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Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c14: Chapter XI: Spread of Buddhism

Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c14

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Chapter XI: Spread of Buddhism

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There is a traditional account of the *vassas* spent by Buddha at different places. On the basis of this account Prof. Kern and Dr. Thomas have furnished us with an account of the spread of Buddhism.¹ It appears to my mind to be far from satisfactory, and so in this chapter I propose to bring together the facts scattered in the *Nikāyas*, which throw light on the propagation of Buddhism during the period of Buddha's ministration. On scanning the names of places in the *Nikāyas*, it appears that Sāvatthi was the scene of the largest number of discourses, the next place in importance being Rājagaha. Vesāli and Kapilavatthu may be counted as the third and fourth localities of importance though the number of discourses delivered at these places is comparatively much less. At the other centres very few discourses have been delivered. Another noteworthy feature that may be noticed in this connection is that the discourses delivered at Rājagaha and other centres of Magadha have in view mainly the followers of non-brāhmanical sects, the paribbājakas, and the members of the order but very rarely the brāhmaṇas while the discourses delivered at Sāvatthi and other centres within Kosala were meant more for the brāhmaṇas than for the non-brāhmaṇas. This will be apparent as we proceed with the story of conversions made at each of the various centres.

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¹ Kern's *Manual of Indian Buddhism*, p. 4; Thomas, *Life of the Buddha*, ch. viii. According to the tradition, the places where Buddha stayed each *vassa* are:—1st Benares, 2nd-4th Rājagaha, 5th Vesāli, 6th Mankula Hill, 7th Tāvatimsa heaven, 8th Bhagga near Sumsumāra Hill, 9th Kosambi, 10th Pārileyyaka-wood, 11th Brahmin village of Nālā, 12th Verañja, 13th Cāliya hill, 14th Sāvatthi, 15th Kapilavatthu, 16th Ālavi, 17th Rājagaha, 18th Cāliya hill, 19th Rājagaha. Thereafter he stayed permanently at Sāvatthi.

Kāśī

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KĀSĪ is counted as one of the sixteen mahājanapadas. It was an independent kingdom in the pre-Buddha days but later on it was annexed to Magadha by Ajātasattu. Benares was its chief city and flourished not only as an emporium of trade and commerce but also as a centre of brāhmaṇic culture. The frequent mention of the place in the Jātakas is indicative of its great importance in those days. The Isipatana or Ṛṣipattana has been immortalized in the Buddhist literature as a resort of a large number of ṛṣis in ancient times, and so the selection of the locality by Buddha for his first discourse was quite in a line with its sacred tradition.

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Buddha’s ministration commenced with the conversion of two foreign traders Trapusa and Bhallika who were travelling with a caravan along the trade-route from Dakkhiṇāpatha to Ukkala a town in the kingdom of Gandhāra. Their conversion at Uruvela was later on commemorated by the erection of stūpas in their native villages in Gandhāra.¹ Buddha after enlightenment turned his thoughts first to his comrades in asceticism then residing at Isipatana near Benares. He started from Uruvela and passed through Gayā, Aparagayā and reached Vaśālā where he was invited to a meal by a *huhuṅka* brāhmaṇa to whom he pointed out as to what made a true brāhmaṇa and tried to convert him to Buddhism. Thence he passed through Cundadvīlam and Sārathipura, crossed the Ganges and reached Benares.¹ Here at Isipatana he visited his five comrades who would not accept Buddha’s arguments regarding the futility of extreme self-mortifications in taking them to their spiritual goal. Their conviction had to be slowly overcome by Buddha through teachings from day to day impressing upon their minds the impermanence of all worldly things. They were enjoined to live as recluses, practising *jhānas* and self-control.² It was for them that he delivered his famous discourse, the *Dhammacakka-pavattana* which is believed to have embodied truths found by Buddha under the Bodhi tree. It explains the *majjhimā paṭipadā* or in other words, perfection in the *śīlas*, practice of control over *citta* which included *dhyāna*, and attainment of *paññā* or true knowledge. The other discourse delivered to them was *Anattasutta* showing the essencelessness of the five *khandhas*. The result of the discourses, of course, was the conversion of the five brāhmaṇas, and their admission into the Saṅgha.

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¹ Mahāvastu (Senart), vol. III, pp. 303, 310, 313: Uttarāpatha Ukkalam nāmādhiṣṭhānam......... Tehi dāni yathā Keśasthālī nāma adhiṣṭhāno tahim keśa-stūpam kārāpitam. Bālukkho nāma nagaram tahim nakhastūpam kārāpitam. ....Trapusabhallikānām Śilukṣa nāma nigama āvāsitānām .....adyāpi Gandhāra-rājye adhiṣṭhānam Śilānāmena jñāyati There has been a great difference of opinion with regard to the identification of Ukkala and the birth-place of Trapusa and

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¹ *Mahāvastu*, III, pp. 324-329; *Lalitavistara*, p. 406.

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² *Majjh. Nik.*, I, pp. 173-175; *Saṃ. Nik.*, III, p. 66.

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Bhallika. Though the phonetic similarity between Utkala (Orissa) and Ukkala is very great and the identification of Ukkala with Orissa is alluring, yet in view of the evidence supplied by the *Mahāvastu* and supported by Yuan Chwang, Ukkala should be identified with a place in Gandhāra. Yuan Chwang noticed the remains of two of the stūpas mentioned above in the course of his journey from Balkh to Bamian (Watters’ *Yuan Chwang*, I, pp. 111-113).

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Buddha accompanied by the five new bhikkhus passed from Isipatana to Benares and met there Yasa; a rich seṭṭhi’s son, who was getting sick of the luxuries of worldly life and hankered after a life of peace and rest. It was in this state of mind that he came across Buddha under a Nigrodha tree on the bank of the river Varaṇā, and listened to a discourse on the merits of giving alms, observing precepts and enjoying thereby a heavenly life as also on the evils suffered by one haunted with desires. He then listened to the higher discourses dealing with the four truths¹ and was soon convinced of their excellence. He embraced Buddhism and became a bhikkhu while his parents became upāsakas.

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¹ The word in which he expressed dissatisfaction are upaddutaṃ vo upasaṭṭhaṃ. Vinaya, I, p. 15-16.

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Yasa then introduced to Buddha his four friends Vimala, Subāhu, Puṇṇaji and Gavampati who were also sons of rich seṭṭhis, and fifty other friends. All were admitted into the Saṅgha by Buddha by the simple formulae of “ehi bhikkhu.”² We are not aware of any other converts made by Buddha at the time though it is evident that several others of Benares joined the order subsequently.

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² See Infra.

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Benares, rather Isipatana, was a favourite resort of many distinguished disciples like Anuruddha, Mahākoṭṭhita, Moggal-lāna, Mahākaccāyana, and Sāriputta. According to the traditional chronology of Buddha’s vassāvāsa, it is said that he passed the first vassā at Isipatana and passed through it the second time after the twelfth vassā on his way from Verañja to Vesāli.³

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³ Samantapāsādikā, I, p 201; Kern's Manual of Indian Buddhism, p. 36; IRAS, 1891.

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The delivery of Buddha's first discourse on *Dhammacakka*¹ brought the place into prominence, and clothed it with a sacred memory, ranking it as one of the sacred places of pilgrimage for a Buddhist.² Several discourses in the *Saṃyutta* and *Aṅguttara Nikāyas* are associated with this place. These deal, among other topics, with *avijjā*, *saddhā*, *kāyakamma*, *vacīkamma*, *manokamma*, *ariyasacca* and *aṭṭhaṅgikamagga*.³

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¹ *Vinaya*, I, p. 10-11.

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² *Digha*, II, p. 141.

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³ See *Saṃyutta*, I, p. 105-6; V, pp. 407, 429; *Aṅguttara*, I, pp. 110 ff., 279; III, pp. 320, 392, 399.

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Besides I s i p a t a n a, there were two other resorts of Buddhist monks at K i ṭ ā g i r i⁴ and K h e m i y a m b a v a n a.⁵ Buddha visited Kiṭāgiri and remonstrated there with Assaji and Punabbasu for taking food at night (*vikālabhojana*). The discourse at Khemiyambavana was delivered by bhikkhu Udena sometime after the *parinirvāṇa* of Buddha. This discourse, it is said, impressed Ghoṭamukha brāhmaṇa so much that he not only became a *upāsaka* but promised to the Saṅgha a share of the daily allowance of 500 *kahāpaṇas* received by him from the king of Aṅga. As the bhikkhus were not permitted to accept gold and silver, it was arranged that the money would be utilised in building a monastery at Pāṭaliputta.

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⁴ *Majjhima*, I, p. 473.

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⁵ *Ibid*, II, p. 157.

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The subsequent history of Benares as a seat of the different sects of Buddhism⁶ is highly interesting and will be dealt with later on in another volume.

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⁶ See Sahani, *Report on the Excavations at Sarnath*.

Magadha

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MAGADHA became the scene of Buddha's missionary activity after Kāsī. It was one of the most prosperous provinces during the reign of Bimbisāra, who had under his sway, as the tradition goes, as many as 80,000 villages.¹ Its capital Rājagaha attained importance not only as a commercial centre but also as a rendezvous of religious and intellectual men of diverse views. In the pre-Buddha days, Magadha was looked down by the brāhmaṇas as a country unfit for sacrificial fire, and as such unsuitable for habitation of orthodox brāhmaṇas of noble and pure descent. On account of the absence of orthodox brāhmaṇas, non-brāhmanic views found there a free scope for expression and so it is said that Magadha seethed with sophistic discussions and that dṛṣṭikaṣāya was there. The Brahmajāla and Sāmaññaphala suttantas delivered as Rājagaha amply testify to the fact that there was no end of brāhmanic and non-brāhmanic views prevalent in Magadha, and that the six titthiyas² also selected this province as their field of work. Side by side with the titthiyas, there were the brāhmanical teachers like Rudraka Rāmaputra and Kūṭadanta. The former had an āśrama where Buddha lived for sometime before the attainment of bodhi while the latter enjoyed the income of a village granted to him by Bimbisāra,³ performed sacrifices on grand scales, killing hundreds of animal victims. There were a few other brāhmanic teachers who taught that supernatural powers, heavenly happiness and mokṣa could be obtained through rigorous asceticism.⁴

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¹ Vinaya, I, p. 29.

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² Digha, I, p. 47 f.; Majjhima, II, p. 2 f.

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³ Digha, I, 127 f

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⁴ See Buddhist India, pp. 140-6; Barua, op. cit., p. 188 f.

Brāhmaṇas of Magadha

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It is noteworthy that the discourses delivered in the towns and villages of Magadha are meant mostly for the paribbājakas and the non-brāhmanical sects or the Buddhist disciples. The few brāhmaṇas who came into touch with Buddha or his disciples could not be converted. Vassakāra¹ and Gopaka-Moggal-lāna,² the brāhmaṇa ministers of Magadha, and Dhānañjani brāhmaṇa³ were admonished without any effect. The only notable converts made among the brāhmaṇas of Magadha were Kūṭadanta of village Khānumata and Kasibharadvāja of village Ekanālā.⁴ In the brāhmaṇa village of Pañcasālā, it is said that Buddha could not obtain a single spoonful of rice.⁵ In the brāhmaṇagāma of Ambasanda, in the neighbourhood of Rājagaha, is laid the scene of Sakkapañhasutta⁶ but nothing is mentioned about any converts made there. There are passages, e.g., in the Sutta-nipāta, and Saṃyutta-nikāya⁷ showing that brāhmaṇas resented Buddha’s attitude towards the aged members and his claim of superiority over them. These few references to the brāhmaṇas of Magadha indicate that their number must have been few, and that Buddha was not very successful in his missionary work among them.

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¹ Dīgha, II, p. 72.

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² Majjhima, III, p. 15; Aṅguttara, II, pp. 172-3, 179, 180.

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³ Saṃyutta, I, pp. 160.

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⁴ Dīgha, I, p. 117; Saṃyutta, I, p. 172-3, Sutta Nipāta, p. 13.

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⁵ Saṃyutta, I, p. 114.

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⁶ Dīgha, II, p. 263; see B. C. Law, Geog. of E. Buddhism, p. 42.

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⁷ Sutta Nipāta, p. 50; Saṃyutta, II, p. 22.

Non-Brāhmaṇical Sects

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It has already been mentioned that the six titthiyas chose Magadha and Vesālī as their fields of work. The number of paribbājakas wandering about within Magadha was also fairly large, and so the largest number of converts were made by Buddha from among the non-brāhmaṇas.

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Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the centre of whose activities was at Rājagaha, was the first non-brāhmanic religious teacher to feel the power of the religion preached by Buddha for within a very short time he saw that half of his following had been won over to Buddha’s side. It was Assaji, one of the first five disciples of Buddha, who commenced the missionary work by converting Sāriputta, the principal disciple of Sañjaya, to Buddhism, and Sāriputta in his turn followed him up until half of his quondam fellow disciples including Moggallāna embraced Buddhism. This event together with the previous conversions made by Buddha and his followers created in Magadha a sensation which evoked that Buddha converted 1000 Jaṭilas, 250 followers of Sañjaya, and the sons of distinguished Magadhan families, thereby making the families sonless and the wives husbandless, and there was no knowing who might be taken in next.¹

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¹ Vinaya, I, pp. 39-44.

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Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta was a formidable rival of Buddha, and as he was at work earlier than Buddha, he made a fair progress in the spread of his religion in Magadha and the neighbouring states. It appears from the accounts of conversions to Buddhism that Buddha could not win over to his side many followers of Nāṭaputta. But he stole a march upon Nāṭaputta by enlisting among his upāsakas Bimbisāra and Ajātasattu who had been lay-supporters of Nāṭaputta.²

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² The Jaina āgamas claim Bimbisāra and Ajātasattu as Jainas while the Buddhist piṭakas declare them as Buddhists. Neither the Jaina nor the Buddhist literature admits that they were supporters of the religions at different times or at the same time in different degrees. The facts of the lives of the two emperors, however, point to the inference that Bimbisāra supported Jainism when it appeared on the field but inclined decidedly towards Buddhism when it asserted itself

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There was at Kāḷasilā on the side of Isigili mountain in Rājagaha a large number of Jaina ascetics who were undergoing severe self-mortifications to eradicate their past sins and to attain mukti. Buddha failed to convince them of the inefficacies of such mortifications and of their faith being based on wrong views.¹ But this was not the case with Upāligahapati and Abhayarājakumāra.² Upāli was convinced that Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta was wrong in putting more stress on kāyakamma (= daṇḍa) than on manokamma while Abhayarājakumāra failed to establish that Buddha was lacking in anukampā (compassion) by citing the instance of Devadatta. Both became lay-devotees of Buddha. Dīghatapassī, the Jaina monk, though convinced like Upāli, did not change his faith.³ Asibandhakaputta, a gāmaṇi, was also convinced of Buddha’s viewpoint that killing, stealing and such other crimes do not always lead the sinners to hell as Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta teaches and that these sins can be counteracted by repentance and knowledge.⁴ A few other converts were made from among the followers of Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta at Vesālī and Kapilavatthu.⁵

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¹ Majjhima, I, p. 380.

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² Ibid., I, p. 395. See Barua, op. cit., p. 375.

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³ Ibid., I, p. 374.

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⁴ Samyutta, IV, pp. 317 ff.

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⁵ See Infra.

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There are no specific instances of converts having been made from among the followers of other non-brāhmanical teachers ex-as a rival of Jainism. Ajātasattu was a supporter of Devadatta who initiated a sect holding views similar to Jainism so far as its discipline was concerned. Abhayarājakumāra, a Jaina, expostulated with Buddha for condemning Devadatta. This shows that Devadatta had Jaina sympathies and Ajātasattu by supporting him shows the nature of his religious views. He, however, was converted to Buddhism a year before Buddha’s demise. (Infra, p. 156; Smith’s *Early History of India*, p. 33).

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cept that of Acela Kassapa. Upaka, an ājīvika, was impressed by the saintly appearance of Buddha, but did not accept him as his teacher. On several occasions, the doctrines of Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Pakudha Kaccāyana and Ajita Kesakambalin were discussed and criticised,¹ and on one occasion it is mentioned that if an ājīvika be a kammavādin, he would go to heaven.² It seems that these teachers had no following at the time of Buddha, and that their doctrines had mere academic interest and were not actually practised. Acela Kassapa is described as an aññatitthiya-pubba but it is not expressly mentioned as to which sect he belonged. He joined the order and became ultimately an arhat.³

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¹ See above ch. IV.

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² Majjhima, I, p. 483.

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³ Samyutta, II, pp. 21-22; IV, 300-2.

Paribbājakas of Magadha

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In Magadha there were two classes of paribbājakas: (i) Brāhmanical and (ii) Non-brāhmanical (aññatitthiya).⁴ Buddha recruited his converts mostly from the latter class. Of the prominent paribbājakas who came into contact with the Teacher while he was staying in Magadha, the following may be mentioned: Nigrodha, Dīghanakha, Potaliputta, Anugāra (or Annabhara), Varadhara, Sakuludāyi, Moliyasīvaka, Upaka, Maṇḍikāputta, Sutavā, Sāmandaka and Susīma.

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⁴ B C. Law, Buddhistic Studies, p. 89. In his paper on Gautama Buddha and the Paribbājakas, Dr. Law has given a summary of all the discourses that Buddha or his disciples delivered for the benefit of the paribbājakas.

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Buddha met Nigrodha who was then dwelling at Udumbarika hermitage of the paribbājakas near Rājagaha and explained to him how the ascetic practices did not always conduce to purity. It will be interesting to observe that Buddha was trying to impress upon Nigrodha who had ājīvika leanings that his discourse on the ascetic practices including cātuyāmasamvara¹ was not meant to win him over to this sangha and but just to impress upon him the distinction between kusala and akusala.² Nigrodha was silenced but it seems that he did not change his faith. Dīghanakha, a relative of Sāriputta, listened to a discourse on vedanā and was soon convinced of the excellence of Buddha’s teaching and became a bhikkhu.³ Potaliputta had a talk with Samiddhi, a young bhikkhu, about the Buddhist doctrine of kamma, and was not satisfied with the exposition as Samiddhi gave the answer without sufficient caution and analysis.⁴ Anugāra, Varadhara, Sakuludāyī⁵ and other noted paribbājakas were staying at Moranivāpa hermitage and discussing among themselves on one occasion about lack of regard for the teacher found among the followers of the six titthiyas and on another occasion about the omniscience and perfection of Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta, and such other topics. Buddha explained his doctrines in detail and was able to convince Sakuludāyī of their excellence, ultimately making him an upāsaka. Sakuludāyī’s followers did not like that their leader should become a bhikkhu but they did not object to his becoming an upāsaka. Moliyasīvaka met Buddha at Rājagaha on two occasions⁶ and had discussions regarding his teaching as producing its fruit directly (sanditthiko dhammo) and the Buddhist theory of kamma. He became satisfied with Buddha's explanations and expressed his desire to become an upāsaka. Susīma at the request of his lay-followers studied Buddhism and ultimately became a bhikkhu.¹ S u t a v ā and S a j j h a² listened to the merits of an arhat appreciatingly but did not therefore become upāsakas, so also was the paribbājaka S ā m a n d a k a,³ who met Sāriputta at Nālakagāma and listened to a talk on the cause of sukha and dukkha. S a r a b h a,⁴ and U p a k a⁵ were the two paribbājakas reproved by Buddha and Ajātasattu respectively. The former was a renegade from Buddhism and spoke ill of the religion while the latter had the audacity to challenge Buddha in disputation. It will be observed from the above accounts that one or two paribbājakas became fully ordained bhikkhus, and the rest only expressed their appreciation of the religion by becoming lay-devotees.

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¹ See above, ch. IV.

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² Dīgha, III, pp. 55-7.

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³ Majjhima, I, p. 501. The sutta is named Dīghanakha-sutta in the Majjhima Nikāya and Vedanāpariggaha in the commentary. See Buddhist Legends, I, p. 203.

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⁴ Majjhima, III, p. 208-9.

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⁵ Ibid, II, pp. 1-22; 29-39; Aṅguttara, II, p. 176.

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⁶ Aṅguttara, III, p. 356-7; Saṃyutta, IV, p. 230-1.

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¹ Saṃyutta, II, pp. 119-128; IV, pp. 230-1.

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² Aṅguttara, IV, pp. 369; 371 f.

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³ Ibid., V, p. 120-2.

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⁴ Ibid., I, pp. 185-188.

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⁵ Ibid., II, p. 182.

Lay-Devotees of Magadha

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The brāhmaṇas and the paribbājakas dealt with above became mostly lay-devotees and rarely ordained bhikkhus. The largest enlistment of lay-devotees took place when Buddha visited Rājagaha in the second year of his missionary career. At the instance of Bimbisāra, the chiefs of the eighteen Śreṇis of his dominion and his officials expressed their faith in Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha. The names of only a few lay-devotees of Magadha have come down to us through the discourses in the Nikāyas. They may be classified thus:

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1. Gāmaṇis—Talapuṭa naṭagāmaṇi (*Saṃ.* iv, p. 306); Yodhājivagāmaṇi (*Saṃ.* iv, p. 308); Assārohagāmaṇi (*Saṃ.* iv, p. 310); Maṇicūlakagāmaṇi (*Saṃ.* iv, p. 325); Rāsi yagāmaṇi (*Saṃ.* iv, p. 340); etc.

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2. Seṭṭhis & Gahapatis—Joṭikā (*Saṃ.* v, p. 344); Māna-diṇṇa (*Saṃ.* v, 178); Sirivaḍḍha (*Saṃ.* v, pp. 176-7); Saṇagahapatiputta (*Saṃ.* iv, p. 113; *Aṅg.* iii, 48; iv, 113); Dārukamika gahapati of Nāḍika (*Aṅg.* iii, p. 391); Belaṭṭha Kaccāna, a sugar merchant of Andhakavinda (*Vin.* i, p. 224); Pukkusāti kulaputta (*Majjh.* iii, p. 237); Dīghāvu upāsaka (*Saṃ.* v, p. 244); Jīvaka; Anāthapiṇḍika and his seṭṭhi friend; etc.

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3. Jaina disciples—Asibandhakaputta gāmaṇi, Upāli, Abhayarājakumāra (see *ante*, p. 143).

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4. Brāhmaṇas—Kasibharadvāja brāhmaṇa of Ekanālā; Dhānañjani brāhmaṇa (see *ante*, p. 141).

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5. Ladies—Sārī brāhmaṇī and paribbājikā, mother of Sāriputta of Nālakagāma; Dhānañjanī a brāhmaṇī (*Saṃ.* i, p. 160); Velukaṇṭakī Nandamātā of Dakkhiṇāgirī (*Aṅg.* ii, p. 236; iv, p. 63); Cundī rājakumārī (*Aṅg.* iii, p. 35); etc.

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6. Kings & Princes—Bimbisāra, Ajātasattu, Muṇḍa (*Aṅg.* ii, p. 57), Jayasena-rājakumāra (*Majjhima.* iii, pp. 128, 138), later on he became a bhikkhu (see *Psalms of the Brethren*, p. 369).

Important Sites in Magadha

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Among the scenes of Buddha’s activity within Magadha the following may be mentioned: (i) Gayā, (ii), Uruvela, (iii) Rājagaha, (iv) Nālandā, (v) Pāṭaliputta, (vi) Ekanālā, (vii) Andhakavinda, (viii) Kallavālamuttagāma, (ix) Mātulā.

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(i) Gayā & (ii) Uruvela

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Gayā arrests our attention first for it was the birth-place of the religion which became almost pan-Asiatic in later times. Buddha on his way from Benares to Uruvela, a suburb of Gayā, came across in a forest the thirty Bhaddavaggiya youths, who were seeking pleasures and enjoyments. These youths, according to the tradition, were related to the king of Kosala. On listening to the discourses of Buddha on *dāna*, *śīla*, etc. and on the four truths, they became bhikkhus and, it is said, they later on dwelt at Pātheyya, a country situated to the west of Kosala.¹ He then stopped at Uruvela, a stronghold of the Jaṭilas. As these ascetics were very difficult to be weaned from the cults in which they had placed implicit faith, it is said that Buddha was put to the necessity of exhibiting miraculous powers to soften their minds in his favour. After preparing his ground in this way, he tried to explain to them the efficacy of following the truth that he had discovered. This explanation shook the foundation of their beliefs to a great extent, though of course, their minds required to be worked up a little further before they could be fully converted.² They accompanied Buddha to Gayāsīsa where he delivered the discourse *Ādittapariyāya* (Fire Sermon) intended to explain to the Jaṭilas that the *summum bonum* which they wanted to attain through fire-worship could be had not through fire-worship but by the extinction of fires of *rāga*, *dosa*, and *moha* kindled by the action of the sense-organs by coming into contact with the objects of those senses. The Jaṭilas after hearing this discourse gave up their cults and joined the order as bhikkhus.

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¹ Hardy's *Manual of Buddhism*, p. 188; *SBE*, XVII, p. 146 n; *Mahāvastu*, III, p. 420; *Psalms of the Brethren*, p. 284; *Mahāvagga*, i. 14.

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² *Vinaya*, I, pp. 34, 35.

(iii) Rājagaha

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The importance of Rājagaha from the point of view of missionary work was very great. It was a great resort of religious teachers and wanderers (*paribbājakas*) who used to come to the city usually in the company of the traders who supplied them with food and raiment in their journey from distant places. The city was moreover situated at the junction of several trade-routes facilitating communication and transit of messages to and from distant places. This made it extremely important for the propagation of the truths that Buddha wanted to preach broadcast. Over and above these, the city provided other advantages, valuable for a religious organizer, viz. of entering into disputations with the religieux and asserting the superiority of the religion by defeating them; of setting on a sound footing the organization by which the bhikkhus could pursue the ideals, secure from cares for the bare needs of life; and of establishing suitable hermitages for the monks in the caves of the surrounding hills so convenient for deep thinking and the pursuit of *yoga*.

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On the occasion of Buddha's first visit to Rājagaha in the second year after enlightenment, he stayed at Laṭṭhivana, five miles from the town. It was here that Bimbisāra with his ministers, courtiers, and village-headmen came to meet him. Buddha's youthful appearance led them to think that he was a disciple of the hoary-headed Uruvelakassapa who had been the leader of the Jaṭilas, and accompanied Buddha to Laṭṭhivana. But Uruvelakassapa's homage to Buddha in their presence belied their impression. The youthful Buddha with his sonorous voice explained the first principles of Buddhism, the *anicca* (transitoriness) and *anattā* (essencelessness) of the five *khandhas* (constituents of being), and brought home to the mind of the king and his attendants that the religion preached by Buddha had excellences, by virtue of which it could lay claim of superiority to other religions of the time.¹

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¹ *Mahāvagga*, xxii. 1-2, *Mahāvastu*, III, p. 441; Cf. Rockhill, *Life of the Buddha*, p. 42-3, Watters, *Yuan Chwang*, II, p. 146.

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After enlisting Bimbisāra and his *gāmaṇis* and courtiers as lay-devotees and fixing Veḷuvana for his own residence, Buddha made attempts to carry on further his missionary work. Sāriputta and Moggallāna were the first to be converted at Rājagaha with their companions the two hundred and fifty disciples of Sañjaya. He converted several *paribbājakas* and householders, an account of which has been given above.

Hermitages in and around Rājagaha

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The hills around Rājagaha had several hermitages which are important in the history of the spread of Buddhism. They were as follows:—

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(1) The highest of the hills, the *Gijjhakūṭa-pabbata*.² (Vulture's Peak) was a favourite resort of Buddha. In the first few years after enlightenment, he spent his time frequently at this place with some of his distinguished disciples, viz. Sāriputta, Moggallāna, Mahākassapa, Anuruddha, Puṇṇa Mantāṇiputta, Upāli, Ānanda, and Devadatta, delivering discourses and imparting to them necessary training for their spiritual progress and missionary works.³ To facilitate communication with Buddha and his disciples, it is said that Bimbisāra made a road from the foot to the top of the hill.¹ The peak was the scene of the nefarious attempts of Devadatta supported by Ajātasattu to kill Buddha for not putting him in charge of a body of monks. Besides the hermitages on the Vultures' Peak, there were ten other cave-dwellings of bhikkhus on the hills surrounding Rājagaha² viz.,

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² For its identification see *Archaeological Survey Report*, 1905-6; Cunningham identifies it with Śailagiri (*Anc. Geo.* p. 466).

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³ See above, p. 133 f.

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¹ Watters' *Yuan Chwang*, II, p. 151.

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² *Digha*, II, pp. 116, 263, *Vinaya*, II, p. 76; see D. N. Sen, *Rājagṛha in the Buddhist Scriptures* in the *Report of the Second Oriental Conference*, pp. 613-624 and *Sites in Rājgir* in the *J.B.O.R.S.*, vol. IV; B. C. Law, *Memoirs, Arch. Sur. of India*.

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(ii) Corapapāta (the precipice whence robbers were flung to death);³

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³ Watters' *Yuan Chwang*, II, p. 155. The Chinese pilgrims refer to the cases of religious suicide committed here, said to have been approved by Buddha. Cf. *Sam. Nik.*, III, pp. 119-124; IV, pp. 55-60; V, p. 320.

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(iii) Isigilipasse Kālasilā (the black rock by the side of the Rṣigiri);⁴

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⁴ The name Rṣi-giri was transformed into Isi-gili which was supposed to have been derived from the fact that the hill devoured (gila = to devour) the ascetics i.e. those ascetics who entered it never returned, so congenial the place was to them (*Majjh. Nik.*, III, pp. 68 ff.).

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(iv) Vebhārapasse Sattapaṇṇiguhā (where the first Buddhist synod was held);

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(v) Sītavana Sappasoṇḍikapabbhāra or the cave situated in a hill infested with snakes near the crematorium called Sītavana which Buddha used to visit with his disciples for passing some time at the place as a part of the spiritual training of his disciples.⁵ From the nature of this hermitage it would appear that it was specially suited to those monks who took up the sosānika-dhutaṅga i.e. practising samādhi on a cremation-ground for their spiritual uplift;

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⁵ *Divyāvadāna*, p. 268.

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(vi) Gomata-kandara,

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(vii) Tiṇḍuka (the cave deriving its name from the Tiṇḍuka trees *Diospyrus Embryopetris*);

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(viii) Tapoda-kandara (Tapoda = hot spring);

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(ix) Tapodārāma;¹

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¹ Hot springs still exist there, see *Arch Sur Rep* 1904-5.

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(x) Indasālaguhā² where Buddha delivered the Sakka-pañhasutta (No. 21) of the Dīgha Nikāya;

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² Watters' *Yuan Chwang*, II, p. 173.

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(xi) Pipphali-guhā named after Pipphali mānava, the former name of Mahākassapa, who used to stay here.³

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³ *Manorathapūraṇī*, I, p. 175; *Psalms of the Brethren*, p. 363.

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These cave-dwellings could not provide sufficient accommodation for all the monks staying at Rājagaha. For this reason as also out of love for solitude, many monks dwelt in arañña-kuṭikas (forest-huts) in the jungles on the hills.⁴ Dabba Mallaputta was entrusted with the charge of grouping the monks according to their subjects of study or methods of spiritual discipline, and of allotting to them suitable residences.

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⁴ *Majjhima*, III, p 217, *Jātakas*, III, pp. 33, 71; V. p. 176.

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After the acceptance of the Veḷuvana,⁵ and the sanction of vihāras as suitable residences for monks, the lay-devotees commenced building vihāras for monks. Three such vihāras in the suburbs of Rājagaha are often mentioned in the Buddhist scriptures viz., Veḷuvana, Jīvaka-ambavana, and Maddakucchi migadāya. The first *vihāra* was presented by Bimbisāra on the occasion of Buddha's first entrance into Rājagaha, the second by Jīvaka in the twentieth *vassa* of Buddha's ministry, and the third very probably by a Madda prince when Mahākappina was ordained as a monk.¹

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⁵ For a description of the Veḷuvana monastery, see Mr. D. N. Sen, *op. cit.*

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¹ Mahākappina's wife was a Madda princess. See *Vin.* I, p. 105; Burlingame's *Buddhist Legends*, II, pp. 169-176.

(iv) Nālandā

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At Buddha's time Nālandā was a small but prosperous village situated at a distance of a *yojana* from Rājagaha.² The usual residence of the monks was at the monastery *Pāvārika-ambavana*. There was another monastery midway between Rājagaha and Nālandā called *Ambalaṭṭhikā* where Rāhula stayed at times.³ From the nature of the discourses delivered there and from the particulars of the persons with whom Buddha entered into disputations, it appears that Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta had there a firm footing.⁴ Most of the discourses were intended to refute the doctrines of the Jaina faith, the disputants being Dīghatapassī, Upāli, Abhayarājakumāra, and Asibandhakaputta-gāmaṇi. From the *Bhagavatī Sūtra* also, we learn that Nālandā was the meeting place of Mahāvīra with Gosāla.

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² *Sum. Vil.*, p. 35; *Majjhima*, I, p. 377; *Dīgha*, I, p. 211. It is stated in Yuan Chwang's *Records* and *Mahāvastu* that Nālandā was the birth-place of Sāriputta, but in fact his birth-place was Nālaka which was an unimportant village near Nālandā.

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³ *Majjhima*, I, p. 414.

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⁴ *Ibid.*, I, pp. 379, 392 ff.; *Saṃyutta*, IV, pp. 110, 317, 323; *Mahāvastu*, III, p. 56.

(v) Pāṭaliputta

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Pāṭaligāma was only a village which Buddha visited with his disciples in the last days of his life. The laity of the place invited Buddha and his disciples who on their arrival at the place were accommodated in a rest house probably known later as the Kukkuta-ārāma. It was at this time that Sunīdha and Vassakāra two ministers of Ajātasattu were fortifying Pātaligāma as a defence against the Vajjians. This fortified village afterwards rose to be Pātaliputta, the capital of Magadha and a great emporium.¹ Out of respect for Buddha, the two ministers named the gate through which Buddha passed and the ferry ghat whence he departed as Gotama-dvāra and Gotama-tittha. Near Pātaliputta, there were two villages called Kotigāma and Nādika where Buddha stopped in his last journey. It was at Kotigāma that Ambapāli came to invite Buddha to Vesāli.² Buddha passed from Kotigāma to Nādika where he had many faithful monks and nuns, male and female lay-devotees, some of whom died before his visit to the place,³ hence the discourses that he delivered here were all concerning the marana-sati.⁴

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¹ Mahāvagga, VI, p. 28; Digha, II, p. 85.

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² Vinaya, I. p, 231.

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³ Digha, II, pp. 91-92.

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⁴ Anguttara, III, pp. 303 ff; 391.

(vi) Ekanālā

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In the 11th year of Buddha's ministration, he visited the brāhmana village Ekanālā and stayed at Dakkhināgiri.⁵ He converted here the two brāhmanas Kasi-Bharadvāja⁶ and Sampūrna⁷ A distinguished female lay-devotee Velukantakī Nandamātā lived here.¹ It was at this place that Buddha formed his idea of the way in which the *cīvaras* (robes of the bhikkhus) should be made out of pieces of cloth stitched together like the rectangular pieces of land tilled by different persons in the rice-fields near the village.

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⁵ There was another vihāra of this name at Vedisā. See B. C. Law, Geog. of E. Buddhism, pp. 26, 43, 46.

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⁶ Sutta Nipāta, pp. 12 ff.; Sam Nik., I, pp. 172-3.

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⁷ R. L. Mitra's Nepalese Buddhist Literature, p. 18.

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¹ *Aṅguttara*, IV, pp. 63 ff.

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(vii) A n d h a k a v i n d a & (viii) K a l l a v ā l a m u t t a g ā m a

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These two villages near Rājagaha, though not so well-known, had monasteries where Buddha stayed at times. At Andhakavinda we find him instructing some newly ordained bhikkhus and converting Belaṭṭha Kaccāna, a sugar-merchant of the place. Mahākassapa while here had once to ford a stream to attend a Pātimokkha assembly at Rājagaha. After this incident the Vinaya rule was instituted that a bhikkhu need not cross a stream, as wherever it exists, it should be made a boundary of the jurisdiction of a monastery. Kallavālamutta-gāma is important on account of its association with Moggallāna who underwent there his first course of training.

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*Buddha's last activities in Magadha*

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In the closing years of Buddha's life in Magadha took place two notable conversions viz., of Ajātasattu and Jīvaka. Ajātasattu became king in the 72nd year of Buddha's life and continued his patronage to Devadatta who with Kokālika, Kaṭamoratissaka, Khaṇḍadeviyāputta Samuddadatta and Thullanandā bhikkhunī² as the foremost disciples started a sect intended to be a rival to Buddhism. The cause of his influence with a few people is attributed to his power of working miracles attained through jhāna under the direction of Buddha at Sukarakhata in Gijjhakūṭa.¹ He collected about 500 disciples and established a centre at Gayāsīsa where a monastery was built for him by Ajātasattu.² A point of difference between the religious doctrines preached by him and those by Buddha lay in his bias to rigorous life that appealed so much to the people at large, but which Buddha left to the option of his disciples for adoption or rejection. Ajātasattu, who was used as a tool by Devadatta for the execution of his purposes, felt remorse when he was advanced in age for helping Devadatta in his evil designs as he gradually became impressed with the decided superiority of Buddha to Devadatta in all directions. Jīvaka, who about this time returned to Rājagaha after completing his medical education at Takkhasilā and became so eminent a physician that his services were eagerly requisitioned by the ruling princes. He volunteered his services for the medical treatment of Buddha and his disciples and professed his firm faith in Buddhism. He was a medical adviser of Ajātasattu and thereby got opportunities of bringing home to his mind the greatness of Buddha and his teachings. The introduction to the Sāmaññaphala Sutta relates how he brought about the interview between Buddha and the king, on which occasion the latter was converted by Buddha by means of a discourse on the secular and spiritual merits acquired by a bhikkhu by his joining the order. This conversion took place in the 79th year of Buddha's life i.e. just a year before his parinibbāna.

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² *Vinaya*, III, p. 171; IV, pp. 66, 335.

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¹ Watters' Yuan Chwang, II, p. 10 refers to it as 'Devadatta Samādhi cave.'

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² Jātaka, I, pp. 67, 319.

Kosala

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The kingdom of Kosala is next in importance to Magadha in the history of the spread of Buddhism. It is counted as one of the sixteen mahājanapadas and is included among the countries scanned by the Bodhisattva before his descent to the mortal world.¹ In Buddha's time it was ruled over by Pasenadi, and then by his son Viḍuḍabha. Politically and commercially Kosala stood on the same level as Magadha, containing, it is said, 80,000 villages. From the point of view of culture only, Kosala might be pointed out as more brāhmanic than Magadha. But as far as Buddhism is concerned, Kosala could not boast of as many monasteries and hermitages as could Magadha. At the same time, however, it must be admitted that it was at the capital of Kosala that Buddha spent the latter part of his career as a teacher,² delivered the largest number of discourses and framed the largest number of Pātimokkha rules;³ and it was here that the religion, which had passed its infancy in Magadha, developed into its full stature as found in the Nikāyas.

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¹ See Lalitavistara (ed R. L. Mitra), p. 22.

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² See ante, p. 135 n.; JRAS, 1891, p. 339; Hardy's Manual of Buddhism, p. 356.

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³ Mahāvagga, V, pp. 144-5. Cf. Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names, sv. Kosala.

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Though according to Oldenberg's theory,⁴ Kosala falls outside the limits within which orthodox brāhmanism flourished, the territory was in fact within the said limits containing, as it did, many brāhmaṇa settlements. Oldenberg based his opinion on two passages, one of the Cullavagga (XII. 2, 3) viz., "Buddhas are born in the puratthima janapadas," and the other of the Majjhima Nikāya (II. p. 124) referring to Buddha as a Kosalaka. The word puratthima however does not imply prācya-deśa. The passage contemplates only Kapilavatthu lying on the northern extremity of Kosala and not the whole of the territory; and moreover both the town and the territory lay on the west of Sadānīrā, an early limit of Aryan colonization as mentioned in the Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa.¹ Hence, as a citizen of Kapilavatthu, which was included in the dominion of Kosala,² Buddha could well be called a Kosalaka, though for the matter of that he was not an inhabitant of prācya-deśa.

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⁴ Oldenberg's Buddha, Appendix I.

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¹ Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, I, 4. 1 quoted also in Oldenberg's Buddha, pp. 398, 399.

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² See Infra, p. 172.

Non-brāhmanical Teachers

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At the time of the rise of Buddhism, Kosala was a brāhmanical country, and so the religion had to make its headway against a strong opposition. It was introduced into Kosala at the instance of Anāthapiṇḍika, who invited the Teacher to Sāvatthi and presented to him the Jetavana-ārāma distinguished in later times as a great resort of bhikkhus, and placed at his disposal all the influence that he could command for the propagation of Buddhism in Kosala.

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In spite of the efforts of Anāthapiṇḍika to give Buddhism a footing at Sāvatthi, the heads of the local sects resented the intrusion of a new religion into the field. To counteract the opposition, Buddha sent to Sāvatthi his best disciple Sāriputta entrusted with the ostensible work of supervising the construction of the Jetavana vihāra. Sāriputta was a past master in the art of disputation and had deep knowledge of the brāhmanic lore as well as that of the non-brāhmanic sects. He had to enter into disputation with many teachers, all of whom he was able to silence by dint of his able exposition of the Dhamma.¹ A ground was thus prepared for the advent of Buddhism at the time of Buddha's arrival at the place. King Pasenadi was also an admirer of the six titthiyas and used to speak of them as distinguished teachers of schools and heads of orders, and revered by the wise (saṅghino gaṇino gaṇācariyā ñātā yasassino titthakarā sādhusammatā) while of Buddha as young in age and fresh as a recluse (daharo ceva jātiyā navo ca pabbajjāyāti).² Migāra, the rich Seṭṭhi of Sāvatthi, was a staunch adherent of Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta. Sāvatthi, according to the Uvāsagadasao, was the head-quarters of the Ājīvika sect which held its founder Makkhali Gosāla in high respect.³ Behind Jetavana there was a hermitage of the Ājīvikas.⁴ The influence established by this as well as by the other teachers was of long standing, and they tried to dissuade the people from listening to Buddha's preachings. All his teachings, they said, were but reflections of what they had taught.⁵ They made a combined effort to oust him from Kosala by persuading Pasenadi to hold a competition in the exhibition of their miraculous powers. They were however defeated in this competition and Buddha's reputation as a great religious seer was established. The name and influence of the six teachers began to wane after this event, while those of Buddha increased. Out of envy, they, it is said, went to the length of making the futile attempt of blackening Buddha's character by setting on him two courtezans Ciñcā and Sundarī.¹ Buddha laid bare before the public the weak points in their doctrines and thus gradually sapped the foundation of their influence in the place. During this period, Buddha at times instructed his disciples in the ways in which to meet the arguments advanced by their opponents of the six non-brāhmanical sects and trained them to make clear expositions of the rational principles on which Buddhism was based.² In his discourse to Visākhā, he explained what is *Nigaṇṭhopasatha* and how it fell short of a real *uposatha*.³

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¹ Sutta Nipāta cy., II, pp. 538 f. Cf. Watters' Yuan Chwang, I, pp. 384, 394.

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² Saṃyutta I, p. 68; Majjhima, I, pp. 205, 400, 426.

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³ Barua, op. cit., pp. 298, 299, 300.

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⁴ Jātaka, I, p. 493, see also II, p. 170.

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⁵ Majjhima, I, p. 84.

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¹ Kern, *Manual of Indian Buddhism*, pp. 33, 37; Watters, *Yuan Chwang*, I, pp. 389, 392.

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² *Majjhima*, I, pp. 64 ff.

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³ *Aṅguttara*, I, p. 205.

Brāhmaṇas of Kosala

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The opposition put forth by the six teachers and their disciples to the progress of Buddha's mission was not so strong as that of the orthodox brāhmaṇas and brāhmanical teachers, who could hardly tolerate a teacher who had raised the standard of revolt against them.⁴ To some of the orthodox brāhmaṇas, even the sight of the shaven-headed Buddha at the time of performance of sacrifices was considered ominous. The sight of Buddha at some distance was a cause for consternation to Aggika-Bharadvāja who cried out to stop the further progress of the Preacher towards the place where he was performing a sacrifice: "*Tatre'eva muṇḍaka tatr'eva samaṇaka, tatr'eva vasalaka tiṭṭhāhi*" |(Stay) there, O Shaveling (stay) there, O Samaṇaka (wretched samaṇa) (stay) there, O Vasalaka (outcast)|.⁵ The adverse opinions held by the brāhmaṇas generally about him have found expression in many places in the Nikāyas in passages like the following,—"Who are these shavelings, sham friars, menial black fellows, the offscouring of our kinsmen's heels."¹ They even sneered at the idea of Buddha coming 'to converse with brāhmaṇas versed in the threefold Vedic lore.'² We find it mentioned that a brāhmaṇa was offended with a brāhmaṇa lady with Buddhistic leanings for uttering in his presence the formula of salutation to Buddha and cursed her for doing so.³ The nature of the opposition encountered by Buddha in the place accounts for many of the topics on which discourses were delivered by him or discussions were carried on with the local brāhmaṇas e.g. the origin of the caste-system and the purpose it served; inefficacy of sacrifices; absurdity of solving the indeterminable problems like the existence or non-existence of soul; permanence and impermanence of the world; falling off of the brāhmaṇas from the ancient brāhmanic ideal; the truth underlying the belief in spiritual sanctification by bathing in the rivers; dependence of the gods of the brāhmanic pantheon on the law of karma, and so forth.

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⁴ *Sutta Nipāta*, pp. 50 ff.

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⁵ *Ibid*, p. 21 (translated in S. B. E. vol. X, p. 20).

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¹ Digha, I, p. 103.

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² Ibid, I, p. 81 ff.

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³ Majjhima, II, p. 210.

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Buddha by his power of disputation and knowledge of the brāhmanic lore brought home to the brāhmaṇas the truths that he was preaching. As soon as they saw the hollowness of their beliefs or the unsoundness of their philosophy, they with their characteristic love of truth embraced the religion which was placed before their eyes with all its charm. Some of them continued as laymen declaring their faith in Buddha, Dhamma, and Saṅgha while others went further and became bhikkhus. Rich and influential brāhmaṇa householders like Jānussoṇi,⁴ Aggika-Bharadvāja,¹ and Dhānañjani² professed themselves as life-long upāsakas of Buddha, Dhamma, and Saṅgha. Intelligent and learned as they were, they naturally presented difficulty to Buddha in having them converted but once convinced of the truth of Buddha's doctrines, they proved to be his staunch adherents.

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⁴ Ibid., I, p. 175.

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¹ Sutta Nipāta, p. 21.

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² Majjhima, II, p. 209.

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The distinct achievement of Buddha in this brāhmanic country is the conversion of some of the distinguished brāhmaṇa teachers (mahāsālas) who lived on grants of villages made by kings and were held in high respect by the people of the locality. In spite of their high positions as orthodox brāhmaṇa teachers, and regardless of the advice and importunities of their disciples and admirers, the renowned mahāsālas Pokkharasādi of U k k a ṭ ṭ h ā,³ Lohicca of S ā l ā-v a t i k ā,⁴ and Caṅki of O p a s ā d a took refuge in Buddha and promised to be his followers up to the end of their lives (ajjatagge pāṇupetaṃ saraṇaṃ gataṃ). So great became Buddha's fame in Kosala that the sixteen disciples of Bāvari came from as far a place as the bank of the Godāvarī to join the order.⁵ On listening to a discourse, Uggatasarīra brāhmaṇa of S ā v a t t h i released his sacrificial victims and expressed his devotion to Buddha.⁶

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³ Digha, I, p. 87, see also infra, p. 169.

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⁴ Ibid, I, p. 224.

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⁵ Sutta Nipāta, p. 192 ff. Bāvari was once the purohita of king Mahākosala and his son Pasenadi. He retired to the bank of the Godāvarī where a hermitage was built for him by Pasenadi.

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⁶ Aṅguttara, IV, p. 45.

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The Nikāyas mention only those names of brāhmaṇa converts with whom Buddha or his disciples had conversation or disputation. The names show that a pretty large number of brāhmaṇas of various ranks in life were converted, as for instance, the Brāhmaṇagahapatis of Sālā,¹ Kapaṭhikamānava of O p a s ā d a,² Brāhmaṇas of N a g a r a v i n d a,³ M a n a- s ā k a ṭ a,⁴ V e n ā g a p u r a,⁵ I c c h ā n a ṅ g a l a,⁶ D a ṇ d a- k a p p a k a;⁷ Jānussoṇi, Sundarībharadvāja, Piṅgalakoccha, Assalāyana, Esukārī, Subha, Saṅgara, Tikaṇṇa, Saṅgārava, Dhānañjani of Caṇḍalakappa⁸ and a host of other brāhmaṇas of S ā v a t t h i.⁹

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¹ Majjhima, I, p. 285.

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² Ibid., II, p. 164.

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³ Ibid., III, p. 290.

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⁴ Digha, I, p. 235.

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⁵ Aṅguttara, III, p. 30.

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⁶ Ibid., III, p. 30.

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⁷ Ibid., III, p. 402.

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⁸ Majjhima, II, p. 209.

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⁹ See Majjhima, I, pp. 39, 175, 205; II, pp. 147, 177, 208, 209; Digha, III, p. 81; Saṃyutta, I, pp. 177 ff.; Aṅguttara, I, pp. 158 ff.

Paribbājakas of Kosala

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Like other countries, Kosala had also many paribbāja-kārāmas¹⁰ the most frequented of which was the one provided by queen Mallikā at Sāvatthi.¹¹ Buddha and his disciples, and even sometimes, his lay-disciples¹² visited these ārāmas, eagerly heard the views of these paribbājakas, and expressed their disapproval of those views if they thought it necessary to do so. There were also occasions when the paribbājakas approached Buddha for removing their doubts. As the result of these interviews we hear of paribbājakas like V e k h a n a s s a¹³ and Poṭṭhapāda¹ becoming lay-devotees of Buddha. The former had a talk with him on parama-vaṇṇa, kāmaguṇa, and lack of knowledge about the ultimates among certain teachers, while the latter discussed with him several topics, e.g. perception (saññā) and its cessation (nirodha), distinction between perception (saññā) and knowledge (ñāṇa), different soul-theories and so forth. Channo did not find much difference between his views and those of Ānanda regarding the removal of rāga, dosa and moha.² The high estimation in which Buddha was held by some of the paribbājakas is evident from the reply given by Pilotika to Jānussoṇi’s query about Buddha’s erudition, “Whom am I to judge of the knowledge of Samaṇa Gotama, who am I to be able to praise him; he is the praised of the praiseworthy, the best of gods, of men; whoever approaches him for disputation whether he be a brāhmaṇa, khattiya, gahapati or samaṇa-paṇḍita, he comes back satisfied with the exposition of his dhamma.”³ From these remarks it need not be supposed that Buddha had an unqualified success among the paribbājakas as there were many members of the class who would never recognise the excellences of the religion.

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¹⁰ Aṅguttara, IV, p. 378; V, p. 48 “aññatitthiyānaṃ paribbājakānaṃ ārāmo”

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¹¹ Majjhima, II, p. 22 “Samayappavādaka tindukācīro ekasālako Mallikāya ārāmo”

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¹² Ibid., II, p. 23.

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¹³ Ibid., II, p. 40. He was the founder of a brāhmaṇical paribbājaka order.

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¹ Digha, I, p. 178. See also Buddhistic Studies, pp. 101, 108-9.

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² Aṅguttara, I, p. 215.

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³ Majjhima, I, p. 175.

King Pasenadi

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Buddha resided here for twentyone vassas in addition to many visits paid to it at other times, so king Pasenadi got many opportunities of meeting him and holding with him conversation on religious topics. From the references to Pasenadi in the Nikāyas, it is evident that the king was a follower of the brāhmanic religion, had the brāhmaṇa Bāvari as his first purohita, and celebrated sacrifices involving slaughter of hundreds of animal victims.¹ One of his queens M a l l i k ā, and his two sisters S o m ā and S a k u l ā, were devotees of Buddha.² Queen Mallikā was once addressed by Buddha regarding the qualities which distinguish one woman from another³ while Princess Sumanā listened to a sermon on the merit of making gifts.⁴ It was probably through the influence of these ladies combined with the occasional instructions from Buddha that the mind of the king was gradually softened towards Buddhism. Later on he declared himself a lay-devotee of Buddha and showed signs of his devotion by occasional gifts to the members of the Order. On the death of Queen Mallikā he repaired to Buddha for words of consolation.⁵ In the latter part of his life he expressed his highest admiration (dhammanvaya) for Buddha and his Saṅgha.⁶

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