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Manual of Indian Buddhism c6: Part IV. The Congregation. Modes of Worship

Manual of Indian Buddhism c6

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Part IV. The Congregation. Modes of Worship

1. Indian Monachism. Disciplinary and Ascetic Rules

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In many countries and at various times there were men who dissatisfied with the condition of society around them, or disappointed in their dearest expectations, fled the bustle, troubles, deceptive pleasures and wickedness of the world in order to seek in solitude or in the company of sympathizers quietude and peace of mind. Nowhere the conditions are so favourable for the development of anachoret and monastic life as in India. Climate, institutions, the contemplative bent of the national mind, all tended to facilitate the growth of a persuasion that the highest aims of human life and real felicity cannot be obtained but by seclusion from the busy world, by undisturbed pious exercises, and by a certain amount of mortification.

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The time-honoured Indian institution of the four Āśramas contained all the germs of monachism; more than that, it afforded the example of a saintly mode of life. To begin with the Brahmacārin, he is obliged during the whole course of his study to observe absolute chastity; must refrain from intoxicating drink; take care not to hurt any living being; avoid the use of perfumes, unguents and finery; hold himself aloof from dancing, singing and other mundane amusements; show good breeding in all his manners; be clad in a deer hide and a red, reddish yellow or yellow robe. Moreover he has daily to beg his food ². These and similar obligations recur in the disciplinary code of the Buddhists and other mendicant Orders.

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² See e. g. Āpastamba I, 1; Gautama II; Manu II.

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A Brahmacārin may, if he choose, remain a student for life at his teacher's, or after the teacher's death with the family of the latter, which, however, according to some authorities, is not necessary ³. Such a Brahmacārin for life does essentially not differ from the Bhikṣu in a more restricted sense, otherwise called Yati, Mukta, Sannyāsin, Parivrājaka, i. e. the Ārya who has entered the fourth Āśrama. The rules of conduct for a Bhikṣu or Sannyāsin ⁴ have, up to minute details, served as the model for ordained monks of various sects.

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³ Āpast. II, 9, 21, 6; 8; Gautama III, 3, 7; Manu II, 247.

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⁴ Āpast. II, 9, 21, 9-17; Gautama III; Manu VI, 41-86.

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We can understand that Brahmacārins for life, thirsting after true knowledge, followed the lessons and guidance of some renowned teacher; that even Bhikṣus did the same; and it is highly probable that persons of that type constituted the nucleus of distinct sects, which after the death of the revered master, or already during his life time developed into congregations with their disciplinary regulations, into monastic Orders with distinctive outward characteristics.

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Although the epoch of the rise of Buddhism cannot be determined with certainty, we know that in the days of Aśoka the Congregation, Saṅgha, was a well-organized body in possession of canonical books. Hence we infer that it had already existed for a considerable space of time, as well as the rival Orders of the Nirgranthas and Ājīvakas. Considering that the oldest books of the Buddhist canon incessantly speak of the Nirgranthas and Ājīvakas, and of the frequent bickerings between them and the sons of Śākya, we have no reason to doubt that the three Orders were founded almost simultaneously. Nor need we be sceptical when we read that the custom of regularly keeping the Sabbath, Uposatha or Posatha¹ and of preaching on those days was introduced in imitation of other sects². This is not the only instance. In general it may be said that the whole organization of the Saṅgha and a good deal of the rules for monks and nuns, — if we may trust the canonical writings, — were introduced by imitation or by accident. The Master is less a legislator than an upholder of the law; he invents few new ordinations, he only ratifies the public opinion, and decides in highest instance when there have arisen questions among the brethren. The dogmatical fables, invented to account for the introduction or ratification of this or that rule, have no historical value, of course, but they certainly reflect the theory prevalent in the Congregation, and that theory could not but have its root in experience³. Some of those stories are based upon a misunderstanding or distortion of the plain text of the rules, so that there can be no doubt about their having been invented considerably later than the disciplinary rules to which they refer⁴.

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¹ In would-be Skr. Poṣadha, an impossible form, because the o for ava, being secondary, never could produce the change of the dental into the Mūrdhanya, which moreover had disappeared from the Prākṛt. — Posatha occurs Jat. IV, 342; cp. DMG. 48, 63.

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² MV. II, 1.

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³ A great part of the disciplinary rules of the Order are represented as being due to the incessant misbehaviour of six monks, who, like the six Tīrthikas, always enter in company and are equally irrepressible. Instances occur passim in S. Vibh.

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⁴ E. g. Pātim. Pācittiya 43; S. Vibh. II, p. 94.

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The disciplinary and penal code of the Saṅgha, undoubtedly one of the oldest, if not the very oldest part of the canonical compositions, barring some additional articles, is the Pātimokkha, Skr. Prātimokṣa⁵. This fundamental code of discipline is common to all Buddhists, in different redactions, which, however, agree in all essential points. The Pāli version is unquestionably the oldest and, accordingly, the shortest. The Pātim. for monks contains 227 articles all in all; the Chinese version of the Dharmagupta sect numbers 250, the Tibetan 253, that of the Mahāvyutpatti 259¹.

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⁵ About the meaning of this title there is some doubt. In SBE. XIII, p. XXVIII it is asserted that pātimokkha means "Disburdening, Getting free." Unhappily patimuñcati, pratimuñcati is not famuñcati, and denotes exactly the reverse, viz. "to put on, fasten, bind." It never has another meaning in Pāli, nor in older Sanskrit. If we compare the phrase pātimokkhasamvarasamvuta Aṅg. N. II, p. 14, where the word cannot but denote "a covering accoutrement, a protecting armour", with the standing explanation yo tam pāti, rakkhati (CHILDERS p. 363; MINAYEF Prātim. S. I), though erroneous in accessories, we conclude that Prātimokṣa was taken in the sense of cuirass, or rather "something serving as a (spiritual) cuirass." Cp. the term kavaca, used in a later period by Buddhists in a similar acceptation, and dharmakavcuka; the Bodhisattva is sannāhasusannaddha-varmitakavacita, Lal. V. 217.

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¹ Translations of the whole Pātim. have been published by MINAYEF (in Russian), and by Proff. RHYS DAVIDS and OLDENBERG in SBE. XIII; of the part for monks by DICKSON in JRAS. VIII (New s.), and of the Chinese version by BEAL, Cat. pp. 204 ff.; of the Tibetan version of the Naihsargika section by HUTH.

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It has been been ordered by the Lord that the Prātimokṣa is to be recited twice a month, on the Sabbath of the 15th (or 14th) of the halfmonth, in an assembly of at least four monks². At the end of each section the reciter asks whether any of the brethren present has transgressed one of the articles. If so, the transgression must be openly confessed; if not, the recital proceeds. It is usual that the monks confess their sins to each other before the ceremony. Thus the disciplinary code is at the same time a formulary of confession.

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² MV. II, 4, 2.

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Quite distinct from the Prātimokṣa in origin and purport is the summary of ascetic rules known as the Dhutāṅgas, the complete observance of which is only possible for monks who, like the brahmanical Vānaprasthas or Vai-khānasas, lead the life of hermits in the woods. The number of the Dhutāṅgas or Dhutaguṇas is 13 in the South, 12 in the North³. We will treat of them severally in the order followed by the Pāli sources.

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³ HARDY E. M. 9, 73, 97 ff. 120; BEAL Cat. 256; for other references see Dharma-S. I.XIII, note. On the 28 merits of the Dhutāṅgas see Mil. p. 351. Synonymous or nearly so with Dhutāṅga is saṅlekha, austere observance, Vyu. § 245; sallekha, Pugg. P. p. 69; Majjh. N. I, 42; MV. VII, 3.

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I. Pāṃsukūlika, scil. aṅga⁴, is the rule that the dress is made of rags taken from a dust or refuse heap. This rule is not observed by all monks, no more than several of the following practices. So far as we can judge, there always were in the Saṅgha cenobites and hermits, Āraṇyakabhikṣus, the latter more rigid and partizans of an austere mode of life, Dhutaguṇavādins or Dhutavādas, as whose head in the times of the Buddha is considered Kāśyapa, P. Kassapa the Great⁵. This predilection for a solitary life is strongly expressed in many poetical songs, as if inspired by the fresh air of the woods⁶.

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⁴ This and the following terms, when masculine, denote the persons observing the rule; Pugg. P. p. 69; in Dharma-S. the masc. refers to guṇa.

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⁵ Dīpav. IV, 3; V, 7; Saṃy. N. II, 156; Divy. 61; 395. The sect which is said to observe more rigidly than any other the Dhutāṅgas, are the Kassapiyas, Kaśyapyas. — Dhutavādin in a less technical sense occurs Jat. I, 130.

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⁶ Marked instances are the Khaggavisāṇa-S. (Nr. 3 and Nr. 12 of S. Nip.); Therag. vss. 518—526. The rigorists have much in common with the Pratyekabuddhas; cp. above p. 61, note.

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II. Traicīvarika, P. tecivarika is the precept enjoining the possession of no more than three robes at a time. This rule is binding on all the brethren, abstraction made of occasional exceptions.

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III. Piṇḍapātika, P. piṇḍapātika is the rule to live on food obtained by begging from door to door. Those who are strict observers of the rule make no use of food distributed by tickets (salāka-bhatta), of food given to the Convent (saṅgha-bhatta), of invitations for dinner. The last is contrary to the custom of the Buddha and his attendants, who regularly receive and accept invitations.

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IV. Sapadāna-cārikā, explained to mean a proceeding from door to door in due order when begging⁷.

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⁷ The Skr. form is sāvadānaṃ, an adverb (as in P.) qualifying the manner of begging of an ascetic; it occurs e. g. Mhv. I, 301; Vyu. § 263, but it is not expressly included in the list of Dhutāṅgas. In Vis. M. (cp. CHILDERS s. v.) sapadāna is interpreted by av-avakhaṇḍana, and dāna "cutting" with ava-khaṇḍana; but dāna = khaṇḍana,

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V. Aikāsanika, ekāsanika, the rule of eating at one sitting¹. VI. Pattapiṇḍika, an article wanting in the N. enumeration, and enjoining “eating from one vessel only”. VII. Khalupaścādbhattika, P. khalupacchābhattika, the prohibition of taking a meal after it has become improper to do so; this has been interpreted as partaking of food already refused and superfluous². VIII. Āraṇyaka, P. Āraññaka, living as a hermit in the woods. IX. Vṛkṣamūlika, P. rukkhamūlika, residing at the foot of a tree. X. Abhyāvakāśika, P. abbhokāsika, living in an unsheltered place³. XI. Śmāśānika, P. Sosānika, living in or near a cemetery. XII. Yāthāsanstarika, P. yathāsanthatika, said to be “taking any seat that may be provided”; evidently wrong, for saṃstara is what is spread; santhata, spread. The nuns are forbidden to observe this, a prohibition which would have no sense if the term had the meaning assigned to it. The word denotes “spreading a night-couch where one happens to be”⁴. XIII. Naiṣadyika, P. nesajjika, enjoining a sitting posture while sleeping⁵. The articles IV and VI are absent from the N. list, which on the other hand has a special Nāmatika (aṅga), the use of felt for clothing⁶.

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¹ Cp. ekāsanabhojana Majjh. N. I, 437. The form Aikāsanika occurs Aṣṭas. P. Pāram. 387.

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² For the scholastic interpretations we refer to CHILDERS D. p. 310.

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³ In Brahmanist works abhrāvakāśika, Rām. I. 43, 14; Manu VI, 23. It is quite possible that the P. term answers to this word, as has been suggested by OLDENBERG; Dharma-S. p. 49.

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⁴ Cp. Aṣṭas. P. Pāram. 387. Analogous words are yātratatraśaya and yatristamitaśāyin in Brahmanistic Literature.

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⁵ Cp. Therag vs. 904; 1129. — Vyu. § 49 has the form Naiṣadika.

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⁶ In CV. X, 10 the wearing of namataka is forbidden to the nuns; the use of felt for a covering is allowed; V, 11; 19.

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In theory it is meritorious, but not obligatory for all monks to observe all of the Aṅgas. The articles VIII—XI do not apply to nuns, XI—XIII are expressly forbidden to them; Śrāmaṇeras and Śrāmaṇeris are excluded from the observance of II, for the simple reason that they are not yet members of the Order. Lay devotees are allowed to keep the rules V and VI, but none of the others.

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The 12 articles of the N. list are more logically arranged than the 13 Dhutaṅgas in Pāli; it is plain that the first six are rules for all members of the Saṅgha, whereas the last six are intended for the Āraññakabhikkhus⁷.

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⁷ Some prescripts of the most nugatory character for this class of persons are found CV. VIII, 11.

2. Admission to the Saṅgha. Novices. Ordination

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Persons desiring to renounce the world and embrace the life of a monk or nun, may be admitted without any distinction of rank or caste, with a few necessary restrictions; e. g. murderers, robbers, persons with contagious diseases, slaves, soldiers and the like are excluded. The act of admission is termed Pravrajyā, P. Pabbajjā, properly denoting in general “leaving the world, adopting the ascetic life.” The ordination properly so called is the Upasampadā, by which one becomes a monk or nun with all the privileges belonging to the Order. The Upasampadā may be conferred on all who have previously been admitted to the Pravrajyā, except those who have

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whereas avakhaṇḍana (apakhaṇḍana) = apaḍāna. The rule is superfluous, being included in the foregoing.

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committed heinous crimes, eunuchs, hermaphrodites and the like¹. As to nuns, there are 24, blemishes disqualifying them for the Upasampadā². For the admission of Śrāmaṇeras, i. e. young novices, or rather seminarists, is required the consent of their parents and an age of full seven years.

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¹ The circumstances disqualifying persons for admission and ordination are minutely expounded MV. I, 39-76; cp. HARDY E. M. 17 ff. Vyu. § 271. Not a few of these disqualifications are merely theoretical; e. g. eunuchs and hermaphrodites are excluded from the Upasampada, as if these physical disabilities were unknown at the Pravrajyā. More than absurd is the exclusion of Snakes; MV. I, 63.

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² CV. X, 17; Vyu. § 271.

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The broad distinction between the first admission, Pravrajyā, and the Ordination, Upasampadā, is clear enough, but if we descend into the details, the matter becomes embarrassing. It would seem that at the rise of Buddhism the two terms denoted nothing else but what they originally mean, the former: "leaving one's home to become an ascetic"; the latter: "accession" to the Order. It appears from Scripture that the Buddha, after converting the five mendicant friars, further Yaśas and other young men, gathered around him sixty Disciples, who in a very short space of time passed through the four stages, and asked the Master for the Pravrajyā and the Upasampadā simultaneously, whereupon the Lord received them³. After a while the Disciples who had been sent abroad to propagate the Law, returned with persons who wished to receive Pravrajyā and Upasampadā from the Master himself. This circumstance led the Buddha to the consideration that it would be well if henceforth the monks were permitted to confer themselves Pravrajyā and Upasampadā on candidates. He accordingly gives to the monks that permission, and adds: "Let him (who has to receive P. and U.) first have his hair and beard cut off; let him put on the Kāsāyas, adjust his upper robe so as to cover one shoulder, bow down before the feet of the monks, and sit down squatting; then let him raise his joined hands and utter: I take refuge in the Buddha, in the Law, in the Congregation". Thrice. "I ratify, o monks, the P. and U. with this threefold formula"⁴. Afterwards, however, this regulation was cancelled, in so far as he ordered not to confer the Upasampadā, unless by a ceremony in which a formal motion (ñatti) is followed by three questions⁵. Even in this amended form the Upasampadā is nothing else but the solemn consecration of the Pravrajyā, as the story l. c. shows⁶. Cases of persons receiving simultaneously P. and U. are not rare; even in the days of Aśoka the lay devotee Bhaṇḍuka received P. and U. in the same moment, and Arhatship to boot⁷. As twenty years is the lowest age at which a man is qualified for U., it follows that a boy who has become a Śrāmaṇera at eight, will have to wait 12 years before he can receive Upasampadā⁸. It seems questionable whether in the beginning of the spread of Buddhism children were admitted, notwithstanding the tale of Rāhula's Pabbajanā¹. However that may be, the Śrāmaṇeras are no more Bhikṣus than the Brahmacārins, their model, are. They are Śrāmaṇoddeśas, Śrāmaṇoddeśakas, P. Samaṇuddesas, i. e. aspirants for the state of monk, persons destined to become monks, in a word, seminarists². One of their duties is to learn the ten Sikṣāpadas³.

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³ Jāt. Intr. p. 82; MV. I, 6; 7. Cp. above p. 24.

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⁴ MV. I, 12, An extended form of the Triśaraṇa-gamana is: "Buddhaṃ śaraṇaṃ gacchami dvipadānām agryam; Dharmaṃ s. g. virāgānāṃ agryam; Saṅgham s. g. gaṇānāṃ agryam." Vyu. § 267.

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⁵ Ñatthicatuttha; MV. I, 28; Skr. jñapticaturtha-(karmopasampanna) Vyu. § 270. In border countries the conferring of U. is allowed in a chapter of four monks, besides the Vinayadhara; MV. I, 10, 12.

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⁶ It results from MV. I, 76 that the U. need not be preceded by a formal Prav. For the Senior who confers the U. asks the canditate: "Are you a human being?" etc. Such a question is always foolish, but excessively so if the candidate has already been examined before.

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⁷ Dīpav. XII, 62 f.

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⁸ CHILDERS D. p. 532; cp. p. 305, where the Sāmaṇera is compared with "a deacon". A deacon of 8 years is something strikingly original. HARDY E. M. 45 has much better understood the character of a Sāmaṇera.

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¹ The more so because, MV. I, 50, the Lord expressly forbids to confer the Pravrajyā on a boy under 15 years of age. In Tibet a Śrāmaṇera can receive a socalled 2d consecration in his sixteenth year; in China it is not unusual that at the same age the ceremony of hair-shaving is performed; the Cūḷakanta-maṅgala in Siam is a rite performed in the 9th, 11th, 13th, or 15th year. All these customs may be called "pagan accrescences"; KÖPPEN Rel. des B. II, 265; HARDY E. M. 18; GERINI, Cūḷakantamaṅgala, 2; 29.

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² S. Vibh. II, p. 139; the femin. is Śrāmaṇoddeśikā, Div. 160.

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³ MV. I, 56. The rule now followed in Ceylon (HARDY E. M. 23) is exactly the counterpart of the Brahmanic Upanayana.

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Converts from other, heterodox sects, who desire to receive P. and U., are subjected to the same formalities, and have moreover to pass a probation time, Parivāsa. Only two classes of persons, viz the Jaṭilas, fire-worshippers with matted hair, and the Śākyas, received Upasampadā — there is no question of Pravrajyā — without a probation time being imposed, the former because they believed in the retribution of moral actions, and the latter because the Master wished to grant a privilege to his kinsmen⁴.

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⁴ MV. I, 38.

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The passages and testimonies adduced seem to warrant the conclusion that the real Ordination or Consecration takes place by the Upasampadā, whereas the Pravrajyā is the act by which the candidate formally declares his intention to take the vows. The regulations prescribed in Scripture have been collerted in the manual for various Kammavācās, Skr. Karmavācanās, ecclesiastical resolutions⁵.

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⁵ The manual has been published under the title Kammavākyam, syn. with Kammavācam, by SPIEGEL, with Latin transl.; partly by DICKSON with English transl. in JRAS. VII, 1 ff. (New s.). Cp. BOWDEN in JRAS. of 1893; HARDY E. M. 44; BIGANDET II, 272; MV. I, 28; 30; 76; 77. A "collection of Kammavācas" in FRANKFURTER'S Handb. pp. 142—150. Cp. also the Kalyāṇī Inscription of A. D. 1476, text and transl. by TAW SEIN KO, Ind. Ant. XXII.

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In a chapter of at least 10 monks — under certain circumstances only 5, as already remarked above — the candidate, after having provided himself with the requisite alms bowl and robes, and chosen his spiritual leader or tutor, Upajjhāya, is examined by the president of the chapter⁶ concerning his eventual disabilities, his name and the name of his spiritual tutor. These things being ascertained, the candidate requests to be ordained, whereupon the president formally proposes to the chapter to assent to this request, twice repeated. If the assembly by their silence give the consent, the president exhorts the newly ordained brother to stick to the four Necessaries⁷, and to avoid during his whole life the four capital sins. All things above the Necessaries, though not absolutely forbidden, are to be considered superfluities.

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⁶ Wrongly called Upajjhāya in BIGANDET I. c., contrary to MV. I, 76; cp. 25.

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⁷ The 4 Nissayas (MV. I, 30; 77) are: piṇḍalōtabhojana, living on a pittance of begged food; pamsukūlacīvara, rags from a dustheap; rukkhamūlasenāsana, lodging at the foot of a tree; pūtamuttabhesajja, cow urine as medicine. The corresponding Skr. terms of the Niśrayas are: pāṃsukūla; piṇḍapāta; vṛkṣamūla, and pūtimuktabheṣajya, an unsuccessful attempt at rendering pūtamutta into Skr. Vyu. § 266.

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It would be difficult to point out a single case in Buddhist writings, sacred or profane, that the sons of Śākya kept to the four Necessaries, except the hermits. As to the four capital sins, which we shall meet again under another head, the vow of the ordained monk to abstain from all sexual intercourse as long as his life lasts, is contrary to the theory that one may, under circumstances, leave the Order¹.

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¹ HARDY E. M. 46.

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The ordination of nuns is performed almost in the same manner as that of monks. She who proposes the candidate is titled the Pavattini².

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² CV. X, 17.

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Regarding the Upasampadā ceremony in the old N. Church we possess few accounts, but sufficient to show that it was, essentially, the same as in the South. In course of time some modifications have been introduced which we must leave unnoticed³.

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³ For Pravrajyā and Upasampadā in Tibet, see WADDELL, Buddh. of Tib. 178; 185; cp. HODGSON Ess. 139; 145.

3. Clothing and Equipment. Lodging. Food and Medicaments

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The complete, distinctive dress of the monks consists of three pieces, Ticīvara, P. Ticīvara; to wit: P. Antaravāsaka, Uttarāsaṅga, and Saṅghāṭī⁴. Another name for the habit after the colour, is Kāṣāya, P. Kāsāya, Kāsāva, tawny, reddish yellow. In the South the usual colour is yellow⁵; in India, at least in the Middle Ages, it was reddish.

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⁴ MV. I, 76; VIII, 13; 15; 20; 23; CV. X, 17. In Skr. the same, only Antaravāsaka; Vyu. § 272.

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⁵ The red Kāṣāya was not wholly unknown; see e. g. Therag. vs. 965.

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The description of the garments, as well as the identification of sundry other names, is attended with some difficulty. The Antaravāsaka is a lower garment, something like a petticoat, hanging low down, and bound to the loins with a girdle, kāyabandhana⁶. As synonymous is given Nivāsana, but the description of this garment by Huen Thsang is somewhat different⁷. The Uttarāsaṅga is the garment covering the breast and shoulders, and reaching somewhat below the knees. Something like it is the Saṅkakṣikā, according to Huen Thsang, but the P. Saṅkacchikā occurs elsewhere as another garment, and not belonging to the official dress⁸. Whether the Paṭinivāsana, Skr. Pratinivāsana, may be identified with the Uttarāsaṅga is a matter of doubt⁹. Saṅghāṭī, properly meaning "a doublet" may have had a similar history as this English word. Once we meet the expression "the (two) Saṅghāṭīs folded together" to denote a third garment after Nivāsana and Pratinivāsana¹⁰. We infer that the Saṅghāṭī, a kind of cloak, is so called because it is folded and composite¹¹.

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⁶ BIGANDET II, 274. This agrees with the "ample plaited petticoat, named Sam-t'abs" in Tibetan; WADDELL op. c. 201.

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⁷ According to Voy. II, 3 the three robes are Saṅghāṭī, Uttarāsaṅga and Saṅkakṣis, but p. 69 Saṅghāṭī, Saṅkakṣikā and Nivāsana! The exact shape of the Nivāsana MV. I, 25 cannot be determined.

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⁸ CV. X, 17. The Saṅkakṣikā is likewise distinguished from the three Cīvaras; also Vyu. l. c., where also a Pratiśaṅkakṣikā is mentioned.

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⁹ MV. I, 25; CV. VIII, 11; 12; Vyu. l. c.

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¹⁰ MV. l. c. Cp. the expression pāṇḍudukūlam saṅghaṭīkṛtya sīvayati sma Lal. V. 334. In the same work p. 231 the Saṅghāṭī is not reckoned as a Cīvara: saṅghāṭī-piṇḍapātra-cīvaradhāraṇena sthitam.

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¹¹ LEGGE, following EITEL, defines the S. as the "double or composite robe, reaching from the shoulders to the knees, and fastened round the waist"; Rec. p. 39, note. WADDELL op. c. 200 says the S. is "the Lower patched robe, and fastened by a girdle at the waist."

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It is a peculiarity of the official habit that robes should be made out of patches imitating the ricefields of Magadha¹.

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¹ Ananda was the first who skilfully contrived to put together such a robe; MV. VIII, 12. The number of patches varies according to the difference of sects; WASSI-LIEF B. 267.

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Raiments occasionally used by monks and nuns are the Varṣāśāṭī, P. Vassikasāṭikā, rain-cloak; and the Snatrāśāṭaka, P. Udakasāṭikā².

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² Vyu. I. c.; MV. VIII, 15; 20; 23; CV. II, 1; X, 17.

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It is meritorious for the laity to provide members of the Order with clothing. A great distribution of robes to the local Sangha is held immediately after the Pavāraṇā, at the close of the rainy season. The ceremony of that distribution, elliptically called Kaṭhina³, is common to both divisions of the Church.

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³ Kaṭhina, hard, denotes "raw cotton." The regulations regarding Kaṭhina are minutely set forth MV. VII, 1, and explained in SBE. XIII, 18; XVII, 148 ff. WASSILIEF B. 85; 88; BEAL Cat. 216. Among the N. writings there is a Kaṭhinavadana, HODGSON Ess, 19. The spreading out of the raw cotton is termed Kaṭhinastaraṇa, P. Kaṭhinatthara; Vyu. § 266.

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The use of foot covering is, in most cases, for the monks a luxury, and in the South almost unknown. In Scripture various descriptions of possible and impossible shoes are expressly forbidden; sandals and plain slippers not absolutely so⁴. Umbrellas are a superfluous article, except in particular cases. The use of fans, and of a plain sort of chowries, is allowed⁵.

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⁴ More details in MV. 2-8. Cp. BIGANDET II, 286; HODGSON Ess. 19.

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⁵ CV. V, 22; 23. Commonly the leaves of the Tala palm are used as fans. Hence the name of Talapoins given to the monks in Transgangetic India; YULE-BURNELL, Glossary s. v.

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Besides the three robes the monk's equipment, Pariṣkāra, P. Parikkhāra, consists of an alms bowl or pot, pātra, P. patta; a girdle; a razor, vāsi; a needle, sūci, and a water-strainer, parisrāvana, P. parissāvana⁶. The pot is sometimes carried in a kind of net or purse, thavikā, perhaps only by hermits⁷. The razor serves for shaving the hair and the beard. As a rule the brethren shave one another once a fortnight.

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⁶ See CHILDERS s. v. parikkhāra and his references. Many more Parikkhāras are enumerated JPTS. of 1887, p. 27.

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⁷ CV. VIII, 6; Jat. Intr. p. 55. The Magadht-Prakṛt form is thaīyā, Skr. sthagikā

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In the North the ascetics are in the habit of carrying as a distinctive a staff, khakkhara. The walking stick of an ascetic is also known in the South, under the name of kaṭṭara⁸.

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⁸ Vyu. § 273; Voy. II, 33. For (kaṭṭara) yaṭṭhi, *daṇḍa* see CHILDERS s. v. MV. V, 6; CV. IV, 4; V, 132.

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According to universal Indian custom they use tooth sticks, dantakāṣṭha, P. dantakaṭṭha or dantapoṇa⁹.

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⁹ CV. X, 31; Vcy. II, 55, note.

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Another article, the rosary, now so common in all Buddhist communities, does not date from very old times. Whether it was invented in India, is an open question. It is certainly not of Buddhist origin.

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On the residence of the monks the sacred tradition affords much, apparently trustworthy, information. We are told that the Retreat during the rainy season, the Vassavāsa or Vassa, Skr. Varṣika, was instituted in imitation of the same institution with the heterodox sects¹⁰. During that time the monks are forbidden to travel, and have to arrange for themselves places to live in. There are two periods for entering upon Vassa, Vassūpanāyikā¹¹, a longer and a shorter one, the former beginning at full moon of Āṣāḍha; the latter one month later; both ending with the full moon of Kārttika¹. With the N. Buddhists the usual period of Retreat was three months, from the first of Śrāvaṇa to the first of Kārttika².

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¹⁰ MV. III, 1.

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¹¹ Skr. Varṣopanāyikā, Divy. 18; 489; Vyu. § 266.

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¹ MV. III, 2; the translators (SBE. XIII, 300) add in a note: "Very probably this double period stands in connection with the double period prescribed in the Brāhmaṇas and Sūtras for most of the Vedic festivals."

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² So at least in the 7th century of our era. Voy. II, 492.

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It is not clear where in the first times of the Order the brethren, apart from the hermits, had their abodes, either during the Retreat or during the other part of the year. It was not necessary that a great number of them lived in the same place, for the half-monthly recital of the Prātimokṣa did not require an assembly of more than four persons. Now-a-days it is customary in Ceylon that the monks during the Retreat leave their monasteries and live in temporary huts. But how to reconcile this with the following statement of Buddhaghoṣa³, "They are to look after their Vihāra, to provide food and water for themselves, to fulfil all due ceremonies, such as paying reverence to sacred shrines, etc., and to say loudly once, or twice, or thrice: 'I enter upon Vassa in this Vihāra for these three months?'" And besides, the avowed object of the institution is to keep the monks from roaming about. Therefore we arrive at the conclusion that the tenor of the regulation comes to this: during the rains the monks must stay in a monastery or any other fixed abode; in other seasons they may do so.

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³ Cited SBE. XIII, 1. c.

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In the beginning, as the tale goes, the monks had no fixed abodes, śayanāsana, P. senāsana. They dwelt in the woods, at the foot of a tree, on a hill, in a grotto, in a mountain cave, a cemetery, a forest, the open air, on a heap of straw. Now a rich merchant of Rājagṛha wished to erect dwellings for the reverends, and the Lord Buddha gave his assent saying: "I allow you, O monks, abodes (layana, lena) of five kinds⁴: Vihāras, Aḍḍhayogas⁵, towers (Prāsādas, Pāsādas), stone houses with a flat roof (Harmyas, Hammiyas) and crypts". On hearing from the monks that the Lord had given his assent, the merchant had in one day finished 60 dwelling places. The Lord gave thanks to him by the same stanzas as were uttered by him on accepting the gift of the Jetavana; a circumstance which points to some confusion in the tradition⁶.

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⁴ MV. I, 30; III, 5; CV. VI, 2.

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⁵ Explained by Buddhaghoṣa (SBE. XIII, 171) by "suvaṇṇavaṅgageha", i. e. a house of gold and tin? CHILDERS s. v. gives "shaped like a garuḍa bird", which points to a reading suvaṇṇa- (or supaṇṇa-) vihaṅga. Suvaṇṇa for Supaṇṇa is not unknown to some N. texts.

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⁶ CV. VI, 9; MV. I, 30; III, 5.

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The very absurdity of the story is interesting, because we may gather from that edifices as above specified were in possession of the Saṅgha when the MV. and CV. were composed.

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The term Vihāra does not only denote a monastery, but frequently a temple, a striking instance of which is afforded by a passage in Huen Thsang's Travels, and it is quite so, too, in Ceylon, where the word is more generally applied to the place where worship is conducted, whilst the dwelling of a monk is called a Paṇṇasālā⁷. The most unambiguous, if not the most common term for a monastery is Saṅghārāma. Undoubtedly every great monastery had a Vihāra or temple annexed to it. We know this with certainty of Nālandā, and Sārnāth near Benares⁸.

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⁷ Voy. II, 221; HARDY E. M. 129 description of a Vihāra, 200.

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⁸ Voy. II, 355.

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The crypt or cave, *guhā*, above alluded to, must be a room wholly or partly excavated in a rock. The oldest crypts known are those of Barābar and Nāgārjuni in Bihār¹, which were given by Aśoka and his grandson Daśaratha to the Ājīvikas, those inveterate opponents of the Sangha.

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¹ CUNNINGHAM Corp. Inscr. I, 30; Ind. Ant. XX, 361 ff.

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The house where the chapter assembles for celebrating the Uposatha is called in general Uposathāgāra, in Simhalese: Poega. A famous Uposatha hall in Ceylon was the Lohapāsāda or Brazen Tower. The cells in a monastery are termed in Pāli *pariveṇa*². Occasionally we read of *kuṭis*, huts or sheds, inhabited by ascetics.

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² Hence *anuṭaraveṇiyam*, in their successive cells; MV. II, 8.

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A matter of considerable interest is the institution of Parishes, *sīmā*. Like so many other regulations of the Church, the institution is due to the irrepressible Six monks³ who were as indefatigable evil-doers as the six Tirthikas. After the Lord had ratified the recitation of the Prātimokṣa once every half-month, the Six recited it every one before his own companions. The Master, being informed of it, ordered that the Uposatha should be attended by the whole community. Now the question arose: "how far does the whole community extend?" This was settled by a prescription that it should extend as far as one place of living. Now at that time Kappina⁴ the Great dwelt near Rājagṛha. Plunged in meditation, he felt a doubt: "Shall I go to the Uposatha service or shall I not go?" The Lord understanding the thoughts of Kappina, left the Gṛdhrakūṭa and instantly appeared before the eyes of Kappina. Having taken the seat presented to him, the Master asked Kappina, whether he had not felt the doubt just mentioned. On receiving an affirmative answer, the Lord proceeded: "If ye Brahmans do not honour, regard, revere the Uposatha, who then will do it? Attend the Uposatha, Brahman! do not neglect to go⁵." Kappina promised to do so, and the Lord appeared again on the Gṛdhrakūṭa⁶. Still the monks remained in uncertainty as to the question: "How far does a place of living extend?" Therefore the Buddha prescribed to mark out the boundaries of a parish, *sīmā*, in this way: first, the marks are to be mentioned, such as a mountain, a stone, a forest, a tree, a road, an ant hill, a river, a water-sheet. This being done, a competent monk has to bring forward a motion that the Sangha may decree to fix by such marks the boundary of a parish for common residence and common celebration of the Uposatha⁷. Some abuses partly occasioned by the crossness of the Six were successively remedied.

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³ *Chabbaggiya*, in Skr. *Ṣaḍvargika*, *Ṣaḍvargīya*; Divy. 329; 396; 489; Vyu. § 281. Their names § 282 are: Aśvaka, Punarvasu, Nanda, Upananda, Chanda, and Udāyin. In P. sources Assaji and Punabbasu(ka) are directly named as belonging to the group, but it appears from MV. and CV. *passim* that Nanda, Upananda, Channa and Udāyin were obstinate sinners and quite worthy to be reckoned among the company. Assaji is likewise one of the Five, but in Vyu. l. c. (§ 47) Aśvajit and Aśvaka are different persons.

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⁴ In N. writings Kapphiṇa, Kaspiṇa, Kaphina, etc. See SBE. XX, 2; 198.

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⁵ An unequivocal acknowledgment of the precedence of Brahmans in spiritual matters, and of their giving in general a good example.

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⁶ According to the Mahāyānists Śakyamuni is properly always residing on the Gṛdhrakūṭa, and it is only an illusion when men imagine they have seen him in other places; SBE. XXI, 307 ff. Other Indian sects say: the Ātman is *kūṭastha*.

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⁷ MV. II, 5—9. Cp. the fixing of boundaries of a parish (*sīmaṃ sammaṇnati*) as related Dīpav. XIV, 26; Mahāv. pp. 108 ff. Cp. also Manu VIII, 246.

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Reverting to the monasteries, we observe that the most reliable and detailed accounts about the actual state of the Sanghārāmas in the Middle Ages, both in India and in Ceylon, are due to the Chinese pilgrims. It appears that the Āvāsikas¹, resident monks, those staying at their own monastery, had a life free from care owing to the liberality of the kings and pious laymen. "The regular business of the monks is to perform acts of meritorious virtue, and to recite their Sūtras and to sit wrapt in meditation. When stranger monks arrive, the old residents meet and receive them, carry for them their clothes and alms-bowl, give them water to wash their feet, oil with which to anoint them, and the liquid food permitted out of the regular hours. When (the stranger) has enjoyed a very brief rest, they further ask the number of years that he has been a monk, after which he receives a sleeping apartment with its appurtenances, according to his regular order, and everything is done for him which the rules prescribe²." All this harmonizes with the rules how stranger monks, Āgantukas, should be received, as laid down in the P. Vinaya³, which contains likewise minute rules for departing monks, Gamikas, for monks when going their begging round, Piṇḍacārikas, and for those living in the woods, Āraññakas⁴.

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¹ Naivāsika is the term Vyu. § 270.

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² Fa Hian, Rec. pp. 43, f.

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³ Minutely described CV. VIII, 2. In Vyu. § 270 an Agantuka differs from an Āgāmika; not unlikely the former is a stranger, a visiting monk; the latter one who returns after a longer or shorter absence; but Divy. 50.

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⁴ CV. VIII, 3; 5; 6.

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It is a matter of course that the conduct of the necessary business in a monastery is almost wholly entrusted to such brethren as are thought fit for the office and in due form appointed by the Saṅgha⁵. An important office is that of the apportioner of food, Bhattuddesaka, Skr. Bhaktoddeśaka. In the days of the Buddha this office was held by Dabba, who at the same time was the regulator of the lodgings, Senāsanapaññāpaka, Sayanāsanavārika⁶. Other charges said to have been instituted by the Master are: the keeper of stores, Bhaṇḍāgārika, Bhaṇḍagopaka; the recipient of robes, Cīvarapaṭiggāhaka, Cīvaragopaka; the distributor of robes, Cīvarabhājaka; of rice gruel, Yāgubhajaka, Yāgūcāraka; of fruits, Phalabhājaka, Phalacāraka; of hard food, Khajjakabhājaka, Khādyakacāraka; of trifles, Appamattakavissajjaka⁷; of voting tickets, Salākāgāhāpaka; the keeper of rain-cloaks and bathing-clothes, Sāṭiyagāhāpaka or Varṣāśāṭīgopaka; the keeper of alms-bowls, Patta-gāhāpaka; the superintendent of the gardeners, Ārāmikapesaka; of the Śrāmaṇeras, Sāmaṇerapesaka⁸. Some other offices the character of which is but partially inferrible from the names occur in N. sources; e. g. the Pānīyavārika, who has charge of drinkable water; the Bhājanavārika, who has charge of the vessels. Less clear is the meaning of Upadhivāra or Upadhivārika, probably an intendant or steward⁹. The Pariṣaṇḍavārika may be the guardian of the grove around the monastery¹⁰, and the Muṇḍasayanāsanavārika the person who has to take care of the lodgings temporarily not in use.

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⁵ Names of functionaries in CV. IV, 4; VI, 21; Vyu. § 274.

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⁶ Dabba Mallaputta was a remarkable man; he realized Arhatship when he was seven years old and had to endure much vexation at the hands of the brethren; for his history see the passages referred to by ED. MÜLLER JPTS. of 1888, p. 41.

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⁷ Perhaps the same as the bhaṇḍabhājaka Vyu. l. c.

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⁸ Vyu. l. c. has only peṣaka.

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⁹ Decidedly not "an attendant", as appears from Divy. 542; cp. 50; 54; 237.

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¹⁰ For pariṣaṇḍa cp. Divy. 344.

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Now and then we read of certain offices for which no formal appointment by the Saṅgha seems to be required. Such an office is that of Navakarmika, P. Navakammika, the overseer of a new building, architect, who is designated on the demand of some lay devotee who wishes to erect a building for the Congregation¹. The function of a proxy or agent, Veyāvaccakara², may be held by an inmate of the monastery (ārāmika) or a layman³.

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¹ CV. I, 18; VI, 5; Vyu. 270. Occasionally nuns are Navakammikas; S. Vibh. II, p. 211.

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² Wrongly rendered into would-be Skr. with Vaiyāvrtyakara, Vyu. § 270; Divy. 52. It should be Vaiyāprtyakara.

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³ S. Vibh. I, 221. Cp. SBE. XIII, p. 23 for another interpretation.

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In ancient times no distinction in rank was made between the monks, except such a one as is connected with age and superior knowledge. There were, of course, Seniores, Sthaviras, P. Theras, and Juniores, Dahras, Daharas; Upādhyāyas, P. Upajjhāyas or Upajjhas, i. e. tutors, and Sārdhavihārins, P. Saddhivihārins or Saddhivihārikas, fellows⁴; Ācāryas, P. Acariyas, professors, and Antevāsins, apprentices; but there is no question of anything like hierarchy. This state of things has continued in Ceylon, where, indeed, each monastery has its Mahā-Nāyaka, prior, but he is no more than primus inter pares. This was not exactly the case in India during the Middle Ages, at least in the Mahāyānist establishments. For shortness sake we refer the reader to Huen Thsang⁵.

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⁴ Vyu. § 281; Sārdhavihārin in Divy. 18; 299.

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⁵ Voy. I, 143; II, 78. The title of Karmadāna for the underdirector is probably a mistake. The word itself occurs Vyu. § 281, but not as a title. For the titles of Vihārasvāmin and Mahāvihārasvāmin see FLEET, Corp. Inscr. III, 279; 272.

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The prescriptions in the canonical writings concerning food are framed in such a manner that both the rigorous hermits and the more temperate cenobites may be satisfied. Art. 39, Tit. 5 of the Prātimokṣa says: "If a monk, unless he be sick, shall request for his use, or shall partake of delicacies, to wit: ghee, butter, oil, honey, sugar, fish, meat, milk, curds — it is a Pācittiya sin." This prohibition is not in accordance with the permission to eat fish and meat⁶ with the restriction that it should be pure in three respects: unheard, unseen, unsuspected. The restriction being utterly futile, since it is impossible not to suspect how meat and fish are provided by butchers and fishers, the antinomy remains in full force⁷. Yet the origin of such an incongruity, like of so many other antinominies, is not far to seek. It has been the constant study of the Congregation to imitate the morals and customs of fashionable people; they ardently desired to pass for Āryas and therefore made an excessive use of the very word. They began with taking for their models the Brahmans and the Brahman ascetics, though in course of time they did not scruple to spread the most unworthy lies about a class of men of whom intelligent foreigners like the Greeks speak with admiration. Now the use of fish and meat was allowed to Brahmans under certain restrictions⁸, but the ascetic had to refrain from meat and honey⁹. The Indians acknowledge that the decreasing use of animal food and complete abstinence is a peculiarity of the Kaliyuga; with other words: a sign of degeneration¹⁰. We may safely assume that the Buddhists followed the prevailing custom of the times, and that in other countries they have done the same¹¹.

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⁶ MV. VI, 31; CV. VIII, 3. Cp. above p. 71.

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⁷ The Buddha himself is represented as eating the pork expressly prepared for him by Cunda, and thus proved ipso facto that he was no Buddhist.

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⁸ Gautama XVIII, 27-38; Āpastamba I, 5, 17, 29 ff. Manu V, 27.

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⁹ Āpastamba II, 9, 22, 2; Manu VI, 14; a single exception in Gautama III, 31.

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¹⁰ Cp. Manu V, 22.

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¹¹ BIGANDET II, 294; HARDY E. M. 92.

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The spiritual sons and daughters of Śākyamust earn their living by their own exertion, i. e. they must beg their food, like the Brahmacārins, but with this difference that they are not allowed, as the latter are, to ask for alms by words¹. The son of Śākya must be calm and dignified in his deportment², after the model traced in a beautiful passage in the history of the Bodhisattva³. The traits of the Bhikṣus of ancient India continue partially visible in the Siṃhalese monks of the present day⁴.

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¹ Mil. p. 230.

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² Deportment is termed iryā, P. iriyā; the four ways of deportment, iryāpatha, iriyāpatha are: walking, standing, sitting, lying down; BURNOUF Lot. 296; Intr. 168.

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³ Lal. V. 230; Mhv. II, 157.

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⁴ HARDY E. N. 309; 312.

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The use of ghee, butter, oil, honey and sugar is permitted to the members of the Order in time of sickness, by way of medicaments⁵. Rules for preparing various kinds of medicaments, as well as medical and surgical operations, are prescribed in the Vinaya⁶, so that we get some notion of the condition of medical science in the period when that part of the canon was composed.

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⁵ MV. VI, 1. Medical requisites are termed gilānapaccaya, Skr. glānapratyayabhaiṣajya, Vyu. § 239. The four requisites (paccaya), are civara, piṇḍapāta, senāsana and bhesajja; consequently virtually the same as the four Niśrayas, with the only difference that the Nissayas are intended for hermits, the Paccayas for monks in general. Sometimes pariṣkāra is used as a third synonymous term, e. g. Divy. 143. — For the five sorts of oil see S. Vibh. II, p. 88.

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⁶ MV. VI, 1–15; 17–21.

4. The Prātimokṣa. Disciplinary Measures

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The Prātimokṣa is divided into eight Titles or heads, each of them containing a greater or smaller number of articles.

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The first Title treats of the Pārājikā dhammā⁷, case involving expulsion from the Congregation. It contains in all redactions four articles on the most heinous of offences, to wit: breach of the vote of chastity; theft; taking life; falsely laying claim to superhuman (*uttarimanussa*) gifts⁸.

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⁷ Skr. Parājika dharmāḥ, Vyu. § 256. The true etymology of pārājika, adopted by CHILDERS, is due to the sagacity of BURNOUF. The word is a regular Taddhita derivative of a lost substantive parāja or something like it, connected with a verb parā + ajati, to drive away, whence p. p. parājita. The derivation from parā-jayati, proposed in SBE. XIII, 3, and intended as an improvement upon BURNOUF's, is grammatically impossible.

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⁸ The offences in Vyu. § 257 are: Abrahmacarya, Adattādāna, Vadha, Uttaramanuṣyadharmapralāpa.

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The second Title has thirteen articles bearing on offences involving suspension and a temporary exclusion. The term is in Pāli Saṅghādisesa, in Skr. Saṅghāvaseṣa⁹. The agreement between the various redactions is pretty close¹⁰.

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⁹ Vyu. l. c. 7; WASSILIEF B. 82. The Chinese transcription Saṇ-ka-hi-shisha (BEAL Cat. 21b) points to a third form nearly allied to Saṅghadisesa. Neither a Skr. Saṅghāvaseṣa nor Saṅghatiṣeṣa, i. e remnant of the Saṅgha, renders a satisfactory meaning. Equally unsatisfactory are the lucubrations of CHILDERS s. v.

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¹⁰ The offences specified Vyu. § 258; S. Vibh. I, 110–186. Cp. BEAL l. c.

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The third Title treats in two articles of Undetermined cases, Aniyatā dhammā¹¹.

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¹¹ Vyu. § 259: Dvāv aniyatau.

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The fourth Title, headed Nissaggiya Pācittiyā dhammā, on offences requiring expiation by forfeiture, numbers thirty articles, somewhat differently arranged in the various redactions, but otherwise nearly identical¹².

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¹² For Pācittiya, which answers to Skr. Prāyaścittika, the N. Buddhists have pāyattika, an imaginary word, further corrupted by scribes or editors to pāpattika, pāpantika. For Nissaggiya the same blunderers give Naisargika; it ought to be Naiḥsargika, Naissargika. For the names of the offences severally see Vyu. § 260; cp. S. Vibh. I, 195–266; BEAL op. c. 215; HUTH op. c.

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The fifth Title, on matters requiring expiation, Pācittiyā dhammā, comprises ninety-two articles in the P. redaction, whereas the Chinese version and the Vyutpatti number ninety. The contents are highly interesting, as affording a glimpse of some ancient customs among the members of the Order. Here we can only refer the reader to the text itself and the translations¹.

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¹ The offences are specified Vyu. § 261.

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In the sixth Title are treated the Pāṭidesaniyā dhammā, four kinds of offences which require a simple confession to be expiated².

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² In Vyu. § 262 the four Pratideśanyā are: Bhikṣuṇipiṇḍakagrahana, Paṅktivaiṣamyavadanāvaritabhukti, Kulaśikṣābhaṅgapravṛtti, and Vanavicayagata, terms which would be difficult to understand without the more elaborate text of the Code.

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The seventh Title is a miscellaneous collection of rules of good breeding and deportment, called Sekhiyā dhammā, or Sikṣā. The number of the rules is 75 in P., 100 in the Chinese version, 106 in Vyutpatti³. The greater number in the Chin. version is caused by the addition of 25 articles, from 60-85, relating to decorous deportment in regard to sacred buildings.

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³ Vyu. § 263. The 150 Sikkhapadani spoken of in Aṅg. A. I, pp. 230 ff. cannot be identified with the Sekhiya rules, though it may be that the Sikkhapadas of little and minor importance mentioned CV. XI, 1 refer to them. The long-winded verbiage is obviously intended to leave the matter in obscurity.

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The eighth and last Title contains seven rules for settling legal questions or cases, Adhikaraṇasamathā dhammā. The rules are only indicated by technical terms for kinds of sentences pronounced. The terms are: 1. Sammukhāvinaya, application of the disciplinary rule (to the person) in presence; Sativinaya, application of the discipline in case of full consciousness (of the accused); Amūḷhavinaya, the same in the case of one not being insane; Paṭiññāya, sentencing one who confesses (being guilty); Yebhuyyasikā, sentencing by majority of votes; Tassapāpiyyasikā, proceeding against the obstinate; Tinavatthāraka, covering over as by grass⁴.

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⁴ Notwithstanding the anecdotes invented after date in CV. IV, 1-14 the real purport of most of the terms cannot be made out. The terms Vyu. § 264 are: Sammukhāvinaya, Smṛtivinaya, Amūḷhavinaya, Yadbḥūyasiktya (printed text: Yadbḥūyaḥtśikya), Tatsabhavaiṣiya (?), Tṛṇastāraka, Pratijñākaraka. The Chin. interpretation is wholly different or mistranslated, BEAL op. c. 238. On comparing CV. 1, 2 and 18 we perceive that in case of Sammukhāvinaya the defendant is codetabba; in case of Sativinaya sāretabba; in case of Amūḷhavinaya avaggena (= amūḷhena) āpattim āropetabba; which does not agree with the anecdotes, but better with grammar; Sativinaya e. g. is "discipline, chastising, correction by reminding one of his duty."

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The Pātimokṣa for nuns is mutatis mutandis a copy from that for the male members of the Saṅgha. The number of Titles is equal, but the arrangement of the articles differs considerably without any obvious reason. Many regulations, just as in the Pātimokṣa for monks, have their origin in the incessant delicts of Six nuns, who are lewd, and commit other delicts, apparently without lasting damage to their spiritual character and monastic saintliness.

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In order to enforce the prescriptions of a Code, no community can do without a system of coercion for well defined cases. The means of coercion at the disposal of the Saṅgha are not harsh, but quite sufficient. The severest punishment is expulsion from the community. This measure is enacted against those who are guilty of a Pārājika sin. In one case we read that an aspirant for the Order, a Samaṇuddesaka, is expelled, nāsita⁵.

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