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Education in Ancient India c11.s1: Section I. Female Education before c. 200 B. C.

Education in Ancient India c11.s1

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Section I. Female Education before c. 200 B. C.

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A strange phenomenon :—The history of the most of the known civilisations shows that the further back we go into antiquity, the more unsatisfactory is found to be the general position of women. Hindu civilisation is unique in this respect, for here we find a surprising exception to the general rule. The further back we go, the more satisfactory is found to be the position of women in more spheres than one. And the field of education is most noteworthy among them. We can however understand this strange phenomenon when we remember that for a long time education in ancient India meant Vedic education, and that it had to be necessarily imparted to all who were expected to take part in Vedic sacrifices, irrespective of their sex.

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Women eligible for Vedic Sacrifices : There is ample and convincing evidence to show that women were regarded as perfectly eligible for the privilege of studying the Vedic literature and performing the sacrifices enjoined in it down to about 200 B. C. This need not surprise us, for some of the hymns of the *Rigveda* are the compositions of poetesses. Even the orthodox tradition admits that the Rigvedic collection contains hymns composed by twenty different poetesses. Viśvavārā, Sikatā Nivāvarī, Ghoshā, Romaśā, Lopāmudrā, Apālā and Urvaśī are the names of some of them. Man could perform the Vedic sacrifices only if he had his wife by his side;¹ both had to undergo a special initiation² on the occasion and take equally active part in its procedure.³ Down to the end of the Mauryan period, the housewife was expected to offer oblations in the household (*grihya*) fire unaided by the husband, normally in the evening and sometimes in the morning also.⁴ In the *srastarārohaṇa* ritual of the Agrahāyaṇa ceremony, the wife used to recite a number of Vedic hymns⁵ and the harvest sacrifices could be performed by women alone, ‘because such was the long standing custom’.⁶ From the *Rāmāyaṇa* we learn that Kauśalyā was by herself alone performing a sacrifice on the morning of her son’s proposed installation as an heir-apparent;⁷ the same was the case with Tārā when her husband Vāli was about to leave the palace to meet Sugrīva in the fateful encounter.¹ It is interesting to note that both these ladies are expressly described by the epic as *mantravid*, i. e. well grounded in the Vedic literature. We need not then wonder if we find Sītā also offering her Vedic prayer during the days of her captivity in Laṅkā.² Kuntī, the mother of Pāṇḍavas, was well-versed in the Mantras of the Atharvaveda (*Mbh.*, III. 305. 20).

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¹ अयज्ञियो वा एष योऽपत्नीकः । *S. Br.*, V. 1. 6-10 2 *T. Br.* III. 3. 3 3 या दंपती सुमनसा सुनुत आ च धावतः । देवासो नित्ययाशिरा । *R. V.*, VIII. 31 4 *Go. Gr. S.*, 1.

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³ The term *patni* denotes the special connection of the wife with her husband’s sacrifices; cf. पत्युनो यज्ञसंयोगे । *Paṇini*, IV. 1. 88 5 *P. G. S.*, III.

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² See the commentary of Harihara also. 6 स्त्रियश्चोपयजेरञ्चचरितत्वात् । *P. G. S.*, II. 20. 7 सा क्षौमवसना हृष्टा नित्यं व्रतपरायणा । अग्निं जुहोति स्म तदा मंत्रवित्कृतमंगला ॥ II. 20. 15.

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¹ ततः स्वस्त्ययनं कृत्वा मंत्रविद्विजयेषिणी । IV. 16. 12.

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² संध्याकालमनाः श्यामा ध्रुवमेष्यति जानकी । नदीं चैमां शुभजलां संध्यार्थं वरवर्णिनी ॥ V. 15. 48.

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Upanayana of Girls: No one can recite Vedic prayers or offer Vedic sacrifices without having undergone the Vedic initiation (*Upanayana*). It is, therefore, but natural that in the early period the Upanayana of girls should have been as common as that of boys. There is ample evidence to show that such was the case. The *Atharvaveda* (XI. 5. 18) expressly refers to maidens undergoing the *Brahmacharya* discipline³ and the Sūtra works of the 5th century B. C. supply interesting details in its connection. Even Manu includes Upanayana among the *saṃskāras* (rituals) obligatory for girls (II. 66). After about the beginning of the Christian era, girls' Upanayana went out of vogue, but Smṛti writers of even the 8th century A. D. like Yama admit its prevalence in the earlier age.⁴

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³ ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम् । XI. 5. 18.

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⁴ Cf. पुराकल्पे तु नारीणां मौंजीबन्धनमिष्यते । अध्यापनं च वेदानां सावित्रीवचनं तथा ॥ पिता पितृव्यो भ्राता वा नैनमध्यापयेत्परः । स्वगृहे चैव कन्याया भैक्षचर्या विधीयते ॥

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Two Classes of Girl Students :-There were no child marriages in the Vedic period ; as a rule however girls could not remain unmarried as long as boys as they had to be younger than their spouses. Majority of them used to get married at the age of 16 or 17, and only a few would prosecute their studies after that age. Girls of the former class were called *Sadyovadhūs*, and of the latter class *Brahmavādinīs*. The education of the *Sadyovadhūs* comprised the study of important Vedic hymns necessary for usual prayers and sacrifices. Music and dancing were also taught to them ; partiality of women to these arts is often referred to in the Vedic literature.¹ *Brahmavādinīs* used to marry after their education was over ; some of them like Vedavati, a daughter of sage Kuśadhvaja, would not marry at all (*Rām.*, VII. 17).

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¹ *S. Br.*, III. 2. 4. 6 observes that women can be easily won over by one who can sing and dance. Appreriation of music and dancing of course presupposes a training in them.

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Attainments of Lady Scholars :-The attainments of lady scholars, who remained unmarried for a longer time, were naturally wider and more varied. In the Vedic age, they used to acquire thorough mastery in the Vedic literature and even compose poems, some of which have been honoured by their inclusion in the sacred canon. When the Vedic lore and sacrifices became complex, a new branch of study, called *Mīmānsā*, came to be developed in their connection. Though this was a subject, drier than mathematics, we find lady scholars taking keen interest in it. Kāśakṛtsnin had composed a work on *Mīmānsā* called Kāśakṛtsnī after him ; lady students who used to specialise in it, were known as *Kāśakṛtsnā*.² If lady specialists in a technical science like *Mīmāṃsā* were so numerous as to necessitate the coining of a new special term to denote them, we can reasonably conclude that the number of women who used to receive general literary and cultural education must have been fairly large. When in the course of time the study of philosophy became popular in the Upanishadic age, women began to take keen interest in that subject also. Such was the case with Yājñavalkya’s wife Maitreyī; she was more interested in studying deeper problems of philosophy than in wearing costly jewels and apparels.¹ In the philosophical tournament held during the sacrificial session performed under the auspices of king Janaka, it is interesting to note that the subtlest philosophical question was asked by the lady philosopher Gārgī Vāchaknavī.² The question was so subtle and esoteric in character that Yājñavalkya refused to discuss it in public. The keen reasoning and subtle cross-examination of Yājñavalkya by Gārgī shows that she was a dialectician and philosopher of a high order. Ātreyī of the *Uttara-Rāma-charit* was another lady, who was studying Vedānta under Vālmiki and Agastya.³ Some lady scholars of the age like Sulabhā, Vaḍavā, Prāthiteyī, Maitreyī, and Gārgī seem to have made real contribution to the advancement of knowledge, for they enjoy the rare privilege of being included among the galaxy of distinguished scholars, to whom a daily tribute of gratitude was to be given by a grateful posterity at the time of the daily prayer (Brahmayajña).¹

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² एवमपि काशकृत्स्ना प्रोक्ता मीमांसा काशकृत्स्नी । काशकृत्स्नी-मधीते काशकृत्स्ना ब्राह्मणी । On IV, 1, 14 ; 3, 155.

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¹ *Br. Up.*, II, 4; IV, 5. Cf.—सा होवाच मैत्रेयी । येनाहं नामृता स्याम् किं तेनाहं कुर्यामिति ।

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² अनतिप्रश्न्या वै देवतामतिपृच्छसि । *Ibid.* III, 6, 1.

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³ तेभ्योऽधिगन्तुं निगमन्तविद्यां वाल्मीकिपार्श्वादिह संचरामि ।

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¹ Ās'. G. S., III. 4. 4.; S'a. G. S., IV. 10. 3.

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Effect of Buddhism on Female Education: The eventual permission, which the Buddha accorded to the admission of women to his Church, gave an impetus to the spread of education and philosophy among the ladies of the aristocratic and commercial communities. Like Brahmavādinīs, several ladies in Buddhist families also used to lead a life of celibacy, with the aim of understanding and following the eternal truths of religion and philosophy. Some of them even went outside India to countries like Ceylon and became famous there as teachers of the holy scriptures. Among the authoresses of the Therī-gāthā, who were believed to have attained salvation, 32 were unmarried women and 18 married ones. Amongst the former, Subhā, Anopamā and Sumedhā belonged to very rich familles, and are said to have been wooed by princes and rich merchants² When so large a percentage of girls was leading a life of celibacy in pursuit of religion and philosophy, it is but natural that the general average of intelligence and educatioh among them must have been fairly high.

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² Horner, Women under Primitive Buddhism, Chap. II.

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How Girls were educated: Let us now try to find out the agencies for imparting female education during this period. We have already seen that for a long time family was the only educational institution, and even boys used to receive education only from their fathers, uncles or other elders. The same naturally was the case with girls. When however later Smṛitis like Yama³ lay down that none but near relations should teach girl students, they are probably referring to a state of affairs current by about the beginning of the Christian era; for there is evidence to show that such was not the case in the earlier period. When a large number of women were receiving higher education and were making their own contributions to the march of knowledge, it is but natural to suppose that some of them must have followed the profession of teaching. And the presence of the terms *Upādhyāyā* and *Upādhyāyānī* in Sanskrit language supports this conjecture. The latter of these words is a courtesy title given to the wife of a teacher, who may or may not be educated. The former, however, denotes a lady, who was herself a teacher. That a special term should have been coined to denote lady teachers in order to distinguish them from wives of teachers would show that their number in society could not have been small. We must note in this connection that there was no Purdah custom in Hindu society down to the 12th century, and so there was no difficulty for women in taking to the teaching profession. Lady teachers may probably have confined themselves to the teaching of girl students, though some may have taught boys also. Pāṇini refers to boarding houses for lady-students, *chhātrīsālās*², and these probably were under the superintendence of *Upādhyāyās* or lady teachers, who had made teaching their profession. Unfortunately we have no clear and sufficient evidence about the activities of lady teachers and the management of girls' boardings.

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³ पिता पितृभ्यो भ्राता वा नैनामध्यापयेत् परः ।

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¹ उपेत्याधीयते अस्याः सा उपाध्याया । Patañjali on III. 822.

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² छात्रादयः शालायाम् । VI. 2. 86.

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Was there co-education? The modern reader would be anxious to know whether co-education prevailed in the past. Our sources however throw but dim light on the subject. From the *Mālatīmādhava* of Bhavabhūti, written in the 8th century A. D., we learn that the nun Kāmandakī was educated along with Bhūrivasu and Devarāta at a famous centre of education.¹ This would show that if not in Bhavabhūti's time, at least some centuries earlier, sometimes boys and girls were educated together while receiving higher education. In the *Uttara-Rāma-charit* also (of the same author) we find Ātreyī receiving her education along with Kuśa and Lava (Act II). The stories of Kahoda and Sujātā and Ruru and Pramadvarā, narrated in Purāṇas, would also point to co-education. They would further show that at a time when girls were being married at an advanced age and receiving co-education, sometimes love-marriages used to take place as a consequence of it. When however there were competent lady teachers, parents may have preferred to send their daughters to read under them; but when they were not available, they may have sent their wards to read under male teachers, and necessarily along with male students. In an age, which looked upon love marriages as nothing abnormal,² co-education need not have frightened the parents. What percentage of girls received co-education is a question which we cannot answer in the present state of our knowledge. It could not however have been very large.

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¹ अयि किं न वेत्सि यदेकत्र नो विद्यापरिग्रहाय नानादिगन्तवासिनां साहचर्यमासीत् । Act I.

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² सुखत्वादबहुक्लेशदपि चावरणादिह । अनुरागात्मकत्वाच्च गान्धर्वः प्रवरो मतः । *Kāmasūtra*, III. 5. 30 गान्धर्वमप्येके प्रशंसन्ति सर्वेषां स्नेहानुगतत्वात् । B. D. S., I. 11-13. 7

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Extent of Female Education : It is not easy to determine the extent of female education during the period we are reviewing here. Vedic literature has preserved rituals to be performed by parents anxious for the birth of scholarly daughters¹; it would therefore follow that many parents must have been anxious that their daughters should become cultured and accomplished ladies. Education of girls could not have been neglected by the ordinary well-to-do father. Upanayana ritual was also obligatory for girls, and this must have ensured the imparting of a certain amount of Vedic and literary education to the girls of all the Aryan classes. We may therefore presume that as long as Upanayana ritual was performed in the case of girls, and the custom of child marriage had not taken root in society, girls of well-to-do families must be receiving fairly good education. Such continued to be the case down to *c.* 500 B. C.

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¹ अथ य इच्छेद्दुहिता मे पंडिता जायेत सर्वमायु रियादिति तिलौदनं पाचयित्वा सर्पिष्मन्तमश्नीयाताम् । *Br. Up.*, VI, 4. 17.

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