara-Sojat region and in the cemented sandy gravels of the Luni and its tributaries suggests the shifting of human populations to the more congenial environment in the s. part of the desert.
v1.c14.s2.19
5. The later part of the Upper Pleistocene was a period of extreme aridity when strong aeolian activity took place, covering a considerable part of the alluvial plain with sand. A ¹⁴C date of *c.* 40000 B.P. from the base of the aeolian bed in a 4 m thick sequence of alternating fluvial and aeolian sediments near Tibna village, 15 km e. of Shergarh in Jodhpur, gives some idea of the age of this aridity. The source of the sand was the fine alluvial silty sand of the aggraded plain. Our extensive observations show that there is a very close relationship between the location of dunes and the availability of sand. Rocky and gravelly plateaux and plains with no source of sand supply in their close vicinity are completely free from dunes; on the other hand, alluvial plains with ample supply of fine sand are thickly covered with dunes. There is very little evidence to support the oft-repeated theory of the Rann of Kutch being the principal source of sand for the dunes of Rajasthan. This period was not however throughout uniformly arid; rather it was interrupted by several wet phases. A ¹⁴C date of *c.* 26000 B.P. from Malhar lake shows that the lake was carrying fresh water at this time. Similarly, in the Didwana lake below the sediments dated to *c.* 10000 B P there are several m thick sediments marked by alternating layers of sand, silty clay and a thick bed of salt, suggesting a very unstable climate before the Holocene. The alternating fluvial and aeolian sediments in the Tibna section referred to above also suggest a fluctuating dry and wet climate. The formation of a thick layer of calcium carbonate within the dune sand in the railway cutting at Didwana also suggests a wet episode during an otherwise long dry period.
v1.c14.s2.20
6. This arid period was followed by a period of distinctly wet climate. The most convincing evidence for this is provided by a moderately leached brown soil developed over the dune sand. This soil has been observed across the length and breadth of the desert—from Budha Pushkar in the e. to Sam, 45 km w. of Jaisalmer in the w., and from Dhechu s. of Phalodi in the n. to n. Gujarat in the s. Allchin *et al.* have correlated this weathered horizon with the Middle Palaeolithic phase and with the gravels of the Luni, on the basis of the presence of Middle Palaeolithic tools on this surface in the Budha Pushkar basin and in the Luni gravels. However, at many places—Budha Pushkar itself, Dhechu, Sam, and several points between Jaisalmer and Barmer—microlithic industries [4.5] are found on this surface. Sometimes larger and typologically older tools like choppers, scrapers and cores are associated with these industries. This makes the exact stratigraphic correlation and dating of this soil a complex question.
v1.c14.s2.21
7. Allchin *et al.* have postulated another significant dry phase following the weathering of the dunes of the earlier phase. During this second arid phase fresh dunes of several m thickness were formed over the dunes of the earlier phase. According to these authors Upper Palaeolithic [4.4] man was living in the area during this period. His tools, however, do not occur within the body of the dune but on the older weathered surface where they are believed to have slipped down the sand and got mixed with the Middle Palaeolithic tools. Upper Palaeolithic tools are also said to occur on the surface of the younger dunes mixed with the Mesolithic [4.5] tools. Our own observations however show that the younger dunes do not form more than a veneer of sand on the surface of the older brown weathered dunes and that microliths industries are associated with both older and younger dunes, more often with the former. At some sites however larger tools like choppers, scrapers and cores are associated with microliths. Even according to Allchin *et al.* the fact that the Upper Palaeolithic tools occur in association with Middle Palaeolithic tools on the older dunes and with microlithic tools on the younger dunes shows that there is a common cultural element on both dunes. The difference between Allchin *et al.* and our team is therefore less of observation and more of interpretation.
v1.c14.s2.22
8. There is, however, clear evidence for a marked shift towards wet climate at the beginning of the Holocene [9.8.4]. This period is well-documented in the form of pollen-rich thick clay sediments in Didwana and several other lakes, and its onset is dated by ¹⁴C to *c.* 10000 B.P. According to Allchin *et al.* this wet phase is represented on the younger dunes in the form of calcium carbonate concretions and root casts formed by leaching from sand in a moist climate. It is with this wet phase that these authors associate the arrival of the makers of microlithic industries. Several ¹⁴C dates obtained from these concretions at Budha Pushkar range between 6500 and 3000 B.P.
v1.c14.s2.23
9. Of considerable interest is Gurdip Singh’s correlation of the climatic picture with archaeology. According to him the presence of *Cerealia*-type pollen and increasing amount of carbonized vegetable remains in the lake sediments between 9500 and 5000 B.P. is evidence for human clearing of vegetation and slash-and-burn type agriculture in the desert. He further considers the evidence of another increase in rainfall between 5000 and 3500 B.P. responsible for the rise and flourishing of pre-Harappa and Harappa civilizations in Rajasthan and neighbouring areas. Archaeological evidence however does not support these hypotheses. In spite of intensive search over more than last two decades by several workers no evidence of even rudimentary village settlements, let alone urban settlements, has been found anywhere in the desert outside the Ghaggar valley. The only evidence of the Chalcolithic period in the desert is a copper hoard [4.11] from KHURDA in Dt Nagaur and a solitary copper celt from ELANA on the Jawai river n. of Jalor. There are not even any settlements of the PGW and NBPW [11.16]. The sites that could date from the beginning of the Christian era and immediately after it are few and far between. These include SAMBHAR in Dt Ajmer, Bhinmal and Dhanpur in Dt Jalor and Barawas near Tilwara in Dt Barmer.
v1.c14.s2.24
It can be said therefore that the pattern of economy based on hunting-gathering and pastoralism which developed in Rajasthan around 7000 B.P. as suggested by the archaeological evidence from BAGOR and TILWARA and the ¹⁴C dates from Bagor continued to persist until about 2000 years ago and does so to some extent to this day. Permanent settlements based on agriculture began to appear only after 2000 B.P. The stimulus for the colonization of the desert by agriculturists was provided by the pressure of population in more favourable areas on the margins of the desert, for example n.-e. Rajasthan, where agricultural way of life was established before 1000 B.C. during the OCW [4.12] phase. The amelioration in climate during the Holocene did not play any role in inducing farmers to colonize the desert. The birth and flourishing of pre-Harappa, Harappa, PGW and Rang Mahal cultures in the Ghaggar valley would appear to have been determined by the fluctuations ir the hydrology of the river which in turn were controlled by geomorphic factors operating in the Himalayas and the Indo-Ganga Divide as suggested by Raikes, 1968. There is no evidence to credit the improvement in climate for the rise of these cultures on the fringe of the desert and on a river course fed by the perennial snows of the Himalayas.
v1.c14.s2.25
Allchin, B., Goudie, A., & Hegde, K.T. M., *Prehistory & Palaeogeography of the Great Indian Desert*, London. Ghosh, A., in *Bull. National Inst. of Sciences in India*, 1, pp. 37-42. Misra, V.N., 1977, in Jaiswal, P.L., ed., *Desertification & its Control*, New Delhi, pp. 10-24. Misra, V.N., Rajaguru, S.N., Agrawal, D.P., Thomas, P.K., Hussain, Z., & Datta, P.S., 1980, in *Man & Environment*, 4, pp. 19-31. Raikes, R.L., 1968, in *Antiquity*, 42, pp. 286-91. Rydh, H., 1959, *Rang Mahal*, Lund. Singh, G., 1971, in *Arch. and Physical Anthropology in Oceania*, 4, 2, pp. 178-89. Singh, G., & Ghose, B., 1977, in Agrawal, D.P., & Pande, B.M., ed., *Ecology & Arch. of w. India*, pp. 135-46. Stein, A., 1942, in *Geographical Jour.*, 99 pp. 173-82. For sites see respective entries in vol. II—V.N. MISRA