Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Education in Ancient India c14: Appendix I. Educational Rituals

Education in Ancient India c14

Language
English

Contents

Appendix I. Educational Rituals

c14.2

Religion has deeply saturated Hindu life in almost all its phases and the sphere of education is no exception. Rituals connected with the student's life are many, and several aspects of educational theory and practice are illustrated by their study. For the benefit of advanced students of the subject, it is therefore proposed to devote this appendix to a critical survey and rationalistic interpretation of the important rituals connected with education.

Section A. Vidyārambha Ritual (Saṅskāra)

c14.s1.2

¹ The original authorities for the information given in this section are the following:—*Viramitrodaya*, Saṅskāraprakāśa, pp. 321 ff; Aparārka on *Yājñavalkya-smrti*, I, 13; *Smritichandrikā*, Saṅskārakāṇḍa, pp. 67 ff; *Saṅskāra-ratna-mālā* of Gopīnāthabhaṭṭa.

c14.s1.3

Its Time and Nature: Vidyārambha Saṅskāra, which is described by some authorities also as Aksharasvikaraṇa, was performed, as the name would suggest, at the commencement of the primary education. Fifth year, which is usually regarded as suitable for the beginning of the primary education, was the time prescribed for it.² If the ritual had to be postponed on account of unavoidable difficulties, it had to be performed at least before the Upanayana (Initiation or Thread Ceremony).³ An auspicious day was selected for the purpose. The ritual was a simple one, requiring the young boy to worship Sarasvatī, the goddess of learning, Vināyaka, the god of learning, and the tutelary deities of his family. Some authorities prescribe a sacrifice, but probably it was not performed everywhere. The worship of the deities was followed by that of the primary teacher and the boy was then handed over to him. The teacher used to make the boy write on rice all the alphabets with the help of a specially prepared golden or silver pen. Suitable presents made to the teacher and the Brahmanas invited for the ceremony marked the termination of the ritual.

c14.s1.4

² The Bismilla Khani ceremony, which the Muslims perform at the beginning of the primary education, is also performed in the 5th year, or to be more correct, on the 4th day of the fourth month of the fifth year. It was performed on this day in the case of Humayun; J.A.S.B., 1935, p. 249.

c14.s1.5

³ द्वितीयजन्मनः पूर्वमारमेताक्षरासुन्धीः । Brihaspati in *VMS*.

c14.s1.6

The Ritual non-existent in early Times : Why : Vidyārambha is thus the earliest Saṃskāra in the student’s life, but is does not, like Upanayana, go back to hoary antiquity. The authorities, which prescribe and describe this ritual, are as late as the second millenium of the Christian era.¹ It appears indeed very strange that the earlier works like the Grihya-sūtras and the Dharma-sūtras, which have laid down rituals for such relatively insignificant occasions like *Grihya-nishkramana* (when the child is first taken out from the house), and *anna-prāśana* (when it is first given food), should have failed to associate the commencement of the primary education with any religious ceremony. The reason, however, is not far to seek. Upanayana Saṃskāra, which existed even in the Vedic age, marked the beginning of education in pre-historic times. There was thus no necessity to prescribe a different Saṃskāra like *aksharasvīkarana* (learning of the alphabet) for the simple reason that the alphabet was then probably unknown.²

c14.s1.7

¹ Viśvāmitra, Brihaspati, Mārkandeya, etc., who are quoted by these authorities, cannot be much earlier, as would be clear from the astronomical details mentioned by them. Such details make their appearance only after the 7th or the 8th century A.D.

c14.s1.8

² The view of Dr. Bühler and others that alphabet was not known in India before c. 800 B.C. has now to be abandoned in view of

c14.s1.9

The education of children therefore naturally commenced not with the learning of the alphabets, but with the memorising of the sacred hymns, which were the most valued possession of the Aryans and constituted almost their entire literature. Under these circumstances, the Upanayana, which was prescribed at the commencement of the Vedic studies, could be the only ritual to be performed at the commencement of education.

c14.s1.10

When and Why Evolved : In the course of time the Vedic Sanskrit ceased to be the spoken language, the sciences of exegesis and grammar were developed, and the art of writing was invented or became known. Even the memorising of the Vedic hymns required some previous elementary education. Upanayana could therefore no longer mark the beginning of education and a different ritual called Vidyārambha began to be recommended for the commencement of primary education. This must have taken place at a fairly early date; the fact that the ritual is recommended only by very late authorities is probably to be explained by the circumstance that it was for a long time combined with chaula or tonsure ceremony,¹ This combination was

c14.s1.11

¹ Cf. i वृत्तचौलकर्मा लिपिं संख्यानं चोपयुञ्जीत । Arthaśāstra, I. 2 [On prince's education]. ii स वृत्तचौलश्चलकाकपक्षरैर्भात्यपुत्रैः सबयोभिरन्वितः । लिपेर्यथावद्ग्रहणेन वाङ्मयं नदीमुखेनेव समुद्रमाविशत् ॥ Raghū. III. 7. iii [ लवकुशयोः ] निवृत्तचौलकर्मोथ तयोर्द्वयोरमितराशितो विद्याःसावधानिन मनसा परिनिष्ठापिताः । Uttararāmacharit, Act II.

c14.s1.12

(Continued from the last page) the Indus Valley discoveries. There is clear cultural evidence to show that the art of writing was known in the later Saṁhitā period (c. 1600-1200 B.C.); see Ojha, Prāchīna-lipi-mālā, pp. 1-16. There is no evidence to show that the art of writing was known in the early Vedic period (2500-2000 B.C.). The Aryans were probably ignorant of that art when they entered India and it may be eventually proved that they learnt it from the "Indus people."

c14.s1.13

facilitated by the fact that the time for the ritual, the 4th to the 7th year, was suitable also for the commencement of primary education. The number and nature of the locks of hair to be kept at the time of the tonsure ceremony had close connection with the Vedic sages with whom the family was believed to be connected¹; this may also have suggested a synchronisation of the commencement of primary education with the celebration of the *chaula-karma*.

c14.s1.14

¹ Cf. यथर्षि शिखां विदधाति । *A. G. S.*, XVI, 6: दक्षिणे कपर्दो वसिष्ठानां उभयतोऽत्रिभार्गवकाश्यपानां पंचचूडा आंगिरसाम् । *V.G.S.*, section 4.

Section B. Upanayana (Initiation) Ritual

c14.s2.2

² The popular English translation of the name of the ritual by 'Thread Ceremony' does not convey its real meaning at all. The wearing of the sacred thread was quite a minor element in the ritual.

c14.s2.3

Upanayana, its Meaning and Significance

c14.s2.4

Upanayana literally means taking a student to a teacher in order to hand him over to the latter for his education. The ritual was originally performed when a student commenced his Vedic education under the supervision of a teacher, with whom he usually lived. It was not an obligatory ritual; if a student was unfit by character or calibre to receive the Vedic education, he was not admitted to its privilege.³ If, on the other hand, during the course of his education, he had to go to a different teacher, the ritual had to be repeated. Nay, it was felt that it should be performed again even in the case of married men, if they wanted to prosecute further studies under a new teacher.¹ It was thus essentially an educational ritual and bore some resemblance to the formality of the admission procedure in modern schools and colleges. In the course of time, however its significance changed. It was felt necessary that the services of the whole Aryan community should be conscripted for the preservation of the Vedic literature which had grown to considerable dimensions in the course of centuries ; Upanayana and Vedic studies were therefore made obligatory for all. If it was not performed in time, it was declared that the person would lose his Aryan status and become unfit for marriage and social intercourse. This threat no doubt helped the spread of Vedic learning and gave an impetus to primary education, which was in later times presupposed by Vedic studies; but it also tended to transform this educational function into a bodily (*śārīrika*) ritual. It began to be argued that it should be performed even in the case of dumb and deaf persons in order to render them eligible for marriage.² Some late Smṛti writers felt that the ritual was primarily for the purification of the body; they have therefore recommended that it should be repeated in case the body is defiled by the bite of a

c14.s2.5

³ अश्रद्धामदष्टकर्मणामुपानयनम् । *Ap. Gr. S.*, 1.1.5. विद्या ह वै ब्राह्मणमाजगाम गोपाय मां शेवधिष्टेऽहमस्मि । असूयकायानुजवेऽयताय न मा ब्रूया वीर्यवती तथा स्याम् ॥ *Nirukta*, II. 4.1.

c14.s2.6

¹ *Ch. Up.* V. II. Here, as a special case, King Aśvapati excu the formality of Upanayana before beginning to teach his distinguished Brahmana pupils. The latter, however, had come ready for the Upanayana. Cf.:—

c14.s2.7

² See *VMS*, p. 361. The difficulty created by the impossibility of the recitation of Vedic hymns by a deaf and dumb person was got over by the theory that they may be recited by the teacher on behalf of the dumb student. बटुपठनीयानां मंत्राणामाचार्य प्रत्यैव पाठो विधीयते । *Ibid.* Some writers like Śankha-Likhita however did not agree with this view; cf. नोन्मत्तसूकान्संस्कुर्यात् । Quoted in *VMS*., p. 406

c14.s2.8

ते ह समित्पाणयः पूर्वाह्णे प्रतिचक्रमिरे । तान्हानुपनीयैव एतदुवाच ।

c14.s2.9

dog or a jackal.¹ And if the holy Brahmana can be rendered holier by this Sanskāra, why should it fail to perform a similar miracle in the case of other inanimate objects? In medieval times the custom therefore arose of performing this ceremony over the holy Pippal tree in order to make it holier.² All these, however, are later anomalies that crept into society when the original purpose of Upanayana was being gradually forgotten.

c14.s2.10

² An inscription from Karnatak refers to a Brahmana, performing this ceremony on the four Aśvatha trees planted by him in a temple garden in 1358 A.D. E.C., III, Malavalli No. 28.

c14.s2.11

Its Antiquity: The antiquity of this ritual goes back to prehistoric times. It existed in the Indo-Iranian period and is clearly presupposed by the Rigveda [X. 109, 5; III. 8. 4 and 5]. The Atharvaveda describes it in detail and attributes the proper functioning of society and nature to its mysterious efficacy.³ Details about the student's life and paraphernalia, more or less similar to those given in Smritis, are to be seen in several passages of the Brāhmaṇa literature.⁴ In the early period, the ritual was a simple one; even a verbal acceptance by the teacher was sufficient.⁵ For a long time the father himself acted as the teacher (Br. Up., V. 2.¹; VI. 2.9).

c14.s2.12

¹ Cf. Śātātapa, Paiṭhīnasi and Yama quoted in VMS., p. 545-7.

c14.s2.13

³ ब्रह्मचर्येण तपसा राजा राष्ट्रं विरक्षति । XI. 5. 17. ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम् । XI. 5. 18. ब्रह्मचर्येण तपसा देवा मृत्युमपाघ्नत । XI. 5. 19. स दाधार पृथिवीं दिवं च ॥ XI. 5. 1. See also, VI: 138.

c14.s2.14

⁴ Tai. S., VI, 3; 10, 5; Śat. Br., XI, 5, 4, (here we have a detailed description of the Upanayana); Go. Br., I. 2, 1-8 (here we have several interesting reasons for the different rules of Brahmacharya).

c14.s2.15

⁵ वाचा ह स्मैव पूर्वमुपयति । Br. Up., VI. 2.7.

c14.s2.16

Who were eligible for it? Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were eligible for the Upanayana and Vedic study. They are collectively called Dvijas, because they were all believed to get a second birth, a spiritual one, at the time of the Upanayana. When the ritual became obligatory, it seems to have been regularly performed by all these castes for several centuries. Smritis give detailed rules about the different kinds of girdles, staffs, sacred threads, etc. which were prescribed for the members of the various castes. Details about these minor variations would not have been evolved if the ritual had not been a general one among the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas. In the course of time, however, Vedic studies fell into background, partly owing to the setback which the Vedic religion received by the rise of the Upanishadic, Jain and Buddhist movements, and partly by the development of other branches of knowledge in the Hindu community itself. Upanayana then began to fall into disuetude among the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas, with whose professions in subsequent life Vedic studies were but remotely connected. This happened at about the beginning of the Christian era, when the theory that only the Brahmanas and Shudras exist in the Kali age seems to have gained ascendancy¹. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas

c14.s2.17

¹ Bhāsa (3rd century A. D.) and Daṇḍin (7th century A. D.) regarded the sacred thread as an insignia of a Brahmana and not of a Dvija. Cf :—

c14.s2.18

यज्ञोपवीतेन ब्राह्मणश्वीवरेण रक्तपटः । *Avimāraka*, Act V.
भवदंसोपनीतं यज्ञोपवीतं भुसुरभावं द्योतयति ।
*Daśakumāracarit*, 2nd Chap.

c14.s2.19

Cf also *Raghuvamśa*, XI, 64.

c14.s2.20

An inscription however shows that the Upanayana of the Hoysala King Narasimha III, who was a Kshatriya, took place in his 9th year on 25-2-1255. It appears that even when the ritual had gone out of vogue among the Kshatriyas in general, it continued among the royal families.

c14.s2.21

were levelled down to the position of the Shudras, primarily because they were not performing the Upanayana ceremony and wearing the Sacred Thread. Probably in respectable Kshatriya ruling families, the ritual continued to be performed down to the 13th century, but their number was very small. The testimony of Alberuni (I, p. 125) shows that the Vedic education had practically died down among the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas before the 11th century A.D. In the earlier centuries of the Christian era, the ritual was performed by these castes as an unmeaning formality, as is the case with the Brahmanas now. Later on it was discontinued. It may be noted in this connection that it was not without difficulty that Shivaji could succeed in getting a Brahmana Pandit from Benares, ready to perform the Upanayana for him at the age of 44.

c14.s2.22

The Age at the Upanayana : The Upanayana marks the beginning of the Vedic education, which in several respects resembled the secondary education of modern times. Naturally therefore some age between 8 and 12 was regarded as suitable for it. Usually our texts prescribe that the Upanayana should be performed in the 8th year in the case of a Brahmana, in the 11th year in the case of a Kshatriya and in the 12th year in the case of a Vaishya. No particular sanctity was attached to these ages¹; for, some writers like Baudhayana regard any age between 8 and 16 as suitable for the Upanayana². There was no idea of emphasising the intellectual superiority of the Brahmanas¹, when a lower age was prescribed for their Upanayana. Family traditions in Brahmanical circles facilitated Vedic educatiou at an early age; such was not the case with Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. Brahmana boys could very often begin their Vedic education at home; Kshatriya and Vaishya boys had necessarily to leave their families and go to a Brahmana teacher for that purpose; the age of 11 or 12, when boys are to some extent able to look after themselves, was therefore found convenient for them. It is interesting to note that the Brahmana boy Svetaketu also performed his Upanayana at the age 12 and immediately went to stay with his preceptor for prosecuting his education (Ch. Up. VI. 1-2). It would therefore appear that even in Brahmanical families, the Upanayana was postponed to a later age when it was to be followed by the separation of the boy from his family. It is the similar necessity of sending the boys outside to a town or a city that compels villagers of our time to begin their wards' secondary education at about the age of 11 or 12. In cultured Brahmana families, which were very keen about the quick progress of their sons, the tradition was to perform the Upanayana and begin the Vedic studies even earlier than the 8th year². This practice is similar to that of many well-to-do and cultured city families, which begin the secondary or English education of their wards at about the age of 6 or 7. Smritis have therefore naturally given much latitude about the age at the Upanayana in order to suit the circumstances and convenience of the different types of families in society¹. They however felt that it ought to begin at about the age of 12, for the powers of mind that were required for the Vedic studies could be properly cultivated and developed only at an early age. The commencement of the Vedic studies after the age of 16 has been definitely discouraged by them,² for it was rightly apprehended that a boy who begins his studies at such an advanced age may find them too tedious, his mind having already become susceptible to sensuous attractions.

c14.s2.23

¹ The selection of these particular ages seems to have been due to the rather fortuitous circumstance of the syllables of each line of the Savitri Mantras of these castes being 8, 11 and 12 respectively. Cf. ब्राह्मणादिवर्णसंबंधिनां छंदसां पादाक्षरसंख्यैरब्दैरुपणयनस्य विधेः ( कार्य- वात् ) । Medhatithi on Manu, II. 38. Cf. also VMS., p. 344.

c14.s2.24

² अष्टमे आयुष्यकामं नवमे तेजस्कामं....त्रयोदशे मेधाकामं चतुर्दशे [ष्टिकामं....षोडशे सर्वकामम् । Bau. Gr. S., II. 5. 5.

c14.s2.25

¹ As supposed by Keay (p. 29) and Das (p. 72).

c14.s2.26

² सप्तमे ब्राह्मणमुपनयीत पंचमे ब्रह्मवर्चसकामम् । J. Gr, S., I. 12. Cf. also G. D. S., 1. 1. 7; M. Gr. S., 1. 22. 1; Vâ. Gr. S., 6.

c14.s2.27

¹ A child of 6 or 7 could not recite with proper accent and pronunciation even the Sāvitri verse; so it was recommended that in the cases of very early Upanayanas, the teaching of this Mantra should be postponed by about a year; Cf. तां ह स्मैतां पुरा संवत्सरे अन्वाहुः संवत्सरसंमिता वै गर्भाः। S. Br. XI. It may be noted in this connection that at a time when there was a prejudice against committing the Vedic texts to writing and when grammar had not been evolved, not much preparation by way of primary education was necessary for commencing Vedic studies. They could therefore be begun even at the early age of 6 or 7.

c14.s2.28

² नातिषोडशर्षमुपनयीत प्रसृष्टवृषणो ह्येष वृषलीभूतो भवति। J. Gr. S., 1. 12. The upper limit of 22 and 24 permitted for the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas is due simply to the doubling of their normal age. The readiness of Mitramisra, a 17th century writer, to permit Upanayana upto the age of 24, 33 and 36 seems to be due to the exigencies of the age, when some persons like Shivaji were performing the ritual, when reminded about it, or when it became absolutely necessary. VMS., 351.

c14.s2.29

Critical Survey of the Ritual: An educationalist will find the survey of the Upanayana ritual very interesting and instructive. The ritual opens with a breakfast (which precedes even the bath), during which it is the custom in many parts of the country for the boy to share food with his mother in the same dish. A breakfast before bath is unusual in Hindu rituals

c14.s2.30

It is interesting to note that Smṛitis do not lay down any detailed rules about the astrological auspiciousness of the day of the Upanayana. These were introduced in medieval times.

c14.s2.31

and its occurrence at the Upanayana was obviously intended to indicate that the earlier period of unregulated childhood had come to an end and that serious and disciplined life was now to follow. Breakfast was followed by a shave,—an invariable element in most of the Hindu religious observances. The boy was then given a bath and offered a Kaupīna¹. This was to remind him that the Upanayana commenced a new epoch in his life from which dignity, decorum and self-restraint could never be separated. A girdle (mekhalā) was tied round his waist as a support for Kaupīna. It was made of triple cord, the symbolism being intended to foster the belief in the scholar that he was being continuously encircled by the three Vedas². The verses recited on the occasion of tying the girdle informed the boy that his belt was a daughter of Faith (Śraddhā) and a sister of the sages, possesed the power of protecting his purity and chastity and would keep him away from evil³. Hindu ideas of decorum required that when engaged in religious duties, the upper part of the body should be covered with a piece of cloth⁴. On the occasion of the Upanayana the young scholar was therefore offered an upper garment. In the earliest period, when spinning and weaving were probably unknown, a deer-skin was offered on the occasion. The youth was asked to remember that the lovely deerskin is symbolical of brahmavarchasam or spiritual and intellectual preeminence and that its constant use ought to urge him to attain reputation as a man of character and scholarship¹. When spinning and weaving became common, a piece of cloth was offered to the boy on this occasion, spun and woven in his own family just before the ceremony². A survey of the Gṛihya-sūtras, which describe the Upanayana ritual in detail, shows that the investiture with the Sacred Thread did not form part of the Upanayana ritual. The upper garment that was offered to the boy was in lieu of the Sacred Thread or rather its predecessor. This will be shown in the Appendix D, where the whole history of the Sacred Thread and its significance will be discussed in details.

c14.s2.32

¹ Kaupīna denotes the small strip of cloth used by children to cover their private parts. It was usually discontinued at about the age of 12 when the boy was required to wear the full dhoti. Cf. Asvalāyana quoted in VMS., p. 432

c14.s2.33

² वेदत्रयेणावृतोहमिति मन्येत स द्विजः । अश्वलायन in VMS., p. 432

c14.s2.34

³ श्रद्धाया दुहिता तपसोधिजाता स्वसा ऋषीणां भूतकृतां बभूव । A. V., VI. 138. 4. ऋतस्य गोप्त्री तपसश्चरित्री घ्नी रक्षांसि सहमानाऽरातीः । Vā. Gr. S. 5.

c14.s2.35

⁴ स्नानं दानं तपो होमः स्वाध्यायः पितृतर्पणम् । नैकवस्त्रो द्विजः कुर्याच्छ्राद्धभोजनसक्रियाः ॥ Yogayājñavalkya in SCS., p. 299

c14.s2.36

¹ G. Br., I. 2. 1-3

c14.s2.37

² वासः सथःकृतवोत्ं । B. Gr. S., II. 5. 11

c14.s2.38

Presentation to Deities : Invested with the above paraphernalia, the boy was taken to the sacred fire, the earliest Indo-European deity known so far. He was asked to offer a samidh (a piece of sacred fuel) to the gleaming fire and the verses recited on the occasion prayed that God Fire should be auspicious to the young scholar and endow him with brilliance, intelligence and vigour³, so that his scholarship and strength should glow up like the resplendent flame of fire. In order to intensify his piety, the boy was then presented to a number of Vedic deities like Bhaga, Yama, Aryamā and Savitri. The last mentioned god was charged with the special duty of protecting the student from harm, disease and death¹. When this presentation was over, the teacher assured his pupil that he was thenceforward under divine protection²; fortified by that consciousness, he should push forth his studies without any apprehensions.

c14.s2.39

³ Cf. अयं ते इध्म आत्मा जातवेदः तेन वर्द्धस्व चेन्द्ध वर्द्धय चास्मान् । Bh. Gr. S., 1. 5.

c14.s2.40

¹ Cf. देव सवितरेष ते ब्रह्मचारी स मा मृत । Aś. Gr. S., I, 20, 6

c14.s2.41

² Śat Br., XI. 5, 4, 3.

c14.s2.42

Standing on Stone : The next element in the ritual is a symbolical one; the boy was asked to stand on a stone and enjoined to be steadfast in the pursuit of his studies³. Firm determination and singleness of purpose are most essential for a successful educational career and the necessity of cultivating them was emphasised on the scholar’s mind by this element in the ritual.

c14.s2.43

³ Ma. Gr. S., I. 22. 12. Stone was also symbolical of strength: Bh. G. S. held that the significance of the ritual was to make the boy invulnerable. I. 8.

c14.s2.44

Acceptance by the Teacher : The scholar was then brought before his teacher who asked him whose Brahmachārin⁴ (student) he was. The young boy naturally replied to the preceptor that he was the latter’s disciple. The preceptor then used to correct him and asked him to note that he was the pupil of gods Indra and Agni, the most popular and powerful among the Vedic deities⁵. When formally taking charge of the pupil by seizing his right hand, the teacher used to announce that he was doing so with the command and concurrence of God Savitṛi.⁶ The teacher then touched the heart of his pupil and prayed that there should be a perpetual and perfect accord between them.¹ All this was intended to emphasise that the relations between the teacher and the pupil were sacred and not mercenary and progress in education was possible only if there was complete harmony, sympathy and whole-hearted communion between the teacher and the taught.

c14.s2.45

⁴ Brahma originally meant prayer; the original meaning of Brahmacharya was thus the period of study of the sacred prayers or the Vedic Mantras. Since chastity was usually observed in this period, the term came to acquire the secondary sense of a period of chastity as well. Brahmachārin was one who followed Brahmacharya discipline.

c14.s2.46

⁵ Cf. कस्य त्वं ब्रह्मचार्यसि । भवत इत्युच्यमाने इन्द्रस्य ब्रह्मचार्यसि ममिराचार्यस्तव अहमाचार्यस्तव । Pā. Gr. S., II, 3.

c14.s2.47

⁶ Aś. Gr. S., I. 20, 4.

c14.s2.48

¹ H Gr. S., 1. 5. 11.

c14.s2.49

Teaching and Significance of the Savitri (Gayatri) Mantra: Then followed the actual initiation of the student in the Vedic studies, which was done by teaching him a prayer to the sun (Sāvitrī-mantra); this is popularly known as Gāyatrī-mantra on account of its metre. This prayer, which every student and householder had to recite morning and evening, runs as follows:—

c14.s2.50

Tat savitur vareṇyām bhargo devasya dhīmahi Dhiyo yo naḥ prachodayāt.²

c14.s2.51

² Early authorities like Pā. Gr. S., II. 3. 10 prescribe the same prayer to the sun for the students of all the castes. Later writers begin to prescribe a different Mantra for the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas, probably influenced by the theory that Triṣṭubh metre is appropriate for the Kshatriya and the Jagatī for the Vaishya. The tradition however is not unanimous about these Mantras and may be taken to be unreliable as far as the early period is concerned. The following Mantras are prescribed by different authorities for the Kshatriya :—

c14.s2.52

आ कृष्णेन रजसा वर्तमानो निवेशयन्नमृतं मर्त्यं च ।
हिरण्येन सविता रथेन देवो याति भुवनानि पश्यन् ॥
(According to Medhātithi on Manu, II. 38)

c14.s2.53

हिरण्यपाणिः सविता विचर्षणिरुभे द्यावापृथिवी अंतरीयते ।
अयामीवां बाधते वेति सूर्यमभि कृष्णेन रजसा द्यामृणोति ॥
(According to Nārāyaṇa on S. Gr. S.. II. 5)

c14.s2.54

The Mantras for the Vaishyas are said to be the following:—

c14.s2.55

विश्वा रूपाणि प्रतिमुंचते कविः प्रासावीद्भद्रं द्विपदे चतुष्पदे ।
वि नाकमाख्यत्सविता वरेण्योऽनु प्रयाणमुषो विराजति ॥
(According to Medhātithi on Manu II. 38, Satātapa and Laugākṣi quoted in V.M.S., p. 430 and Aparārka on Yāj I. 15)

c14.s2.56

The prayer made to the sun in this Mantra is quite appropriate for the student to whom it was first taught. For a successful and brilliant career, what is most essential for the student is the possession of an efficient intellect. Health, wealth, good memory are all desirable, but more important than them all is an energetic and stimulating intellect; it is the power conferred by the latter that has enabled man to establish his supremacy over the Nature. It is therefore quite appropriate that the prayer offered by every Aryan, morning and evening, should urge the sun to endow him with a brilliant intellect, and also to give a proper stimulus to it. Mere intellect is not

c14.s2.57

युंजते मन उत युंजते धियः विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः ।
वि होत्रा दधे वयुनाविदेक इन्मही देवस्य सवितुः परिष्टुतिः ॥
(According to Āś. Gr. S., III. 7 and Vā. Gr. S., 6)
हंसः शुचिषद्वसुरन्तरिक्षसद्धोता वेदिषदतिथिर्दुरोणसत् ।
नृषद्वरसदृतसद्व्योमसदब्जा गोजा ऋतजा अद्रिजा ऋतम् ॥
(According to Nārāyaṇa on Manu, II. 38)

c14.s2.58

1. We have seen above how the Gāyatrī Mantra is naturally very appropriate for the student and the householder. It was later regarded as the very essence of the Vedas, and so quite mysterious meaning began to be read in it. Compare for instance the view of Bṛhat-Parāśara, IV. 77-77 :—

c14.s2.59

तत्प्रकृतिः स स्वांतं विकारो बुद्धिरेव च । तुरित्येतदहंकारं वशब्दं विद्धि पापहम् ॥ रेस्पर्शं तु णि रूपं च यं रसं गंधमत्र भम् । गौ श्रोत्रं दे त्वचं वै व चक्षुः स्य रसता तथा ॥ धी नासा च म वाचा च हि हस्तौ ध्रि च पादद्वयम् । यो उपस्थ मुखं योऽन्यो नः खं प्रकारमारुतम् ॥ चे। तेजो द् जलं याक्ष्मा गायत्र्यास्त्वचितनम् ॥

c14.s2.60

So also about the significance of the Vyāhṛti letters, Kūrmapurāṇa, uttarārdha, 14, 58 and Ādi-Purāṇa, Ādi, 58. 54-5 maintain that they denote Pradhāna, Puruṣa and Kāla; or Viṣṇu, Brahmā and Maheśa; or Satva, Rajas and Tamas respectively. Cf. प्रधानं पुरुषः कालो विष्णुर्ब्रह्मा महेश्वरः । सत्वं रजस्तमस्त्वः क्रमाद् व्याहृतयः स्मृताः । sufficient if it has no capacity to receive proper stimulation. The prayer is offered to the sun because he was regarded as the one and universal source of stimulation for both the animate and the inanimate world.

c14.s2.61

Investiture with Staff; Its Significance :—With the learning of the Gāyatrī Mantra, the student begins his journey on the road to knowledge; he was therefore invested with a staff, which was a traveller's symbol in olden days. While accepting it, the student prayed that with divine grace he may reach the goal of his arduous journey¹. The staff exhorted the student to become a careful watchman, charged with the duty of guarding the Vedas.² It served the purpose of making the student self-confident and self-reliant, when he was out in the forest to collect the sacred fuel, or travelling in darkness or entering an unknown river or tank.³ It was also useful in controlling the cattle of the teacher, if it was necessary for the student to look after them.

c14.s2.62

¹ Ma. Gr., S., 1. 22. 11.

c14.s2.63

² Vā. Gr. S., 6.

c14.s2.64

³ Aparārka on I. 29.

c14.s2.65

Ceremonial Begging :—The student was expected to maintain himself by begging cooked food everyday; so the practice commenced on the day of the Upanayana. The begging on the first day however was a ceremonial affair, for the boy was to approach only such persons as would not refuse his request. He would therefore first go to his mother and then her sister and then other relatives. In the modern Upanayana ritual this ceremonial begging has assumed the proportions of an imposing and stately procession, wending its way through the main thoroughfares of the town or village.

c14.s2.66

Medhajanana Ritual :—For three days after the Upanayana, the student was said to remain in an embryonic condition; it was on the fourth day that his spiritual birth took place. The preceptor, who was now in the position of the father, then performed the Medhājanana ritual for sharpening the memory, intellect and grasping power of the student. Prayer was offered that the student should be favoured with an intelligence as attractive as cows, as vigorous as studs and as brilliant as the solar rays; it should be equally effective in mechanical, material and spiritual spheres.¹ Medhājanana ritual marked the termination of the Upanayana ceremony.

c14.s2.67

¹ त्वं नो मेधे प्रथमा गोभिरश्वेभिरागहि । त्वं सूर्यस्य रश्मिभिस्त्वं नो असि यज्ञिया ॥ यां मेधामृमवो विदुर्या मेधामसुरा विदुः । ऋषयो भद्रां मेधां यां विदुस्तां मय्या वेशयामसि ॥ A. V., VI 108, 1, 3.

c14.s2.68

Significance of the ritual :—At the time when the significance of the Upanayana ritual and Mantras was perfectly grasped, a very powerful impression must have been produced on the mind of all the parties participating in the ceremony through the various suggestions conveyed to them by the different elements in the ritual. The ritual heralded the beginning of a new epoch in the student's life, characterised by dignity, decorum and discipline. The scholar was to regard himself as a self-reliant traveller bound for the realm of knowledge; the journey was to be long and arduous, but if there was singleness of purpose, devotion to studies and perfect accord between him and his teachers, he would

c14.s2.69

त्वं नो मेधे प्रथमा गोभिरश्वेभिरागहि ।
त्वं सूर्यस्य रश्मिभिस्त्वं नो असि यज्ञिया ॥
यां मेधामृमवो विदुर्या मेधामसुरा विदुः ।
ऋषयो भद्रां मेधां यां विदुस्तां मय्या वेशयामसि ॥

c14.s2.70

A. V., VI 108, 1, 3.

c14.s2.71

Ribhus were famous for their mechanical skill and Asuras for their material civilization.

c14.s2.72

surely reach his goal. For, divine help and co-operation were enlisted on his behalf; even death could not touch him if he properly followed the rules of his order (S. Br., XI. 2. 6; B. D. S., I. 3). His personality will develop like that of Indra and his intelligence will glow up like the refulgent flame of God Fire. He will find nothing relating to his literary goal impossible if he worked with faith, assiduousness and determination. What better ideas can be conveyed to a young scholar at the beginning of his education?

Section C. Rituals during the College Session

c14.s3.2

Introduction :—Rituals were naturally prescribed at the beginning and at the end of the annual school session, as they were at the beginning and at the end of the educational course. In pre-historic times the annual session of schools and colleges began soon after the commencement of the rainy season, when the sowing operations were over and crops had began to sprout. This usually happened by the full moon day of Śrāvaṇa¹ (August); so the ritual of Chhandasām-upākarman i. e. of ‘gathering the Vedic knowledge’, was performed on that day. Later on it began to be described as Śrāvaṇī². In pre-historic times Vedic literature was not extensive; so a college term of about five or six months was found to be sufficient for mastering it. The ritual of *Chhandasām-utsarjana*, i. e. the cessation of Vedic studies, was therefore performed on the full moon day of Pausha or Māgha (February-March). In later times when the Vedic literature became very extensive, and more branches of learning were developed like grammar, philology, logic, philosophy and Dharmaśāstra, the duration of the annual term was extended over practically the whole year. Curiously enough, owing to the force of the established tradition, the Utsarjana ceremony still continued to be performed in February or March, though the college studies did not cease at that time. At present the ritual is not performed at its proper time but combined with the Upākarma ritual. This practice goes back to medieval times.

c14.s3.3

¹ The full moon days of Āṣādha, Śrāvaṇa and Bhādrapada are mentioned by different authorities as appropriate days for Upākarma. (Cf. Bau. Gr. S., III. 1. 2-3; Kh. Gr. S., III, 2, 14; Hi. Gr. S., II, 18, 1). Rainy season is receding back every century and it commences in different months in different provinces of India. Hence this divergence about the appropriate season for Upākarma.

c14.s3.4

² Śrāvaṇī is a relatively modern name for the ritual. In early times it denoted the Nāga worship ritual performed on the full moon day of Śrāvaṇa; when this ritual went out of vogue, the name was transferred to the Chhandasām-Upākarma ritual, because that too was usually performed on the same day.

c14.s3.5

Upakarma or Sravani; its Significance :—The statement that Śrāvaṇī denotes a ritual performed at the beginning of the college session may appear fanciful to the modern Hindu, who is accustomed to associate it with the annual replacement of the sacred thread, but there is ample and clear evidence to justify it. Our authorities declare that the ritual was to be performed only by the teacher along with his students when they had reassembled at the beginning of the session¹. It was believed that the presiding teacher would get in the course of time as many students as was the number of sesasums offered as oblations in this ritual²; some texts lay down special formulas to be performed by teachers ambitious to have a large number of scholars¹. In some places there was the custom requiring the teacher to give a feast to his students on the day of Śrāvaṇī². It would thus be clear that the ritual of Śrāvaṇī was originally confined only to teachers and students and was performed on the opening day of the annual session.

c14.s3.6

¹ अध्येष्यमाणः अध्याप्यैरन्वारब्ध········। *Āś. Gr. S.*, 3.4.10. समारब्धेऽन्तेवासिषु·······उपाकर्म कुर्वीत। सहान्तेवासिभिः प्रामाद्‌विनिष्क्रम्य·······उत्सर्जनविधिः। *Bau. Gr. S.*, III. 1. 3. ff.

c14.s3.7

² स सावन्तं गणमिच्छेतान्‌सतिलाताण्डुलफलकेन जुहुयात्‌। *P. Gr. S.*, II. 10.

c14.s3.8

¹ अन्तेवासिनां योगमिच्छन्नथ जपति....। Vā. Gr. S., 7.

c14.s3.9

² सब्रह्मचारिणश्च उपसमेतान्भोजयेदाचार्यः J. Gr. S., I. 14.

c14.s3.10

Prevention of Wastage in Education :—Later on, however, it came to be prescribed for the whole community primarily to prevent wastage in education. We are all aware how a large number of students lose their study habits and forget a good deal of what they had learnt in their schools and colleges, when they settle down as householders pursuing their own professions. The same thing happened in the past. It was however regarded as a serious disaster in ancient times, as the modern facilities of books and libraries were then non-existent. In the course of time therefore educationalists began to feel that steps must be taken to ensure that even householders would set apart some time in the year for revising their studies. Some of them, like Śvetaketu, advocated that they should be asked to spend two months every year in their old colleges for this purpose. The majority however felt that it is impracticable to suggest to householders that they should give up their professions for two months every year in order to keep themselves in touch with their studies³. They therefore proposed that the monsoon time should be devoted to the task of revising their studies. They could easily do this at home, if they only would set apart a little time for the work every day. It was therefore decided to lay it down that householders also should join the students in the Śrāvaṇī ritual and take a vow to revise their studies. Students performing the Śrāvaṇī were to prosecute their studies at their schools and colleges; householders taking part in it were to revise them at home, devoting special time for the purpose and observing the rules of the student-life as far as practicable¹.

c14.s3.11

³ निवेशे वृत्ते संवत्सरे द्वौ द्वौ मासौ समाहितः आचार्यकुले वसेद्वयः श्रुतमिच्छन्निति श्वेतकेतुः । एतेन ह्यहं योगेन भूयः पूर्वस्माच्छ्रुत मकरवमिति । तच्छास्त्रैर्विप्रतिषिद्धम् । निवेशे हि वृत्ते नैयामिकानि श्रूयन्ते । Ā. D. S., I. 1. 2. 12.

c14.s3.12

¹ न मांसमश्रीयाच्च श्राद्धम् । न लोमानि संहारयेत् । न स्त्रियमुपेयात्तौ जायामुपेयात् । J. Gr. S., Upākarma section.

c14.s3.13

Sravani Ritual; Its Critical Survey:—When it is remembered that Śrāvaṇī was a ritual performed by teachers and students at the beginning of the college session, and by others at the onset of the monsoon when the annual period of revision of studies commenced, we can well anticipate its nature and details. The ritual differed with different Vedic schools,² but there is one central idea common to them all, viz., on the opening day, Vedic and sacrificial deities should be offered oblations, presiding deities over intellect, memory and imagination should be propitiated, and a tribute of gratefulness should be paid to the intellectual giants of the past, who have enriched the national literature. It was a very happy idea indeed to remind the students of the deep debt of gratitude they all owed to the literary celebrities of the past on the very opening day of the session. When they paid tribute to them, their ambition was naturally fired into imitating their glorious example. They thus commenced the annual studies with zest, vigour and ambition, hoping one day to equal the ancients in their achievements. When the ritual was extended to householders in later times, it reminded them of their duty to be up-to-date in their own branches of learning. It is a pity indeed that the modern educational system has not got a ceremony of similar import.

c14.s3.14

² Thus the followers of the Rigveda used to recite the opening and concluding verses of each of the ten books of their Veda. The followers of the Yajurveda used to offer oblations to all the Vedas, Itihāsa and Purāṇa and pay tribute to the celebrated scholars of their own school like Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana, Vaiśampāyana, and Tittiri (the authors of the Veda), Ātreya, the author of the Pada-pātha, Kauṇḍinya, the vṛttikāra, Baudhāyana, the pravachanakāra, Āpastamba the Sūtrakāra and to other celebrities like Satyāṣādha, Hiraṇyakeśin, Vājasaneya, Yājñavalkya, Bhāradvāja and Agnives'ya [Bau. Gr. S., III. 1]. The followers of the Sāmaveda invoked the memory of their own doctors like Jaimini, Tālavakāra, Rānāyani, Bhāguri, etc.

c14.s3.15

Sravani and the Sacred Thread :—The critical reader may now naturally enquire as to the causes that have led to the close association of Śrāvaṇī with the change of the sacred thread. The renewal of the sacred thread was a minor element in the ritual; most of our authorities do not even refer to it. At the time of most of the Vratas (vows) and Saṃskāras, a new sacred thread, staff, girdle, etc., were to be worn by students. Śrāvaṇī was no exception; on this occasion also they discarded their old sacred threads, staffs, girdles, etc., and substituted them by new ones,—a procedure somewhat similar to that of the modern student, who usually gets new clothes prepared when he leaves home for joining his college. By a strange irony of fate, the most insignificant element in this ritual has now assumed an altogether disproportionate importance and its real nature and significance have been forgotten altogether.

c14.s3.16

Utsarjana Ritual : This was performed at the end of the college term sometime in February or March.

c14.s3.17

The procedure was more or less the same as that on the opening day. Respectful homage was once more paid to the Vedic deities, mental and intellectual powers and the literary giants of the past before the students dispersed home from their schools or colleges.

Section D. Samāvartana or Convocation Ritual

c14.s4.2

¹ Samāvartana literally means ‘returning’; it refers to the return of the student to his home after finishing the course at the teacher’s home.

c14.s4.3

Who were eligible? Samāvartana or Snāna² ceremony was performed at the end of the Brahmacarya period to mark the termination of the education course³. When however in the course of time, the original nature and purport of the ritual were forgotten and the Upanayana began to be regarded as an obligatory and bodily Saṃskāra, this ritual also came to be performed in all cases, irrespective of the consideration as to whether any educational course was followed by the youth or not. In early times it was performed when the education of the youth was over; marriage usually followed, but by no means immediately. In later times the ritual came to be performed as a kind of necessary formality just before the marriage, when it was settled.⁴ (VMS. p. 575)

c14.s4.4

² This term refers to the bath given to the student on the occasion.

c14.s4.5

³ Some held that it should not be performed in the case of those who were not able to interpret the Vedic texts committed to memory by them; Cf. अन्यो वेदपाठी । न तस्य ज्ञानम् । M. Gr. S., I. 2. 8.

c14.s4.6

⁴ In northern India, the custom was introduced to perform it immediately after Upanayana.

c14.s4.7

This of course was not the original idea. The ritual was intended to correspond in a very great degree to the modern convocation function. Only those who have passed their examination are at present admitted to the convocation; only those who had finished their education were in the beginning honoured with the privilege of Samāvartana. Our authorities prescribe no definite age for this ritual. The duration of the student-life varied with different courses and students, as has been already shown in Chapter IV; and so no fixed age could be prescribed for this ritual.

c14.s4.8

An interesting Preliminary: Samāvartana ceremony is as simple as it is significant. An auspicious day was selected and the student was required to shut himself up in a room throughout the morning. This appears to be a queer procedure, but it was due to the desire to save the sun the humiliation of being confronted with a superior lustre. The belief was that the sun can shine only with the lustre he borrows from the Snātakas (graduates), who have completed their education¹. What better compliment can be conceived for edudation?

c14.s4.9

¹ Cf. एतदहःस्नातानां ह वा एष एतत्तेजसा तपति तस्मादेनमेतदहर्नाभितपेत् । Bh. G. S., II. 1. 8.

c14.s4.10

The Procedure. The student came out of his room at the midday, cleansed his mouth and shaved his head and beard. He then relinquished his girdle (mekhalā), deer-skin (ajina) etc., which were the insignia of the student's order. The period of strict discipline was now over and the teacher himself, who had sternly refused him the use of a number of luxuries, now came forward to offer them to him. He himself gave him a bath in fragrant water. It was followed by an offer of new clothes. Ornaments, garland, collyrium, turban, umbrella and shoes, the use of which was taboo to him in the Brahmacharya period, were now to be formally and officially offered to him by his teacher with the recitation of proper Mantras. It was expected that the guardians, who were well off, would furnish a double set of the above articles, one for the teacher and the other for the ward.¹ A Homa followed and the hope was expressed that the young graduate would get plenty of students to teach.² The teacher then offered him Madhuparka,³ an honour reserved for the very select few like the king, Guru, and son-in-law.

c14.s4.11

¹ Āś. Gr. S. III, 8.

c14.s4.12

² Bau. Gr. S., II, 6.

c14.s4.13

³ Madhuparka denotes an offering of ghee, honey, etc. presented by the householder to a respectable guest on his arrival home.

c14.s4.14

Presentation to the Assembly : Dressed in his new dress, the student would proceed to the assembly of the learned men of the locality in a chariot or on an elephant.⁴ He was there formally introduced as a competent scholar by his teacher. Returning home he would bid farewell to his teacher after paying him such honorarium (gurudakshiṇā) as he could afford. A critical survey of the Samāvartana ritual will show how high was the respect in which scholars who had completed their education were held by society. One authority asserts that they were the greatest force in society.⁵

c14.s4.15

⁴ Dr. Gr. S., III, 1, 26; Āp. Gr. S. I, 11, 5.

c14.s4.16

⁵ Cf. महद्वै एतद् भूतं यः स्नातकः ।

Section E. Ayurvedic Upanayana

c14.s5.2

Rituals in Useful Education

c14.s5.3

the great hold which religion possesses over the Hindu mind, it is natural to expect some rituals in useful and professional education also. We proceed to describe some of them in sections E to G.

c14.s5.4

All Castes eligible: Upanayana or Initiation was primarily intended for Vedic education, but very soon its principle was extended to useful education also. Early writers on Āyurveda, like Charaka and Suśruta, lay down a special Upanayana ceremony for students seeking admission to the medical course. The medical profession was not like the Vedic scholarship an exclusive monopoly, in theory or practice, of any particular caste; so Suśruta holds that a Kshatriya or a Vaishya physician also can play the role of the teacher for boys of his own caste.¹ It is quite probable that even Brahmana boys may have been initiated by non-Brahmana medical teachers, though our texts do not attest to this practice. The surgical school of Suśruta was in favour of the admission of even Shudra boys, though formal Upanayana with the recitation of the Mantras was prohibited in their case.² It is quite probable that Kshatriya and Shudra surgeons may have been, by tradition and environment, better adepts in the use of the knife than their Brahmana and Vaishya compeers.³

c14.s5.5

¹ Sūtra-sthāna, II, 5.

c14.s5.6

² Ibid.

c14.s5.7

³ Such minor surgical operations as were performed before the introduction of the modern surgery were usually attempted by barbers both in India and Europe.

c14.s5.8

Survey of the Ritual: Ayurvedic Upanayana was a short ritual modelled largely upon the Vedic prototype. An auspicious day was selected for the purpose. Darbha, Samidhs (sacred fuel), flowers, etc. were collected, an altar was specially prepared, and oblations of ghee and honey were offered to various deities and sages, first by the teacher and then by the student. Naturally Dhanvantari, Aśvins, Indra, Prajāpati and the Sūtrakāras intimately connected with the development of the medical science occupied the place of honour in this sacrifice. Both the teacher and the student circumambulated the fire on the altar. Brahmanas and celebrated physicians were then worshipped by the pupil. Then in the presence of the sacred fire the Guru charged the student to follow the well known rules of the student life and refrain from lust, anger, covetousness, laziness, pride, untruth and cruelty.¹ The student was specially required to be always industrious and engaged in the pursuit of fresh knowledge. He ought to have faith in his teacher, who was required to teach him all that he knew.

c14.s5.9

¹ Susruta, Sutra-sthāna, chap. 2.

Section F. Dhanurvedic or Military Upanayana

c14.s6.2

² Described only in Dhanurveda-Samhitā of Vasisththa, which is a very late work.

c14.s6.3

Ritual described: The ritual was to be performed on an auspicious day at the beginning of the military education. The student, who was required to observe a fast on that day, used to offer oblations to gods at the outset. Brahmanas were then fed and presents were offered to the teacher. The most important part of the ritual was the offering of a weapon to the youth along with the recitation of a Vedic Mantra.¹ Military training was no monopoly of the Kshatriyas in early times, and Vasistha therefore lays down that a Brahmana was to be invested with a bow, the Kshatriya with a sword, the Vaishya with a lance and the Shudra with a mace. The Guru, who could initiate the youths, was himself expected to be an expert in the use of these and other weapons.

c14.s6.4

Not common in early Times: How far this Dhanurvedic Upanayana was common among the Kshatriyas or those classes of the community, who received the military training, we do not know. The ritual is not mentioned by any early authority, and the epic heroes are not stated to have performed it. The Mantra recited at the time of offering the weapon to the student has no connection with the occasion, as shown in the foot-note below¹. It is therefore very doubtful whether the ritual was in general vogue. Probably it was a later invention and confined to a small section of the Kshatriya community.

c14.s6.5

¹ The Mantra laid down by Vasistha is as follows :—

Section G. Chhurikā-bandha or Military Convocation

c14.s7.2

Chhurika-bandha :—This ceremony corresponds to Brahmanical Samāvartana and was performed at the

c14.s7.3

काण्डात्काण्डं प्ररोहन्ती परुषस्परुषस्परि ।
एवा नो दूर्वे प्रतनु सहस्रेण शतेन च ॥
या शतेन प्ररोहसि सहस्रेण विरोहसि ।
तस्मै ते देवीष्टके विधेम हविषा वयम् ॥ *V.S.*, XIII, 20-1.

c14.s7.4

The stanzas, however, refer to Dūrvā grass and have no connection with the bow or arrow.

c14.s7.5

end of the military training. The central and essential part of the ritual was, as the name itself would suggest, the investiture of the budding hero with a dagger in token of his having completed his military training.¹ This ceremony is mentioned by Nārada alone, but it was fairly common in Rajputana among Rajput families at the beginning of the 19th century, and was known as *kharg bandhāi* (tying of the sword), which is the vernacular rendering of the *chhurikā-bandha* of Nārada. This ceremony, which was performed before the marriage, may have been common in higher aristocratic families.

First 132 of 141 passages. Read on

Linked texts (47)