An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v2.c45: S

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v2.c45

Language: English

v2.c45.569 — 3 parts

S

v2.c45.1

**Sabania**, Dt Bikaner. Two flat copper celts [4.11] with concave sides and splayed-out cutting edges. *IAR 1968-9.*

v2.c45.2

**Sabdalpur**, Dt Saharanpur. OCW [11.5] site. *IAR 1967-8.*

v2.c45.3

**Sabia**, Dt Ranchi. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) tools like choppers, handaxes and scrapers in the valley of the Subarnarekha. *IAR 1964-5.*

v2.c45.4

**Sada**, Dt Ahmadnagar. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1958-9.*

**Sadabad**, Dt Mathura. 16 copper axes [4.11], all unfinished, since they do not have sharp cutting edge. *Bull. Museums & Arch.*, 11-12, June-Dec. 1973, pp. 37-44. Indian Museum, Calcutta, collection. Also information from S. Asthana.

v2.c45.6

**Sadalaga**, Dt Belgaum. Chalcolithic [4.14.8] site with remnants of an ash-mound [14.3]. *P.B. Desai Felicitation Vol.*, 1971, Dharwar. *Prof. Nilakanta Sastri Felicitation Vol.*, 1971.

v2.c45.7

**Sadapur**, Dt Raichur. Megalithic [4.17.8] site with cairn circles. *Jour. Geological Survey of Hyderabad*, 3, 1, pp. 76-82.

v2.c45.8

**Sadayanpalaiyam**, Dt Coimbatore. Megalithic [4.17.9] site with dolmens. Sewell, R., 1882, *Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras*, Madras.

v2.c45.9

**Sadhauli**, Dt Saharanpur. PGW [11.14] site. *IAR 1968-9.*

v2.c45.10

**Sadhora**, Dt Ambala. PGW [11.14] site. *ASI—AR*, 14, pp. 72-5, *IAR 1963-4*. Suraj Bhan, 1975, *Excavation at Mitathal & Other Explorations in the Sutlej-Yamuna Divide*, Kurukshetra, p. 123.

v2.c45.11

**Sadibad-ki-Kot**, Dt Ghazipur. Early historical [4.18.1] site. *Bharati*, 8, 1, 1964-5, p. 126.

v2.c45.12

**Saduwa**, Dt Panna. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) tools were collected from the bed of a nullah near Saduwa bridge on Navgaon-Panna road. *IAR 1961-2*. *AI*, 17, 1961, pp. 5-36.

v2.c45.13

**Safidan.** *See* **YAMUNA RIVER**.

v2.c45.14

**Sagar**, Dt Sagar. A rich Palaeolithic [4.2] site and 10 rock-shelters [13] were noticed about 10 km to the w. of Sagar. Two groups of rock-shelters with paintings in red ochre were discovered near Nariavli, 13 km from Sagar. Several microlithic tools were collected from the vicinity of Sagar, fluted cores, crescents and trapezes, variously in agate, chalcedony and jasper, forming in main bulk, the largest number coming from Chandala Bhata, a large site 3 km from Sagar. At a distance of 24 km e. of Sagar along the Rehli road 7 rock-shelters were found on the banks of the rivulet Gurar-Dahar. A few microliths but no pottery were found at the new site of the Univ. of Sagar. *IAR 1958-9; 1959-60; 1960-1; 1964-5.*

v2.c45.15

**Sagar-Bhanga**, Dt Burdwan. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1960-1.*

v2.c45.16

**Sagardih**, Dt E (?) Champaran. Excavation at the mound revealed the remains of two *stūpas*, one assignable to the 9th or 10th century and the other one earlier. *ASI—AR*, 16, pp. 19-23. *ASI—AR Bengal Circle 1902-3*, p. 6.

v2.c45.17

**Sagauna**, Dt Jabalpur. Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) tools. *IAR 1963-4*, p. 88.

v2.c45.18

**Sagileru Project**, Dt Cuddapah. Early, Middle (Lower, Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]) and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) tools. *IAR 1964-5.*

v2.c45.19

**Saguna**, Dt Palamau. A flat celt of copper. *Jour. Bihar & Orissa Res. Soc.* I, 1915, p. 125.

v2.c45.20

**Sagunghat**, Dt Narsinghpur. Early and Middle (Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2.3]) Stone Age tools. *IAR 1962-3.*

v2.c45.21

**Sagwan**¹, Dt Hissar. Early historical [4.18.1] site. Silak Ram, 1972, unpublished thesis, Kurukshetra Univ.

v2.c45.22

**Sagwan**², Dt Jabalpur. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1962-3.*

v2.c45.23

**Sahajpuri**, Dt Jabalpur. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1957-8.*

v2.c45.24

**Sahari**, Dt Midnapur. Microliths and flakes (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1961-2.*

v2.c45.25

**Saharjora**, Dt Bankura. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1960-1.*

v2.c45.26

**Sahasradhara Nala**, Dt E. Nimar. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] tools. Sankalia, H.D., 1974, *Prehistory & Protohistory of India & Pakistan*, Poona, p. 116.

v2.c45.27

**Sahd-Karar**, Dt Raisen. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] and Malwa Ware [11.10] site. *IAR 1966-7.*

v2.c45.28

**Sahebganj**, Dt Santal Parganas. Pointed-butt polished stone axes. Brown, J.C., 1917, *Catalogue of Prehistoric Antiquities in the Indian Museum, Calcutta*, Simla.

v2.c45.29

**Saheth-Maheth**. *See* ŚRĀVASTĪ.

v2.c45.30

**Sahodarsthan**, Dt W. Champaran. Stone images assignable from the early historical to Pāla periods were found on a mound. *IAR 1960-1*.

v2.c45.31

**Sahuwala**, Dt Ganganagar. Rang Mahal [11.24] Ware and a terracotta bead and ball in the SARASVATĪ VALLEY. *Unpublished*.

v2.c45.32

**Saidabad**, Dt Ghazipur. Site yielded Black-slipped [11.13] Ware of RAJGHAT² affinity. *IAR 1962-3*.

v2.c45.33

**Saidanganallur**, Dt Tirunelveli. Neolithic [4.6.10] site yielding a small oval scraper of basalt in the Tambraparni valley. Foote, R.B., 1916, *Indian Prehistoric & Protohistoric Antiquities*, Madras.

v2.c45.34

**Saidnagar**, Dt Dhule. Chalcolithic [4.14.6] habitation site. *IAR 1964-5*.

v2.c45.35

**Saigarh**, Dt Aligarh. PGW [11.14], Black-slipped Ware [11.13], red ware of the Śuṅga-Kushan period and medieval ware. *IAR 1966-7*.

v2.c45.36

**Sailana**, Dt Ratlam. Acheulian tools [4.2] comprising cleavers. *IAR 1970-1*.

v2.c45.37

**Saini** (29°2'; 74°47'), Dt Meerut. Site with PGW [11.14] followed by NBPW [11.16]. *AI*, 10 & 11, 1954 & 1955, p. 145.

v2.c45.38

**Sainpal-1 and-2** (29°37'; 74°42'), Dt Hissar. Rang Mahal [11.24] site. *IAR 1967-8*.

v2.c45.39

**Saipai** (26°27'; 78°58'), Dt Etawah, 18 km n. of Etawah town, where a Copper Hoard [4.11] consisting of celts, harpoons, spearheads, anthropomorphic figures and rings was discovered by a cultivator. The writer recovered all the objects and noticed sherds of the OCW [4.12] at the site. Trial operations started by the writer on behalf of the ASI brought to light a hooked sword and more specimens of the OCW. A later operation in the same year under B.B. Lal assisted by the writer yielded a large quantity of the same ware. In 1970-1 excavation of an area of 20×20 m by the writer, again under the direction of Lal, produced not only the OCW but a barbed harpoon at a depth of 45 cm. Resumed excavation in 1972, covering an area of 30×20 m, produced a chert blade and fresh shapes in the OCW (*IAR 1969-70*, p. 40; *1970-1*, p. 38; *1971-2*, p. 46).

v2.c45.40

The pottery falls under the category of the OCW and pale-red ware, mostly in fragments but with a few complete pots as well. The pottery sometimes bears traces of red slip and in one case black painting on an incised sherd. The shapes are: the vase with flaring or horizontally splayed-out rim; jar with flaring rim; deep bowl with straight or incurved rim; basin; miniature vase; and bowl. Besides, various types of handles, spouts, lipped bowls, a knobbed lid and a stem suggestive of the dish-on-stand or a ring-stand are noteworthy. The incised decorations executed by a sharp point on the exterior of pots are rows of dashes or series of triangular compartments enclosing rows of dashes, punched circlets or criss-cross or check patterns. The pottery has little in common with that of BAHADRABAD and AMBKHERI but has striking similarity in texture, shapes, technique and appearance with that from HASTINĀPURA, ATRANJIKHERA, AHICCHATRA and LAL QILA.

v2.c45.41

The other notable finds are two fragmentary blades of chert, a flake of chalcedony, querns [6.19], pounders, pellets and balls or sandstone. There are a few bones of *Bos indicus* and a fragment of clay suggestive of brick. Reed impressions on lumps of clay indicated some sort of wattle-and-daub construction.

v2.c45.42

Saipai is a single-culture site with sherds and other objects interspersed in a yellowish compact clay deposit overlying the natural soil. It has confirmed the surmise that the Copper Hoards were associated with the OCW people. Lal, B.B., 1972, in *Antiquity*, 56, 282-7.—L.M. WAHAL

v2.c45.43

**Saitana**, Dt Dhule. Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) site. Chalcolithic [4.14.6] habitation and burial remains were also found. *IAR 1961-2*.

v2.c45.44

**Saiyad**, Dt Gurgaon. PGW [11.14] site. Punia, D.S., 1976, unpublished thesis, Kurukshetra Univ.

v2.c45.45

**Sajitra**, Dt Kheda. Early historical [4.18.2] site. *IAR 1971-2*.

v2.c45.46

**Sakala**, Dt Gurdaspur. Black-slipped Ware [11.13], black-and-red ware (of unspecified nature) and grey ware. *IAR 1961-2*.

v2.c45.47

**Sakarpatal**, Dt Surat. Early, Middle (Lower, Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]) and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5] site. *IAR 1967-8*.

v2.c45.48

**Sakera**, Dt Chhatarpur. Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) site. *IAR 1965-6*.

v2.c45.49

**Sakhaji-ka-Tila**, Dt Kurukshetra. Remains of a temple-complex of the Gurjara-Pratīhāra period. *Kurukshetra, Univ. Res. Jour. (Arts & Humanities)*, 10, 1976, pp. 28-9.

v2.c45.50

**Sakharpa** (73°41'; 16°59'), Dt Ratnagiri. A unifacial chopper [4.2] was obtained on the right bank of the Kajvi Nadi. *Arch. Congress & Seminar*, Nagpur, 1972, p. 50.

v2.c45.51

**Sakhitara**, Dt Mathura. PGW [11.14] sherds were found close to Govardhan.

v2.c45.52

**Sakkarepatna**, Dt Chikmagalur. Megalithic [4.17.8] site with stone circles.

v2.c45.53

Seshadri, M., 1960, *Report on the Jadigenahalli Megalithic Excava-tions*, Bangalore.

v2.c45.54

**Sakra**, Dt Jabalpur. Microliths consisting of blades, crescents, scrapers and cores.

v2.c45.55

*IAR 1958-9*.

v2.c45.56

**Sakri¹**, Dt Dhule. Palaeolithic site [4.2]. See KIRVADA. Also microliths and sometimes neoliths were found in association with the black-on-red painted pottery alongside a coarse grey ware similar to that from the Chalcolithic [4.14.8] levels of BRAHMAGIRI and BAHAL.

v2.c45.57

*IAR 1957-8*.

v2.c45.58

**Sakri²**, Dt Jabalpur. Microliths consisting of blades, crescents, scrapers and cores.

v2.c45.59

*IAR 1958-9*; *1960-1*; *1968-9*.

v2.c45.60

**Sakrigarha**, Dt Jabalpur. Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] site.

v2.c45.61

*IAR 1968-9*.

v2.c45.62

**Sakvad**, Dt Dhule. Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) site.

v2.c45.63

*IAR 1966-7*.

v2.c45.64

**Salaia**, Dt Jabalpur. Lower [4.2] and Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] site.

v2.c45.65

*IAR 1968-9*.

v2.c45.66

**Salaidih**, Dt Mirzapur. Upper Palaeolithic [4.4] site with blades, points, scrapers and burins.

v2.c45.67

*IAR 1970-1*.

v2.c45.68

**Salargarh**, Dt Basti, 200 m e. of Piprahwa, with an excavated monastery of the Kushan period and a *stūpa* to its n.

v2.c45.69

Srivastava, K.M., 1978, *Kapilavastu*, Nagpur.

v2.c45.70

**Salarpura**, Dt Saharanpur. Harappa [4.9] site.

v2.c45.71

*IAR 1965-6*.

v2.c45.72

**Salaura** (39°17'; 76°47'), Dt Rupnagar, formerly in Dt Ambala, about 6 km s.-w. of Rupnagar town, the present village, approximately 280 m e.-w. and 32 m n.-s. covering the ancient habitation. Situated as it is only about 275 m e. of BARA and since it had yielded PGW [11.14] sherds in surface exploration, some trial trenches were laid in the unencumbered e. slopes of the mound in order to ascertain if some light could be shed on the Harappa-PGW relationship beyond what had been adjusted at ROPAR (*IAR 1954-5*, p. 9). Overlying the natural strata of sand, *kankar* stone and compact clay from bottom upwards, the occupational debris rises here to a height of 4·88 m divisible into three Pds, PGW, Kushan and late medieval. There being no BARA ware at Salaura and no PGW at BARA, although the two mounds almost embrace each other, it is clear that the BARA and PGW people had not come into contact with each other here.

v2.c45.73

Pd I, PGW, has a 30 cm thick deposit mingled with the Black-slipped Ware [11.13] and red ware of the same general shapes as at ROPAR II. The only other object from this level is a bone bangle. No structure has been met with.

v2.c45.74

Pd II, Kushan, 30 cm thick again, has yielded pottery of ROPAR IV B type. A fragmentary single-course floor of *kankar* stone, its extant size being 2·03 m by 70 cm, has also some reused baked bricks falling into the sizes of 5×7·5 to 12·5×10 to 15 cm. A solitary kiln-burnt brick measuring 10×15×40 cm, although found in a Pd III level, may have belonged to a structure of Pd II. Unidentified pieces of both copper and iron, a fragment of glass and bone points are among the few recovered objects.

v2.c45.75

In Pd III, late medieval, the site shows signs of some prosperity, judging from the housing activity. Although no structure proper has been found in the lower levels of the Pd four phases of structural activity are evidenced in the upper levels. These structures mostly found in parts in the small excavated area are built of *kankar* stone with occasional use of *lakhauri* bricks in repairs. These bricks are in two sizes, 4·8×21×41 cm and 3·75×10 to 11×20 to 22 cm. Objects of everyday use found from this Pd are not many but include an iron nail, a copper ring, bangles of terracotta, ivory and glass and beads and animal figurines of terracotta.

v2.c45.76

—Y.D. SHARMA

v2.c45.77

**Salboni**, Dt Purulia. Microliths (of unspecified nature).

v2.c45.78

*IAR 1963-4*.

v2.c45.79

**Salebhatti**, Dt Chanda. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) tools.

v2.c45.80

*IAR 1961-2*.

v2.c45.81

**Salel**, Dt Ratnagiri. Unrolled flakes of the Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) and scrapers and flakes, which from a technological viewpoint bear a close relationship to the Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) tools.

v2.c45.82

*IAR 1970-1*.

v2.c45.83

**Salempur**, Dt Bulandshahr. PGW [11.14] site.

v2.c45.84

*IAR 1965-6*.

v2.c45.85

**Salempur-Bhokri**, Dt Saharanpur. OCW [11.5] and PGW [11.14] site.

v2.c45.86

*IAR 1966-7*.

v2.c45.87

**Salempur Mahdud**, Dt Saharanpur. OCW [11.5] and red ware of the Śuṅga-Kushan assemblage.

v2.c45.88

*IAR 1965-6*.

v2.c45.89

**Salempur-Perhina**, Dt Mainpuri. PGW [11.14] and NBPW [11.16] site.

v2.c45.90

*IAR 1961-2*.

v2.c45.91

**Salera**, Dt Udaipur. Microliths (of unspecified nature) in the Karanpur-ki-nadi valley.

v2.c45.92

*IAR 1962-3*.

v2.c45.93

**Salgi**, Dt Ranchi. A small chisel of gneiss.

v2.c45.94

Roy, S.C., 1916, in *Jour. Bihar & Orissa Res. Soc.*, 2, p. 67.

v2.c45.95

**Salgundi**, Dt Bijapur(?). Early and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]) tools.

v2.c45.96

*IAR 1963-4*.

v2.c45.97

**Salidana**, Dt E. Nimar. Tools of Series II (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) and microliths (of unspecified nature).

v2.c45.98

**Salihundam** (18°28'; 84°3'), Dt Srikakulam, 7 km w. of Kalingapatna, with remains of a Buddhist *saṅghārāma* that flourished continuously from *c.* 3rd century B.C. to *c.* 8th century A.D. on the summit of a low hill. It was excavated A.L. Longhurst (*ASI-AR 1919-20*, p. 35), when structural remains of *stūpas*, *vihāras* and Tantric Buddhist images like Mārīcī, Tārā, etc., were found. Excavation by the writer in 1954 (*IAR 1953-4*, p. 11) has revealed three phases of occupation. The Early Phase (3rd-2nd century B.C. to 1st century A.D.), marked by a few brick platforms and some irregular lines of brick associated with a punch-marked coin [3.1] and the Megalithic Black-and red Ware [11.15.3], besides other plain wares, was followed by the Middle Phase (1st-2nd century to 3rd-4th century A.D.), in which most of the monuments including the *mahā-caitya*, two smaller *stūpas*, two circular *caitya-gṛhas* housing stucco figures of Buddha, two such others with *stūpas* and several *vihāras*, all brick-built and provided with stone-paved approaches, came into existence. The material equipment comprised notably dishes of the Rouletted Ware [11.21], sprinklers of the Red Polished Ware [11.23] dull-red lamps, flat-based bowls with flaring sides, dishes and lids with flanged waist, terracotta arecanut-shaped beads and reel-shaped ear ornaments, inscribed conches (one mentioning the ancient name a *Sālipāsaka*), Sātavāhana coin, a Puri-Kushan coin, terracotta objects like seals. caparisoned horses and plaques with Buddha figures. The Late Phase (*c.* 4th-5th century to 7th-8th century) witnesses the construction of only a few votive *stūpas*. some random-rubble revetments and a pillared *maṇḍapa* built of material drawn from the earlier structures. Plain dull ware, wedge-shaped and moulded bricks, flat tiles, terracotta finials, beads of crystal and terracotta, stone images of Tantric Buddhist deities and six stone inscriptions of the 7th-8th century are the notable associated items of this phase. These three phases roughly mark the shifting of sectarian predominance of Hīnayāna, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna.

v2.c45.99

Salihundam was generally exposed to cultural influences from n. and s. as revealed from the material equipment displaying similarities with those from sites like ARIKAMDU, BRAHMAPURI, NAGARJUNAKONDA, SISUPALGARH, TRIPURĪ and HASTINĀPURA. But the solidly constructed *stūpas* without *āyaka* platforms or sculptured casing slabs show the greater influence of the n. tradition than that of the Andhra region. The stucco figures of Buddha are reminiscent of Gandhāra features. A remarkable feature of the site is the occurrence at all levels of a number of inscribed potsherds providing names of persons, places, etc., and some with drawings of *vihāra* plans. Subrahmanyam, R., 1964, *Salihundam, a Buddhist Site in Andhra Pradesh*, Hyderabad.—R. SUBRAHMANYAM

v2.c45.100

**Salippapillaiyarnattam**, Dt Madurai. Megalithic [4.17.9] habitation site with the Black-and-red [11.15.3] Ware. *IAR 1960-1*.

v2.c45.101

**Saliwada**, Dt Jabalpur. Series II (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) tools.

v2.c45.102

**Salori**, Dt Allahabad. NBPW [11.16] site. *IAR 1960-1*.

v2.c45.103

**Salvadgi**, Dt Bijapur. Series II (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) tools, microliths (of unspecified nature), sherds of thick grey ware, Megalithic [4.17.8] stone circles and early historical remains, the last characterized by the Black-and-red Ware [11.15.3] and red-slipped ware. *IAR 1960-1*; *1965-6*.

v2.c45.104

**Samadhiala**¹, Dt Bhavnagar. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) and Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] tools were collected from a calcreted older alluvial gravel from the site, 50 km w.-n.-w. of Bhavnagar. (Same as following?). *IAR 1970-1*. Agrawal, D.P., & Pant, R.K., 1979, in *Man & Environment*, 3, p. 7.

v2.c45.105

**Samadhiala**², Dt Bhavnagar. Harappa [4.9] site. [Same as preceding?]. See PHULVADI. *IAR 1971-2*.

v2.c45.106

**Samadhiala**³, Dt Surendranagar. Harappa [4.9] site 8 km—from RANGPUR. *IAR 1954-5*.

v2.c45.107

**Samagogha**, Dt Kutch. Harappa [4.9] settlement. *AI*, 18 & 19, 1962 & 1963, p. 188

v2.c45.108

**Samal**, Dt Dhenkanal. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] site. Mohapatra, G.C., 1962, *Stone Age Cultures of Orissa*, Poona, 1962.

v2.c45.109

**Samanattam**, Dt Madurai. Urn burial site [4.17.9] without megalithic appendage. Russet-coated Painted Ware [11.22] and pottery painted with wavy lines were also found. *IAR 1956-7*.

v2.c45.110

**Samattivaram**, Dt Madurai. Mound with remains of ancient habitation. *IAR 1957-8*.

v2.c45.111

**Samayanallur**, Dt Madurai. Urn burials [4.17.9]. *IAR 1957-8*.

v2.c45.112

**Sambargi**, Dt Belgaum. Early historical [4.18.11] site. *Prog. Rep. Kannada Res Inst., 1947-52*, p 2

v2.c45.113

**Sambaria**, Dt Bharuch. Middle (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) site. *IAR 1969-70*.

v2.c45.114

**Sambhal**, Dt Moradabad. NBPW [11.16], Black-slipped Ware [11.13] and coarse red and plain grey wares. *IAR 1963-4*

v2.c45.115

**Sambhar**, Dt Jaipur, with an extensive mound on the bank of a dried-up lake, 7 km from the well-known Salt Lake, representing ancient **Śākambharī**, the capital of the Imperial Cāhamānas of the late historical period. A number of black stone sculptures of Brāhmaṇical deities have been found in the neighbourhood from time to time. The mound, 600 m from n. to s. and with an average width of about 550 m, was first excavated by Hendley in 1884 and then by Sahni in 1936-8. As excavated the mound yielded 45 separate small dwellings at six distinct levels ranging in date from the 3rd-2nd century B.C. to the 10th century A.D.

v2.c45.116

The small finds are numerous and varied. The recovered coins, nearly 200 in number, include six silver punch-marked [3.1], one of the Indo-Greek Antimachos Nikephoros and a few of the Kushans, Yaudheyas and late Indo-Sassanians. Gold is represented by a thin bead, perhaps an amulet, a leaf with a winged lion head in repouseé and a heart-shaped thin piece. The copper objects include a bell [6.3], small jars, a circular disc finger rings and ear rings, a long nail-extractor and an awl. Of the iron objects large hatchets, a cobbler's scraper, the mouth-piece of a bellow, double-edged daggers, sickles, chisels, crucibles [16.4]—all from a blacksmith's workshop—door accessories, ladles, hanging lamps [6.11] and a limited number of barbed arrowheads and spearheads deserve mention. Dicing was a favourite amusement: two cubical dice [6.7.1] of terracotta are marked with shallow holes one to six in number in a way that the sum of the holes on each pair of opposite sides total seven; others are however marked differently. The marks on ivory dice are concentric circles.

v2.c45.117

Terracotta figurines are both in the round and relief and seem to be of Śuṅga, Kushan and Gupta dates. Plaques of the same material also date from the same periods. There are a few hollow pendants made of double-stamped discs joined along the edges.

v2.c45.118

The published report does not say much about the pottery, far less about its periodwise classification. But the statement 'the glazing of pottery was practised in this ancient town from very early times' (Sahni, p. 52) could perhaps refer to the NBPW [11.16] or early Christian glazed ware [11.26].

v2.c45.119

**Sambhi,** Dt Karnal. Sambhi-1 is a PGW [11.16] site, while Sambhi and Sambhi-2 are late Harappa [4.10] sites comparable to MITATHAL II B.

v2.c45.120

**Sambhudevanapur,** Dt Mysore. Megalithic [4.17.8] habitation site.

v2.c45.121

**Samdari,** Dt Bharmer. Site with Series II (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) tools on the Luni river.

v2.c45.122

**Samdholi,** Dt Sangli. Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) tools in a stratified pebble conglomerate in the Varna and Krishna valleys.

v2.c45.123

**Samera-ghat,** Dt Jabalpur. Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] tools from loose gravel.

v2.c45.124

**Samipur,** Dt Bijnor. PGW [11.14] site.

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**Samode,** Dt Dhule. Chalcolithic [4.14.6] site with microliths (of unspecified nature) and black-painted red and burnished grey wares.

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**Samoor Kalan,** Dt Una. Early historical [4.18.1] pottery and grey ware.

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**Sampapati Ammar temple,** Dt Thanjavur. Early historical [4.18.12] site. See KĀVERĪPŪMPATTINAM.

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**Samsherpur,** Dt Dhule. Palaeolithic tools and microliths (both of unspecified nature).

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**Sanalo** (22°12'; 70°25'), Dt Jamnagar. Lustrous Red Ware [11.19] site corresponding to RANGPUR II C and III.

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**Sanaoda,** Dt Ujjain. Early historical [4.18.9] site.

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**Sanapur,** Dt Raichur. Megalithic cairn circles [4.17.8].

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**Sanapur-Padsa,** Dt Chanda. Extensive site between the villages Sanapur and Padsa in the Wardha river-basin yielding tools of the Early and Middle Stone (Early and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]) Ages.

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**Sanavasapuram,** Dt Bellary. Neolithic [4.6.9] site.

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**Sanchi** (23°28'; 77°48'), Dt Raisen, with impressive Buddhist remains ranging in date from the 3rd century B.C. to the 12th century A.D., situated on a low hill-top, anciently known as Vedisa-giri (due to its proximity to Vidiśā, BESNAGAR) Cetiya-giri, Kākanāda-boṭa and Bota-śrī-parvata. The main *stūpa*, Stūpa 1, the outstanding monument on the hill, is believed to have been built by Aśoka in the 3rd century B.C., and one of his queens is said to have built a monastery here. Aśoka set up one of his pillars near his *stūpa*, surmounted it by a four-lioned capital and had his anti-schism edict inscribed on it. Evidently the *stūpa* enshrined the relics of Buddha which have however not been recovered. In the next century the brick *stūpa* was encased in stone, doubling the size of the original *stūpa*, the remains of which now lie hidden under the stonework. Balustrades, of a series of uprights with lenticular cross-bars and capped by large copings, were added on the ground level at a short distance from cylindrical *medhī* (tall base) and around the terrace of the *aṇḍa* (near-hemispherical dome) approached by a double flight of steps on the s. and the flattened top of the *aṇḍa* was crowned by a triple umbrella set up at the centre of a heavy stone box within a square railing. The members of the balustrades are inscribed with donative records in Brāhmī [20.4.2] of the 2nd century B.C. Another century later imposing gateways, elaborately carved variously with scenes of the life of Buddha and of his previous births (*jātakas*), events of the subsequent history of Buddhism, scenes relating to the Mănuṣi-Buddhas and miscellaneous scenes and decorations, were set up at the cardinal directions. The carvings, lacking the sophistication of the later ages, nobly illustrate the early stages of Indian sculptural art.

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On a lower terrace to the n.-w. of Stūpa 1 stands Stūpa 2, a simpler structure without gateways but with the components of the ground balustrade bearing inscriptions in comparable script and of comparable contents.

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The third notable *stūpa*, Stūpa 3, stands to the n. of Stūpa 1 and is similar in size to Stūpa 2.

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With Stupa 1 as the nucleus the hill-top witnessed a brisk building activity—of votive *stūpas*, temples and monasteries, all enclosed in a compound wall—which continued up to the 12th century. To enter into further details about the three *stūpas* and other structures and the sculptural art would be going beyond the scope of the present work.

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Attention to the ruins was first drawn in 1818, and for a long time since then they suffered depredation at the hands of amateur archaeologists and treasure-hunters. In 1851 A. Cunningham and F.C. Maisey excavated Stūpas 2 and 3 and recovered relics therefrom, but a shaft in the centre of Stūpa 1 failed to reveal any (perhaps they had disappeared in one of the previous operations). Preservation of the *stūpas* was done in 1881 and the following years by H.H. Cole. But to expose the other structures, preserve them meticulously and build up a proper history of the monuments was left to John Marshall of the ASI between 1912 and 1919.

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It has been stated above the Stūpa 1 did not yield any relics. But Stūpa 2 enshrined a relic-box with an inscription proclaiming that it contained the relics of many teachers. Inside the box were found small relic caskets [12.8] inscribed with the names of ten saints whose charred bones were enshrined within. Stūpa 3 had a relic chamber with two small boxes with the relics respectively of Śāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana, two of the principal disciples of Buddha himself.

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Considering that Sanchi during its lifetime had all along been a secluded monastic establishment, objects of material interest found here, perhaps mostly in Marshall's operations and now preserved in the local Museum, are not inconsiderable in number and variety, though the context of their find is not always recorded. Thus there are: iron spearheads(?), arrowheads including barbed ones, daggers, bells, cooking vessels, bowls, knife blades, razors, vegetable cutter, a needle, an antimony rod [18.1], a ferrule, a stirrup, ploughshares, sickles, pincers, an anvil, a hammer, wedges, chisels including a socketed one, awls, a trowel, locks and keys [6.12], nails and other door accessories and other objects of uncertain use; bronze bowls, bangles, bracelets, finger rings, pendants and a bell; and copper cooking vessels, bells, a bangle, finger rings, an ear-cleaner and an antimony rod. The terracotta objects are mostly of Buddhist affiliation.

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A vessel contained 41 base silver coins all of the W. Kṣatrapas—Rudrasena I, Rudrasena II, Bhaṭrdāman, Rudrasiṁha II, Rudrasena III and other unidentified ones—bespeaking an early 4th-century burial of the pot.

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Of pottery no specific information in present-day terminology is available, but an on-the-spot examination may reveal some recognizable wares. Mention is made of 'early glazed pottery', about the 3rd century B.C. to the 1st century A.D. (Hamid *et al*., 1922, p. 52), but while the early glazed Kushan pottery is invariably green-blue in colour [11.26], all the specimens here are red. Perhaps they are pieces of what would not be called the Red Polished Ware of the early centuries A.D. [11.23]—a guess supported by the mention of *surāhīs*, spouts, etc., all characteristics of that Ware. There are potter's dabers [16.11] and spindle whorls [6.25]. Said to be of 'Gupta and medieval periods' are the *hāṇḍī*, water jar, jug, mica-dusted saucer, lid, some with a 'boss at the centre to serve as a handle', cup, lamp, inkpot [20.2], etc. A comparatively recent count of the distribution of NBPW [11.16] (R.E.M. Wheeler and Krishna Deva in *AI*, I, 1946, p. 56) includes Sanchi.

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Burgess, J., 1902, in *Jour. Royal Asiatic Soc.*, pp 24-55. Cunningham, A., 1854, *Bhilsa Topes*, London. Hamid, M., Kak, R.C., & Chanda, R., 1922, *Catalogue of the Museum of Arch. at Sanchi, Bhopal State*, Calcutta. Maisey, F.C., 1892, *Sanchi & its Remains*, London. Marshall, J., 1940(?), *Monuments of Sanchi*, 3 vols, Delhi. Mirta, D., 1957 & subsequent eds., *Sanchi*, New Delhi, 1971, *Buddhist Monuments*, Calcutta, pp. 96-9—A. GHOSH

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**Sand**, Dt Ambala. Late Harappa site [4.10] comparable with MITATHAL II B.

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*Suraj Bhan*, 1975, *Excavation at Mitathal & Other Explorations in the Sutlej-Yamuna Divide*, Kurukshetra, p. 124.

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**Sand**, Dt Bhilwara. Series I (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) tools.

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*IAR 1959-60*.

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**Sandeh**, Dt Ambala. Harappa Ware [11.3]. (Same as following?)

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*IAR 1963-4*.

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**Sandai**, Dt Ambala. Ochre-coloured Ware [11.5] site. Some typical Harappa forms [11.3] like the dish-on-stand, knobbed lids and storage jars were also found. (Same as preceding?)

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**Sandhal Kalan**, Dt Rohtak. Site with grey ware and early historical [4.18.1] material.

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**Sandhaya**, Dt Ambala. Harappa [4.9] and OCW [4.12] site. (Same as SANDEH, SANDHAI?) *Vishvesharananda Indological Jour.*, 9. 2, p. 384.

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**Sandia**, Dt Hoshangabad. Flake and blade tools. *IAR 1960-1*.

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**Sandim** (29°5'; 86°38'), Dt Mayurbhanj. See KULIANA.

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**Sangam¹**, Dt Akola (?). Tools of both Series I and II (Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]) were found. A completely silicified piece of wood was also collected from the earlier gravel bed, perhaps the first recorded occurrence of fossil wood in the Deccan. *IAR 1955-6*.

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**Sangam²**, Dt Bijapur. Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] site. Pappu, R.S., 1974, *Pleistocene Studies in the upper Krishna Basin*, Pune, p. 33.

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**Sangam³**, Dt Nagpur. Megalithic [4.17.6] site. *IAR 1961-2*.

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**Sangammer**, Dt Ahmadnagar. Microlithic (of unspecified nature) site. See PRAVARA VALLEY. *IAR 1953-4*.

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**Sanganakallu**, Dt Bellary, about 5 km to the n.-e. of Bellary. As early as 1872, W. Fraser, inspired by Foote’s discovery of palaeoliths at PALLAVARAM, collected numerous neoliths from around N. Hill in the border area of Sanganakallu and KUPPUGALLU including celts and chisels and brought the site to the notice of the latter. Foote surveyed the area in 1884 and traced a large Neolithic settlement with celts, etc., of dolerite in very large numbers in various stages of manufacture; corn-crushers; five or six well-polished, parallel grooves 18 or 20 cm long and 2 to 3 cm deep close to one another within an area 50 cm on a rock-surface near by; flake tools such as scrapers; and iron slag, terracotta tuyère, etc. (Foote, 1916). Besides on the n. side of the hill are a number of rock-bruisings earlier noticed by Hubert Knox, comprising figures of men, elephants, bulls, birds, stars, etc., ranging in date from the overlap phase of the Chalcolithic and Megalithic to modern times. Near the site are two ash-mounds [14.3] of scoriaceous slaggy ash.

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After an extensive field exploration in an area of about 100 km with Bellary as the centre, Subbarao excavated the rich and promising site in the terrace of Sannarasamma hill at Sanganakallu in 1946 (Subbarao, 1948). The excavation revealed three phases: an industry of heavily patinated flake tool on dyke, basalt and quartz and microliths [4.5] in the lowest overlain by a weathered layer; Neolithic [4.6.9] divisible into two sub-phases—true Neolithic and Neolithic with Chalcolithic [4.14.8] elements such as red-painted black pottery, etc., in the middle phase; and the Iron Age Megalithic [4.17.9] with an overlap with early historical remains [4.18.10]. In 1965 the Deccan College and the Univ. of Karnataka re-excavated the same area (*IAR 1964-5*, p. 29); in addition another area near by in the Bangaltota area and the undisturbed ash-mound were also excavated. Taken together these excavations, while confirming the previously established stratigraphy, have revealed further a Mesolithic phase [4.5] and a pre-Mesolithic horizon for the patinated flake tools and the stratigraphy of the ash-mound. Also a much disturbed small ash-mound on Saudamma hill and a rock-shelter [14.1.1] with paintings of cattle, etc., in red ochre have been noticed. All these investigations have revealed a sequence of cultures from the pre-Mesolithic to the early historical periods and their respective salient characteristics.

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The assemblage of tools of the pre-Mesolithic phase occurring in the lower red *murram* in the Bangaltota area comprises flakes, cores, heavy tools and waste flakes of basaltic dyke, indicating the employment of prepared core technique [16.15.2] and representing an advanced stage upon the scraper-borer of the Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] but without blades and burins characteristic of the Upper Palaeolithic [4.4]. It is therefore regarded as probably a facies of the Middle Palaeolithic of the Andhra-Karnataka region. In the latter part of this phase tools of the types are made on quartz as well and are roughly contemporaneous with the earliest phase in the terrace of Sannarasamma hill.

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The Mesolithic phase is characterized by microliths comprising irregular cores, thick core flakes, discoids, parallel-sided flakes, points, lunates, etc., all made on quartz found in sticky brown soil. The industry seems to have developed from the latter part of the pre-Mesolithic phase.

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Of the true Neolithic phase is the striking discovery of a circular floor, paved with granite chips with post-holes at the edge and chunks of plastered clay, of a house with wall of wattle and bamboo screen and presumably conical roof. On it have been found a hearth formed by three blocks of stone with ash and charcoal, three edge-ground axes, a sling ball, a hammer-stone, in oval rubber-stone and two separate groups of four flat-topped stones, each obviously serving as bin-rests. The pottery is pale-grey, the burnished ware occasionally painted with red ochre and brown ware, the types being: the hemispherical bowl some with channel spout; vase with out-turned or out-curved rim; and vessel with perforations. In the Neolithic-Chalcolithic phase the pottery is mainly a coarse brown-and-black ware, besides burnished handmade ware in a small quantity; the vase with out-curved rim, some with spout; lid with knob; and thick-sectioned vase with finger-impressed or applied decorations on the edge and shoulder respectively. In the upper levels of this phase is also found red-painted black pottery including the high-necked jar with beaded rim of late Jorwe fabric [11.11] on a very limited scale, evidently an intrusion from the Godavari valley.

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The other remains of everyday use common to both the phases in varying degrees are: ground and in some cases polished stone tools such as axes, adzes, chisels, wedges; stone hammers, pounders and boat-shaped querns [6.19]; parallel-sided blades largely made on chert and chalcedony, microliths being only a few; and well-ground bone points and chisels. Some interesting objects are terracotta solid figurines, mostly bulls and birds. The animals that were used essentially for food are largely the cattle of large and small size, sheep or goats, antelopes and rodents. Skeletal remains of dogs are also present.

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¹⁴C dates of charcoal samples from the debris above the hut of the earliest phase described above are 1590± 110, 1585± 105 and 1550± 105 B.C. The probable beginning of the early Neolithic is therefore placed at *c.* 1600 B.C.

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In the Megalithic phase overlapping with the Neolithic comprising Chalcolithic elements has been found the remnant of a stone enclosure wall of boulders, 1 m high, consisting of 5 courses, traced to a length of 4 m and breadth of 1·10 m, probably of a house. The pottery is essentially of three fabrics: all-black ware, Black-and-red Ware [11.15.3] and red ware. The chief types are the conoid of the first ware; the concave-sided carinated bowl, tulip-shaped bowl, and globular vase of the second; and the vase with externally beaded or thickened and grooved rim, some with oblique parallel incised strokes, of the third. A globular pot of the Black-and-red Ware has white painting on the shoulder all round consisting of sets of parallel oblique lines arranged in an inverted V way. There are no iron objects. The cattle and sheep continue to be in use.

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The excavation of the ash-mound has disclosed two thin floors, layers 4 to 6, variegated banded ashy with contradistinctly thick layers, 3 and 5, of scoriaceous glassy slag alternately capped by two layers, 1 and 2, of light-brown ashy soil and whitish grey ash from the top. The second floor at the lowest rests on dark-brown compact soil profile, layer 7. Besides objects such as the Neolithic, the Megalithic and early historical pottery and ground stone axes from the topmost layer, two red and a coarse grey potsherds as well as a brown-and-black red ware respectively from layers 3 and 5, two highly calcined stone chunks with deep cracks from layer 3 and patinated flake tools made on mainly quartz of the latter part of the pre-Mesolithic phase from layer 7 are the few other objects. Laboratory analysis of the ash and slag indicates them to be due to burning of cow-dung at 900°-950° C. and 1100°-1250°C. Further the presence of quartz and felspar grains especially in the ashy layer 4 seems to suggest that the site was not actually of a cow-pen but a heaping place for cow-dung, which goes against the cow-pen theory enunciated by Allchin on his findings from UTNUR. The ash-mound is assigned to the Neolithic phase.

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Ansari, Z.D., & Nagaraja Rao, M.S., 1969, *Excavations at Sanganakallu*, Bellary, Poona. Foote, R.B., 1916, *Indian Prehistoric & Protohistoric Antiquities*, Madras. Sankalia, H.D., 1965, *Pre-Mesolithic Industries from the Excavations at Sanganakallu*, Bellary, Poona. Subbarao, B., 1948, *Stone Age Cultures of Bellary*, Poona.—A. SUNDARA

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**Sangappadai**, Dt Madurai. Urn burials, one of the disturbed ones having etched carnelian beads, were located.

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*IAR 1958-9*.

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**Sangat Pura**, Dt Jind. Harappa [4.9] site.

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*IAR 1966-7*. Suraj Bhan, 1975, *Excavation at Mitathal & Other Explorations in the Sutlej-Yamuna Divide*, Kurukshetra, p. 125.

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**Sanghel**, Dt Gurgaon. PGW [11.14] and early historical [4.18.1] site.

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Punia, D.S., 1976, unpublished thesis, Kurukshetra Univ.

v2.c45.175

**Sanghi**, Dt Rohtak. Pre-Harappa [4.8] site comparable with the Degenerate SISWAL.

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Suraj Bhan, 1975, *Excavation at Mitathal & Other Explorations in the Sutlej-Yamuna Divide*, Kurukshetra, p. 125.

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**Sanghol**, Dt Ludhiana, on a dried-up course of the SUTLEJ in Tahsil Samrala (30°48'; 76°12'), with a 25 m high mound with an area of 300 m sq, almost entirely occupied by the modern village. Four trenches were laid here by the Punjab Dept of Arch. and Museums, two of them, SGL-1 and SGL-3, on the w. and n. fringes of the Hathiawara mound and the other two, SGL-2 and SGL-4, on the w. and s. fringes of the main mound (*IAR 1968-9*, p. 25; *1969-70*, p. 31; *1970-1*, p. 30). Of them SGL-2 provides a complete eightfold cultural sequence.

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In Pd I, excavated in a restricted area, were noticed mud and mud-brick structures clay bins and large jars. The main pottery is bright to buff in colour with a fine slip, the shapes being the dish-on-stand, dish, bowl, bowl-on-dish, beaker, medium and small dish, flat dish with short sides and roughened base and hollow ring-stand. Geometric and naturalistic designs painted in black, brown and mauve-purple are common, as also multiple combed wavy and zigzag lines above the waist portion of the pot. The bulk of the pottery is akin to the typical BARA ware, though the mid-level of the the Pd has some seemingly Cemetery H pottery. Some designs have analogues with SOTHI/KALIBANGAN I Ware [11.2], the cognateness of which to the BARA ware is now established. Two copper chisels of rectangular cross-section and slightly splayed edge, agate inlays, heart-shaped bangles or ear rings, of faïence [16.6], bangles of faïence, beads of steatite, faïence agate and terracotta cakes [6.27] of lenticular section are the other noteworthy finds.

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Pd II marks the arrival of the PGW [11.14] and associated wares. In one trench the Ware occurs right on the natural soil and in another it overlaps with the NBPW [11.16].

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Pd III has the NBPW and red pottery associated with it. Pd IV has Śuṅga terracottas, while Pd V has Indo-Parthian, Kushan and tribal coins, a terracotta coin mould of Gondophares, votive tanks [12.11] and sealings with early Gupta legend. Pd VI shows a massive mud rampart with a basal width of 29 m and with a flat top of yellow earth with *kankar* spread over it. Later on its height was raised and a moat was provided around it. The deposit against the wall has the Red Polished Ware [11.23], terracotta female figurines of Gupta tradition and a terracotta sealing with a legend in Gupta script. Pd VII, medieval, has glazed pottery and red ware, while Pd VIII has structures of *lakhauri* bricks.

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An apsidal mound, 120 × 100 m in extent and 2 m high, excavated by the same agency in 1971-2 (*IAR 1971-2*, p. 39), has revealed the spoked plan of a Buddhist *stūpa* with an enclosure and a number of other structures. The brick spokes radiating from a central hub are intersected by three successive walls, the top of the peripheral one probably serving as the *pradakṣiṇā-patha*. There is no trace of the superstructure.

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(It is learnt that excavation has been resumed at Sanghol, but the details are not known.)

v2.c45.183

—A. BANERJI.

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**Sangirpada**, Dt Dhule. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1960-1.*

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**Sangli**, Dt Sangli. Tools of the Middle (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) and Late Stone (Mesolithic [4.5]) Ages. *IAR 1962-3.*

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**Sangolgi**, Dt Bidar. Early historical site. *Karnataka Bharati*, 11, 3.

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**Sangur**, Dt Dharwar. Early historical [4.18.11] site. *IAR 1958-9.*

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**Sangvi**, Dt Akola. Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) site. *IAR 1965-6.*

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**Sangwar**, Dt Gulbarga. Chalcolithic [4.14.8] and Megalithic (?) [4.17.8] site. *IAR 1963-4. Jour. Karnataka Univ.*, 4, pp. 183-200.

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**Sanjaigaram**, Dt Chingleput. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) site. *IAR 1966-7.*

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**Sanjai valley.** Neolithic celts, pottery and beads, besides some palaeoliths [4.2] and microliths (of unspecified nature) were collected from DUGNI, BARUDIH and UKRI. See CHAKRADHARPUR. *IAR 1972-3.*

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**Sanjeet.** See SANJIT.

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**Sanjimula**, Dt Kurnool. Early historical [4.18.12] site. *IAR 1964-5.*

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**Sanjit, Sanjeet**, Dt Mandsaur. Chalcolithic [4.14.5] including Kayatha Ware [11.7] site. A recent loose gravel on the Retam river yielded jasper tools of Series II (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) and handaxes and cleavers of quartzite and few discoids (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]). Two Acheulian cleavers were found in the loose upper gravel in a well-stratified gravel between PASEWA and Sanjit. *IAR 1956-7; 1959-60; 1965-6. Arch. Congress & Seminar, 1972*, Kurukshetra, 1976, p. 56.

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**Sankara**, Dt Aligarh. Located on the w. bank of the Ganga, the mound is about 32 km e. of Atrauli. In the lowest levels PGW [11.14] was succeeded by red ware associated elsewhere with the NBPW [11.16] though no sherd of the NBPW was found. Śuṅga-Kushan remains and Gupta antiquities followed, whereafter the site was temporarily deserted. It was re-occupied in *c.* 9th-12th centuries. The latest occupation can be assigned to *c.* 15th-16th centuries. *IAR 1960-1.*

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**Sankethan**, Dt Agra(?). The site located midway between Nandgaon and Barsana yielded sherds of PGW [11.14] and NBPW [11.16]. *IAR 1955-6.*

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**Sankhanar**, Dt Kutch. Rang Mahal [11.24] site. *AI*, 18 & 19, 1962 & 1963, p. 187.

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**Sankisa**, Dt Farrukhabad, on the Kalinadi, lying midway between ATRANJIKHERA and KANAUJ, 40 km from either, called Sāṅkāśya in the *Rāmāyaṇa* and other Sanskrit texts, Sankisa in Pali texts and Song-kia-she or Kia-pi-tha by the Chinese travellers, where Buddha accompanied with Brahmā and Indra is said to have descended from the Trayastriṃśa heaven by a ladder of gold or gem, thus making the place a centre of Buddhist pilgrimage. Hiuen Tsang records the construction of ladders by the local princes at the site of the original ladder. He also saw at the site a monastery, a pillar of Aśoka, several *stūpas* and a *nāga* tank.

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The present village is located on a mound measuring 400 m × 300 m × 12 m known as Qilab. Nearly 288 m due n. there is another mound of solid brickwork topped by a temple. Further 122 m from the temple-mound lies the elephant capital of the pillar of Aśoka, ‘bell-shaped, corded or receded perpendicularly’ with an abacus of honey-suckle and with Mauryan polish.

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About 183 m to the e. of the temple mound is another mound, known as Nivi-ka-kot, measuring 183 × 52 m believed by Cunningham to be a monastery. In the n.-e. and s.-e. of this mound there are several small mounds thought to be *stūpas*.

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An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v2.c45: S

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