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Education in Ancient India c8: Chapter VI. Higher Literary Education: Curriculum, Method of Teaching and Examinations

Education in Ancient India c8

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English

Contents

Chapter VI. Higher Literary Education: Curriculum, Method of Teaching and Examinations

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HIGHER LITERARY EDUCATION.:

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Subjects and methods of study in the early Vedic period- And in the later Vedic period-The method of study changes at c. 1000 B. C. New topics of study-Combination of liberal and useful education-Vedic studies in the 1st millennium A D -An age of specialisation-Ascendancy of Sanskrit-Courses in grammar, astrology, literature, Smritis, Puranas, logic and philosophy-Courses for laymen and monks in Buddhist colleges-Selection of text-books.

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Method of teaching and study-Books normally not available, hence the oral method of instruction-Importance of recitation and recapitulation-Texts memorised bnt not orammed-Great importance attached to exposition and debate-Individual attention-Help of monitors-No annual or final examinations-No degrees and diplomas-Competitive element kept within limit.

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Introductory: The history of ancient Indian education is spread over several millennia and we therefore naturally find considerable changes taking place in the curricula in the course of centuries. This is but natural; for the curriculum is intimately connected with the achievements and aspirations of a people. When the outlook on life changes or when new branches of knowledge are developed, extensive changes become inevitable in the curriculum followed in schools and colleges. In the present chapter, we shall indicate the main topics of study on the literary side, point out the changes in the curricula that took place in the different ages, discuss the methods of study and teaching and ascertain what importance was attached to examinations.

Early Vedic Age (c. upto 1500 B. C.)

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Subjects of Study: The Vedic literature naturally formed the main topic of study in this period. Besides the sacred hymns, there were also some historical poems, ballads and hero-songs¹ in existence, which were also committed to memory by the young scholars of the day, as they often helped the elucidation of many references contained in the Vedic hymns. Students were required to master the principles of prosody and encouraged to develop the powers of versification. Those who intended to follow the priestly profession had to study the details of the rituals associated with the hymns they had committed to memory. The study of elementary geometry, the knowledge of which was necessary for the proper construction of sacrificial altars, was also included in the Vedic course. A knowledge of astronomy, which had enabled the age to find out the difference between the lunar and solar months, was also imparted. Grammar and etymology did not trouble the students of this age because they were yet to be developed. Vedic studies usually began at about the age of nine or ten and Initiation Ceremony known as Upanayana was performed at their commencement. The nature, details, and educational significance of this ceremony will be found discussed in Appendix I, B.

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¹ Itihāsa, Purāṇa and Nārāsaṃsī Gāthā are mentioned as early as the Atharvaveda ; XV. 1.

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The Method of Study : Vedic hymns were studied in this period as specimens of literature to be understood, appreciated, imitated and even excelled if posssible. New hymns² were being composed and the authors of some of them claimed that they were superior to the compositions of the earlier poets.¹ It is interesting to note that some of the poems of the later poets were selected for inclusion in the Vedic collection when it was made in a subsequent age. As new hymns were being composed by contemporary authors, it is but natural that they were not yet regarded as revealed. It was therefore not at all felt necessary that they should be committed to memory so meticulously as not to render possible a single mistake of accent or intonation. Professional priests must of course have committed the hymns very thoroughly to memory in order to ensure facility in their use during the performance of the different rituals. But the mass of people consisting of the warriors, agriculturists and artisans used to learn by heart only some select Vedic hymns, and these too in the same way in which the songs of medieval saints are memorised by the Hindu masses today. More effort was made to understand the meaning of the hymns than to remember their exact wording.

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² The very second stanza of the Ṛigveda, for instance, refers to the earlier and later poets of the Vedic collection ; of. अग्निः पूर्वे-भिऋषिभिरीड्यो नूतनैरुत । I. 1. 2.

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¹ नवं नु स्तोममग्नये दिवःश्येनाय जीजनम् । वस्वः कुविदनाति नः ॥ V. 15. 4. Cf. also *R. V.*, VII, 85. 14 ; III. 82. 13.

Later Vedic Age (c. 1500 to 1000 B. C.)

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The Subjects of Study : The mass of the Vedic hymns was classified in this period and as a result, the *Rigveda*, the *Yajurveda*, the *Sāmaveda* and the *Atharvaveda* came into existence. This led to specialisation in Vedic studies and facilitated the growth of a new type of literature, known as Brāhmaṇa literature, which devoted itself to the exposition of a number of important dogmas, theories and practices connected with Vedic sacrifices. Sacrificial rituals became very complex and complicated in this period and the professional priests had to devote several years in mastering their details and intricacies. The study of astronomy, geometry and prosody contiuned to progress in this period. The development of the sciences of grammar and etymology started in this age and manuals on these subjects were included in the curriculum.

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The Method of Study : The Vedic hymns were being gradually differentiated from the Vedic language and it was felt that the sacred literature should be preserved in its pristine form and purity, and should not be allowed to change with the spoken idiom. Vedic scholars of this period began to insist that Vedic hymns should be carefully committed to memory in their precise traditional intonation and accents. Students were not at liberty to change a difficult archaic word for a simple current one. The differentiation of the spoken dialect from the Vedic language raised new problems of interpretation and the age sought to solve them by preparing a list of difficult Vedic words and expressions. which were carefully expounded to students. Vedic students were expected not only to memorise the Vedic hymns, but also to explain their meaning. Ridicule was poured on them if they failed to expound what they had learnt by heart.¹ Learned discussions were a normal and important feature of the student life and young scholars were very anxious to come out successful in them.²

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¹ स्थाणुरयं भारहारः किलाभूदधीत्य वेदं न विजानाति योऽर्थम् । Nir., I. 18 See also, ibid, 1. 19.

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² A. V., VII. 12, 13; II. 27.

The Age of the Upanishads and the Sūtras

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(First millennium B. C.)

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VEDIC STUDIES; METHOD CHANGED: The Vedic literature began to be universally regarded as revealed in this period and that honour was gradually extended to the Brāhmaṇas¹ and the Upanishads also. Vedic schools had to perform the onerous task of preserving this great and growing literature. The art of writing was known by this time, but its aid was not taken for this purpose, as it was believed that it would be irreligious to do so². The theory that the slightest mistake in the recitation of the Vedic hymns would not only prevent the realisation of the expected reward, but would also bring about a disaster on the reciter³, gained ground in this period and necessitated the devotion of a large part of the energy of the rising generation to the task of the accurate memorising of the Vedic literature. Extraordinary precautions were taken to prevent the corruption of the Vedic text by devising the *pada-pāṭha*,⁴ *krama-pāṭha*, *jaṭā-pāṭha* and *ghana-pāṭha*, and all these had to be committed to memory by those who desired to be regarded as experts in the Vedic lore. This further increased the burden on the memory. As centuries rolled on, it became more and more difficult for the Vedic expert to memorise this extensive and growing literature and also to understand its meaning; for the spoken dialect was becoming more and more differentiated from the Vedic language. It was therefore decided towards the end of this period that some Vedic scholars should devote their energies to the mechanical memorising of this extensive literature with a view to prevent its loss, while others should address themselves to the problem of its interpretation by studying commentaries, etymology, lexicography, etc. But for this differentiation of function, the extensive Vedic literature could not have been preserved for posterity. This arrangement no doubt exposed some Brahmanas to the taunt of being mere parrot-like reciters of the Vedic hymns. It is gratifying to find that they did not mind it in the wider interest of the preservation of the national literature and culture.

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¹ The prose literature devoted to the task of explaining the rituals, legends and knotty points about the sacrifices enjoined in the Vedic hymns was known by this name. It should not be mistaken with the members of the Brahmana caste.

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² Cf. वेदानां लेखकाश्चैव सर्वे निरयगामिनः ।

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³ मंत्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ।

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⁴ The *pada-pāṭha* required the students to memorise each word in the Vedic hymns separately after restoring it to its original form. Supposing a, b, and c were the three opening words of a hymn, the *krama-pāṭha* recited them as *ab, bc*, etc., the *jaṭā-pāṭha* as *ab, ba, ab*, etc., and the *ghana-pāṭha* as *ab, ba, abc, cba, abc*. The reader will now get some idea of the onerousness of the task of memorising these *pāṭhas*.

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New Topics of Study : The period under review was the most creative era in the history of the Hindu intellect; it recorded remarkable achievements in the realm of philosophy, sacred law, epic literature, philology, grammar, astronomy and several fine and useful arts like sculpture, medicine and shipbuilding. On the one hand the development of these branches naturally created a new fascination for the students of the age, and on the other, the rise of the protestant movements led by the Upanishadic, Jain and Buddhist thinkers told on the popularity of the Vedic religion and literature. The current language had now become very widely differentiated from the Vedic idiom and thus created a new difficulty in the Vedic studies. As a combined consequence of all these factors, Vedic studies fell into background towards the end of this period and greater attention began to be paid to the cultivation of the new branches of learning referred to above.

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Combination of Liberal and Useful Education : Several references in the contemporary literature indicate that an attempt was made in this period to combine liberal with professional or useful education. Graduates of this age are usually described as well versed in the Vedas as well as in eighteen *sippas*, i. e. practical arts and sciences.¹ These latter included archery, military art, medicine, magic, snake charming, conveyancing, administrative training, music, dancing, painting, engineering, etc². It is of course clear that no graduate could get mastery in all the Vedas as well as in all the *sippas* as is suggested by some passages; it is however clear from some references in Jātakas that literary education was combined with one of the useful professions referred to above in the famous centres of education like Taxila. This practice enabled the average literary student to stand on his own legs.

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¹ *Chh. Up.*, VII. 1. 2. *Mil. P.* Vol. I. p ; 247

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² See Appendix IV

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THE AGE OF THE SMṚITIS, PURĀṆAS AND NIBANDHAS.

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(1st century A. D. to *c.* 1200 A. D.)

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Vedic Studies : The Vedic studies fell further into background during this period. A sufficient number of Brahmanas however was always available to preserve and transmit the Vedic literature to the generations unborn. They used to do their work very thoroughly, for the experts among them would memorise not only the Vedic hymns, but also their *pada-pāṭha krama-pāṭha*, *jaṭā-pāṭha and ghana-pāṭha*.¹ They used to master the details connected with the numerous Vedic sacrifices also. Some of them used to study two, three or even four Vedas and were therefore known as Dvivedins, Trivedins, and Chaturvedins respectively. Many donees of the copperplate grants of this period bear these surnames; they could have become eligible for them only by prolonged and almost life-long devotion to the cause of Vedic studies. This devotion was almost tragic; it did not bring any adequate pecuniary compensation, and required them to memorise texts, which not they, but others, could understand and expound. The number of the Vedic scholars, devoting themselves to the task of interpreting and expounding Vedic hymns, dwindled down very considerably during this period. Vedic studies therefore usually meant the mere cramming of the sacred texts and were often commented upon very adversely by some thinkers of the age, some of whom went to the extent of declaring that the intellect is deadened and rendered useless by the parrot-like cramming of the Vedic hymns.² Kings of this age were more disposed to extend their patronage to poets, who could compliment them by composing neat poems in their honour,³ than to Vedic Brahmanas, who could recite hymns, which neither they themselves nor their hearers could understand. New branches of learning like philosophy and *belles lettres* also appealed more powerfully to the intellect and emotions of the rising generation. In spite of these adverse and discouraging factors Vaidika Brahmanas continued to address themselves to the almost thankless task of memorising the vast Vedic literature, which could not have been preserved but for their devotion to duty.

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¹ See *ante*, p. 147.

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² नानुवाकहता बुद्धिव्र्व्यवहारक्षमा भवेत् । अनुवाकहता या तु न सा सर्व्वगामिनी ॥ Śukra, III. 261

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³ The Vedic Brahmanas are sarcastically described by the door-keepers of king Bhoja as follows:—राजमाषनिभैर्दन्तैः कटिविन्यस्त-पाणयः । द्वारि तिष्ठन्ति राजेन्द्र छान्दसाः श्लोकशत्रवः ॥ They complain (Continued from the last page.)

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An age of Specialisation : We have already mentioned the new branches of study that came into prominence during the preceding period. The present age made its own contribution to the march of knowledge by further developing astronomy, astrology, poetics, classical Sanskrit literature, Dharmaśāstra (sacred and secular law), logic, and the different systems of orthodox and heterodox philosophy. As the help of paper, printing and cheap books was not available for the preservation and propagation of knowledge, the age naturally emphasised on specialisation, which gave a great impetus to the development of the different branches of knowledge.

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The Ascendancy of Sanskrit : During the earlier centuries of this period, upto *c.* 300 A. D., some kings like the Sātavāhanas, the Ikshwākus and the Pallavas had championed the cause of Prakrit and directed that vernaculars alone should be used even in their official and public documents. As however the period advanced, the attraction of

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to Kālidāsa about their neglect as follows :—अस्माकं समप्रवेदविदामपि भोजः किमपि नार्पयति । भवादृशां हि यथेष्टं दत्ते । ततोऽस्माभिः कवित्व-विधानधियात्रागतम् । Kālidāsa then helps them. *Bhojaprabandha*, v. 86 and following.

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Sanskrit became so irresistible that some kings like the Guptas went to the extent of ordering the use of that language even in their harems¹. Prakrits ceased to be used for public documents and even the Buddhists and the Jains disregarded the advice of the founders of their religions and began to compose works in Sanskrit. The revival of Sanskrit during this period produced results more or less similar to those brought about in Europe by the discovery and study of the classics during the time of the Renaissance. All the attention of the educated classes was devoted to the cultivation of Sanskrit. This led to the neglect of vernaculars through which alone the masses could be approached. This eventually tended to confine education only to higher classes.

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¹ Kāvyamīmāṃsā, p. 50.

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Preliminary Sanskrit Course : The study of the different branches of knowledge that were flourishing in this age was preceded by a preliminary course in Sanskrit. After the Upanayana ceremony at about the age of 8, all students used to memorise a few important Vedic hymns necessary for their daily or ceremonial needs. Then they used to devote four or five years to the study of elementary Sanskrit grammar and literature. At about the age of 13 or 14, the student used to be able to understand Sanskrit works on subjects like logic, philosophy, poetics, astronomy and mathematics. He then used to select one of these subjects for specialisation and devote about ten years to its study.

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Popularity of Grammar and Astrology : Among the subjects cultivated during this period, the courses of advanced grammar and astronomy-cum-astrology were very popular, as attested to both by Yuan Chwang and Alberuni. The demand for experts in grammar was as keen during this age as the demand for the teachers trained in English is today. Every school for higher education had to engage several grammarians in order to give the necessary instructions in Sanskrit language, which was the key subject. The age believed in astrology and astrologers were in great demand throughout the country for preparing and interpreting almanacs and prognosticating future events. The royal courts also used to engage the services of several astrologers.

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The Course in Sanskrit Literature. The students of this subject were naturally required first to complete their course in grammar and kosha (vocabulary) and then enjoined a study of some famous authors like Kālidāsa, Bhartṛhari or Bāṇa. Particular attention was paid to prosody and poetics, and students were expected not only to understand the classical authors, but also to compose fairly good poems imitating their style. In order to get a general knowledge of the culture of the race, they were also required to study the epics, the Purāṇas and traditional stories. They were further trained to be good debators; the ability to defend one's own position in learned assemblies and the capacity to compose a good poem in a very short time were regarded as the most important criteria of good scholarship.

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The Courses in Smritis and Puranas: Almost as popular as the courses in grammar and astrology were the courses in Purāṇas and Smritis whose hold over the popular mind during this age was almost as great as that of the Vedic literature in the earlier periods. Popular Hindu religion had greatly changed its complexion during this period and its theories and practices could be ascertained only from Smṛitis and Purāṇas, which therefore had to be mastered even by the village priest. The courses in these subjects prescribed a good mastery of Sanskrit grammar and classical Sanskrit literature and a special study of select Sūtras, Smṛitis and Purāṇas. More emphasis was laid on understanding the meaning of the works concerned than on committing them to memory. Usually the students of Smṛitis and Purāṇas took the help of a manuscript when expounding their contents; there was no prejudice against utilising the art of writing for preserving them.

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Courses in Logic and Philosophy : The age we are reviewing was reverberating with controversies among the followers of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Within the fold of Hinduism itself, the followers of Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Mīmānsā and Vedānta were contending for supremacy. It was but natural that these controversies should have given an impetus to the study of metaphysics. After getting a preliminary grounding in grammar and literature, the students of the subject used to select one of the systems of philosophy for specialisation and master its most advanced and difficult works. The study of philosophy presupposed a study of logic during this period; so students of philosophy used to devote considerable time to the study of logic also. The young graduate in philosophy was however expected not only to expound and defend his own system but also to attack and refute those of his opponents. The course therefore included a comparative study of the contending systems of metaphysics. Hindu philosophers like Gauḍapāda and Śaṅkarāchārya and Buddhist scholars like Nāgārjuna and Vasubandhu used to master the systems of their opponents as well. In a famous philosophical college situated in a sylvan retreat in the Vindhya mountain presided over by Divākarasena, a Brahmana convert to Buddhism, students of Hinduism, Buddhism and Śvetāmbara and Digambara Jainism studied together side by side under the same principal.¹ Such an arrangement naturally presupposes a comparative study of the rival systems leading to the broadening of the outlook and the deepening of the scholarship of the average student of the institution.

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¹ Kāvyamīmānsā, pp. 49-50.

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¹ *Harshacharit*, Chap. VIII.

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Courses for Laymen in Buddhist Colleges : For reasons already explained at p. 72, Buddhist monastic colleges began to take up the education of the laymen also from about the beginning of the Christian era. The courses prescribed for them were not radically different from those obtaining under sister institutions working under the aegis of Hinduism. Students started with a study of Sanskrit grammar and literature, which lasted for seven or eight years. They were also given some grounding in Pāli; as pious Buddhists, they had to master some passages from the Pāli canon. At about the age of 15 or 16, their higher education commenced. Those who wanted to specialise in Sanskrit literature, Dharmaśāstra, astrology-cum-astronomy, medicine or works on polity and administration used to follow practically the same course as was in vogue in the Hindu colleges of the period. Those however who wanted to specialise in logic or philosophy used to select works by Buddhist authors on these subjects like Hetuvidyā, Abhidharmaśāstra, Nyāyānusāraśāstra etc. The followers of the Hīnayāna school used to specialise in Tripīṭakas and other early works of orthodox Buddhism, whereas those of the Mahāyāna school used to study the works of their famous scholars like Nāgārjuna, Vasubandhu and Dharmakīrti. Besides mastering their own works on philosophy, the Buddhist scholars used to study Hindu works on metaphysics as well.

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Courses for Monks : The curriculum prescribed for the monk scholar was naturally somewhat different. It did not include any special study of secular sciences like poetics, literature or astrology, but was concerned principally with theological subjects. For ten years after his admission as a novice, the monk-student was under the direct guidance and control of his preceptor, who used to initiate him in the study of Pāli and Sanskrit. When these languages were properly mastered, a thorough study of the sacred texts, (the Tripīṭakas,) was started. When this was over, relatively recent works on Buddhist religion and philosophy were mastered. Hindu systems of religion, logic and philosophy were then carefully studied in order to meet the Hindu opponent on his own ground. It is interesting to note that Yuan Chwang, who had undertaken the arduous and perilous journey to India primarily for studying Buddhist scriptures, spent two fifth the period of his stay in India in studying Sanskrit works on Hinduism. The education of the novice did not terminate with his admission to the Order as a full-fledged monk. For, the Buddhist monk was expected to be a lifelong student like the Hindu Naiṣṭhika Brahmachārin.

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Selection of Text-books : We have no definite information about the text-books prescribed for the various courses in different institutions during different centuries. These must have gone on changing in course of time when better and more up-to-date books written by competent authorities became available. The selection of text books was usually governed by considerations of merit alone. An author had to submit his work to a synod of scholars at a famous centre of learning like Pāṭaliputra or Benares¹, and if it was found to be a work of merit by that body, it received its imprimatur, which helped its acceptance and spread in provincial towns. It should be however noted that no pecuniary gain was likely to accrue to an author by his book being prescribed in several institutions; for there was no press and copyright in ancient India. The adoption of a work as a text book in the schools of a province however increased the reputation of its author, and we sometimes come across writers adopting rather questionable means to get their books accepted. Ugrabhūti, the teacher of king Anaṅgapāla of the Punjab (c. 1010-c. 1020) is said to have induced his royal pupil to distribute two lakhs of dirhams (= about Rs. 60,000) among the Pandits of Kashmir in order to overcome successfully their reluctance to accept his new work on grammar called Śiṣya-hitā-vṛtti². Such cases however were probably few. Usually books prescribed in a particular school were in vogue at the centre where the principal and teachers of the school were educated. Hindus, Buddhists and Jains would often prefer works written by authors of their own persuasion in the case of a subject like logic, which was cultivated by all schools.

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¹ Pāṇini is reported to have come all the way to Pāṭaliputra from Śalātura in N. W. F. P, in order to get his famous grammar approved by the synod at that famous capital. Śaṅkarāchārya came to Benares from Malabar in order to seek the imprimatur of the Pandits of that place over his philosophical works.

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² Sachau, Alberuni, Vol. I, pp. 135-6.

Method of Teaching and Study

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General Conditions of the Times: Before describing and commenting upon the method of teaching and study current in ancient India, it is necessary that we should familiarise ourselves with the general conditions of the age. In the beginning the art of writing was unknown, and even when it was invented, it was not utilised for preserving and transmitting the Vedic literature, which for several centuries was the main topic of study. It was further held as imperatively necessary that the canonical literature should be memorised in the most meticulous way; there should be no possibility of the mistake even of a single accent. The service of the art of writing was no doubt utilised for preserving and teaching non-Vedic literature, but owing to the absence of paper and printing, books could be within the reach of the rich only. Being written on biroh leaves, they were fragile as well as costly. The average student could therefore not have his own copy of the text-book;¹ even the desire to possess one was regarded as a symptom of indolence.² Under such circumstances, extensive use of a library was altogether impracticable, nor could the help of visual instruction through the help of charts and pictures be possible. Oral instruction was the only available method of teaching and it was the cheapest and the most accurate.

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1. गीती शीघ्री शिर:कंपी तथा लिखितपाठक: ।
अनर्थज्ञोऽल्पकण्ठश्च षडेते पाठकाधमा: ॥
Pāṇinīya-śikshā, 32.

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2. चूतं पुस्तकशुश्रूषा नाटकसकिरेव च ।
प्रियस्तन्द्री च निद्रा च विद्याविघ्नकराणि षट् ॥
Nārada in S. O. S. p. 52.

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Method of Teaching in the Vedic Schools: Education therefore was for a long time imparted through the oral lesson, without the medium of a book. This method persisted in the Vedic schools down to recent times. The teacher used to pronounce only two words of the Vedic stanza at a time, which the student was asked to recite with exact intonation and accent. The number of words was reduced to one, if the expression happened to be a compound one.¹ If the student had any difficulty in the matter, it was explained to him. When a whole verse was thus taught to one student, he was dismissed and the same process was repeated with the next one. Necessarily every student used to receive individual attention under this system. The method of teaching was direct and personal and not even a text-book intervened between the teacher and the student.

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¹ Rik-prātiśākhya, Paṭala, XV.

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Method of Teaching in non-Vedic Schools: The above method of teaching was extensively followed in other branches of learning also, no doubt with suitable modifications, when it was deemed necessary that certain texts should be memorised by the student. Small portions of the text were recited and explained by the teacher to the students; when they had understood them, each one was required to commit them to memory. It was in this way that students used to learn important books like the grammar of Pāṇini, the dictionary of Amara, the law-book of Manu or the work on poetics by Mammaṭa, which had to be committed to memory. Books being both costly and fragile, there was no other efficient alternative method of study, if it was desired that students should aquire a mastery in their subjects, which should stand them in good stead throughout their lives. Learning in ancient times had to be at the tip of the tongue; a scholar asking for time to consult his notes or books could carry no prestige.¹ The highest ambition of an author of even the 12th century A. D. was, not that his work may adorn the shelves of the libraries of the learned, but that it may shine as an ornament on their neck, i. e. it should be memorised by them.²

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Importance of Recitation and Recapitulation : Recitation and recapitulation therefore formed an important part in the daily routine of the student life. The home-work, which the student did in his spare time, did not consist of written exercises; it merely amounted to the recitation and recapitulation of lessons learnt already. Every day students were required to spend a part of their time in the school in jointly reciting a portion of the work they had committed to memory. As a result of this training, the memory of the average student in ancient India was very highly developed; he could perform feats of memorising which now we may regard as impossible. I-tsing rather obscurely refers to certain interesting aids to memory owing to which, after the practice of ten or fifteen days, the student felt ‘his thoughts rising like a fountain and could commit to memory whatever he had but once heard’. ‘This is far from a myth,’

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१. पुस्तकस्था तु या विद्या परहस्तगतं धनम् ।
कार्यकाले समुत्पन्ने न सा विद्या न तद्धनम् ॥
S. R. B., p. 168 v. 413.
२. तेन प्रीत्या विरचितमिदं काव्यमव्याजकान्तं ।
कर्णाटेन्दोर्जगति विदुषां कण्ठभूषात्वमेयात् ॥
Vikramānkadevacharit, XVIII 102.

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says the Chinese traveller, ‘for I have myself met such men.¹ In an age when books were very rare, it was but meet that great emphasis should have been laid on the development of memory.

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¹ P. 188.

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Special devices to help the memory : Though the memory of the average student was much better trained and developed than is the case now, the authors and educationalists left no stone unturned to lighten its burden. Ancient Indian educationalists had realised that rhime makes an appeal to æsthetic sensibility and facilitates the task of memorising. They therefore decided to utilise its help in the teaching work by composing text books in verse. Even dictionaries and elementary books on grammar were composed in verse. The development of the Sūtra style, where conclusions are stated in short and pithy sentences, is also due to the exigencies of the schools and colleges, the students of which had to rely more on their memory than on books and notes for recalling the contents of the works once studied by them.

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Erroneous Impression about Cramming : The fact that the modern Vedic Pandit does not know the meaning of the hymns he recites with flawless accuracy, has led to an erroneous impression that mere cramming was encouraged by the ancient Indian educational system. Such however was not the case. We have already shown how for many centuries even Vedic scholars could expound the meaning of the hymns they had committed to memory; it was owing to the growth of the Vedic literature and the imperative necessity of committing the whole of it to memory, that it was reluctantly decided to assign the memorising of the Vedic texts to one section of Brahmanas and their exposition to another. It had become humanly impossible to expect both the tasks to be done by the same individual.

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The Place of Exposition in Teaching: It is no doubt true that some Sūtra works like those on grammar and philosophy, which were committed to memory, are so cryptic as to be mostly unintelligible by themselves. They were written in that style merely to lighten the burden on the student's memory. Their teaching was accompanied by extensive lectures, some of which used to be later embodied in commentaries. The teaching of the important works on philosophy, logic and poetics was hardly possible without exhaustive discussions pertaining to the views expounded and controverted. In these discussions there was an unravelling of the subject matter, distinctions and contra-distinctions were drawn, and an effort was made to show the reasonableness of one's position and the errors of the opponent¹. The students of the various schools of orthodox and heterodox systems of religion and philosophy reading under Divākarasena used to listen to the exposition of their respective systems, deliberate on their natures, discuss their features, raise doubts on obscure themes, determine for themselves the main outlines and enter into discussion with the opponents². The same procedure must have been followed in other colleges of philosophy. Reasoning and analysis formed the crux of the method of study and teaching. The medium of instruction in higher studies was naturally Sanskrit; when however Prakrits and vernaculars developed, their help was also occasionally taken¹.

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¹ Mil. Pan. Vol. I, p. 46.

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² Harshacharit, Chap. VIII.

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¹ संस्कृतैः प्राकृतैर्वाक्यैः शिष्यमनुरूपतः । देशभाषाद्युपायैश्च बोधयेत्स गुरुः स्मृतः ॥ Vishnudharma quoted by V.M.S., p. 72 (Jivanand's editio

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Testimony of Chinese Pilgrims : Indian teachers were past masters in the art of explanation and exposition; students from distant countries like Korea and China used to brave the dangers of the perilous journey to India, not because they wanted to learn by rote the scriptures of their religion, but because they were anxious to hear the exposition of obscure metaphysical passages which could be heard nowhere else. What Yuan Chwang valued in his Indian teachers was not their capacity to recite the sacred texts, but their remarkable ability in explaining obscure passages and offering illuminative suggestions on doubtful points.² About his Indian gurus, I-tsing says, ‘I have been always very glad that I had an opportunity of aquiring knowledge from them personally, which I should otherwise have never possessed’³

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² Beal, Life, pp. 76, 154, 160

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³ P. 185

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The Place of Debates : Since early times, debates and discussions have always played an important part in the literary training of students. The Vedic literature refers to such literary combats and describes how the victors were suitably honoured (R. V., X. 71). This Vedic tradition continued throughout the later history. Śāstrārthas or learned debates were constantly held in colleges where students of literature, poetics, philosophy and logic were called upon to defend their own propositions and attack those of their opponents. The training in debates made students ready-witted and developed their powers of speech.

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Other Devices in Teaching: The use of parables was often made in expounding obscure principles, as would appear from the plot of the *Hitopadeśa* and the *Pañchatantra*, where principles of politics are taught under the guise of telling stories about animals. The dialogue method was followed by many a philosopher, as would appear from the evidence of the Upanishads and the Buddhist Sūtras.¹ It enabled the teacher to ascertain the reactions in the student's mind to his own observations. The value of comparison and observation was also realised by many teachers who used to develop the power of understanding of dull students by asking them to carefully observe new facts and compare them with those already known.²

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¹ It is interesting to note that many of the commentaries are in the form of a dialogue between the teacher and the student. The earlier part advances a view such as a student may be expected to hold as plausible, the later part contains its correction or refutation, as may be done by a teacher in his lecture.

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² *Jātaka* No. 124.

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Individual Attention: We have already shown at pp. 82-3 how the classes in ancient India were usually small ones, consisting of not more than 15 or 20 students. It was therefore possible to give individual attention to each student. This was one of the strongest points in the ancient Indian system of education. Lectures to large classes of 100 or 200 students, which are unintelligible to some, superfluous to others and partially useful to the rest, were unknown in ancient India. Students could not afford to go to the class room without thorough preparation. There was a daily examination of every student and no new lesson was given until the old one was thoroughly mastered.³ There were no annual examinations and mass promotions at fixed intervals.

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³ *Mil Pan.*, I, p. 18.

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Clever students were not compelled to mark time for their dull companions as under the modern system of education. The educational system ministered to the needs and individual capactity of each student. If a student was intelligent and industrious, he could finish his education much earlier than is possible in modern times. The idle and careless student had not as pleasant a prospect of a merry college life as he has in the present age. Yuan Chwang says, ‘When disciples, intelligent and accute, are addicted to idle shirking, teachers doggedly persevere in repeating instructions until their training is finished’.¹ The Chinese traveller was very favourably impressed by the capacity of Indian teachers to rouse their students to activity and urge them to progress.

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¹ Watters, I, p. 160.

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Monitorial System: In order to make personal supervision effective, the cooperation and help of advanced students were enlisted in the cause of education. They used to guide the studies of the juniors under the general supervision of their teachers. About the Valabhi college students, I-tsing observes that they used to pass two or three years, ‘instructed by their teachers and instructing others’.² This system also obtained at Taxila; for instance, the Kuru prince Sutasoma, who aquired proficiency earlier, was entrusted with the teaching of his brother prince, the heir apparent of Benares.³ Senior students at Taxila were often put in charge of their schools during the temporary absence of their teachers.⁴ This method of entrusting teaching work to brilliant students had a great educational value.

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² P. 177.

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³ Sutasoma-Jātaka, No. 587.

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⁴ E. g., Sukha-vihāri Jātaka, No. 10.

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It placed a high incentive before the student world. It afforded opportunities to intelligent students to learn the art of teaching, and thus indirectly performed the same function as the Teachers' Training Colleges discharge today. It increased the efficiency and decreased the cost of the school by affording intelligent and free assistance to the teacher. It is well known that Bell and Lancaster had based their Monitorial System on what one of them had observed in contemporary Indian schools.

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Conclusion : It will be seen from the above discussion that the method of teaching followed in ancient India was on the whole the best suited for an age, which did not enjoy the advantages of paper and printing. It developed the powers of memory, a faculty which is being sadly neglected in modern times. It did not however encourage cramming, bacause the texts that were memorised were well understood by students. Reflection and analysis was also encouraged especially in the case of those students who had taken logic, philosophy, poetics or literature. Lucid exposition was a *forte* of Indian teachers, for which they were well known all over Asia during the first millennium of the Christian era. Debates were a normal feature of higher education. Individual attention was paid to the needs of students, which naturally ensured good results. The student must however have intelligence.¹ Hindu educationalists have pointed out that the best method would not produce the ideal scholar at the end of the course automatically. Time also was an important factor. Maturity of intellect and scholarship would become possible only by the lapse of years properly utilised in reading and reflection by an intelligent student.¹

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¹ वितरति गुरुः प्राज्ञे विद्यां यथैव तथा जडे । न च खलु तयोर्ज्ञाने शक्तिं करोत्यपहन्ति वा ॥ भवति च तयोर्भूयान्भेदः फलं प्रति तद्यथा । प्रभवति मणिर्बिम्बोद्ग्राहे मणिर्न मृदां चयः ॥ *Uttararāmachairt*, Act, II.

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¹ आचार्यत्पादमादत्ते पादं शिष्यः स्वमेधया । पादं सब्रह्मचारिभ्यः पादं कालक्रमेण तु ॥ *Subhāṣitam*.

Examinations

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No Annual or Final Examinations: We have already seen that there were no annual or periodical examinations in ancient India. New lessons were given to students only when the teacher was satisfied after a searching oral examination that the old one was thoroughly mastered. The end of the education course was not marked by any lengthy and exhaustive examination, but by the pupil reciting and explaining the last lesson.² The modern practice to submit the student to what is known as *Śalākā-parīkṣā*, where he is asked to explain the problems discussed on a page opened at random, is not mentioned in ancient books. Even if it goes back to ancient times, it can hardly be compared to the modern system of examination. At the end of his education the scholar was presented to the local learned assembly, where occasionally some questions were asked.³ This presentation took place when the Samāvartana (convocation) ceremony was over.⁴ It is therefore clear that the eligibility of a student for Samāvartana or receiving the degree did not depend upon the opinion of the assembly, but upon the opinion of his teacher.

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² *Māl. Pan.* I, p. 18.

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³ *Br. U.*, VI, 2, 1 and 2.

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⁴ *Dr. Gr. S.*, III 1, 26; *Āp. Gr. S.*, I, 11, 5.

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Literary Tournaments: Rājaśekhara describes the examinations held in the royal court¹, and Charaka refers to heated discussions held in learned assemblies to test the relative merits of the contending physicians.² These examinations were, however, fundamentally different from modern degree examinations. Each participant in these literary affrays was anxious to prove, not that he possessed certain minimum qualifications, but that he was the best poet or physician in the land, entitled to precedence, honour and annuities from the royal court. What Charaka or Rājaśekhara have in contemplation is not a routine examination, but an intellectual combat among the distinguished physicians and scholars of the age.

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¹ *Kāvya-mīmāṁsā*, p. 55.

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² Vimānasthāna, 8.

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No Degrees or Diplomas: Since there were no degree examinations, there were naturally no degrees or diplomas. From Tārānātha we learn that the Pāla kings of Bengal, who were patrons and chancellors of the Vikramaśilā University, used to grant diplomas to students in a convocation held at the end of their education.³ In medieval Bengal also learned bodies used to confer degrees like *Tarkachakravartī* and *Tarkālaṅkāra* on very distinguished scholars like Gadādhara and Jagadīśa. This practice of giving degrees and titles seems to be a new innovation of medieval times. Yuan Chwang informs us that unscrupulous scholars in the seventh century used to ‘steal the name of Nālandā’ in order to gain more respect⁴. This would not have been possible if the Nālandā University were in the habit of granting regular diplomas to those who had finished their courses there. Passing examinations and getting degrees, which dominate the present system of education, played hardly any part in ancient India. It was not the allurement of the degrees or the prizes but the thirst of knowledge or the desire to preserve the national heritage which was the main spring of the educational effort and activity.

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³ Bose, Indian Teachers of Buddhist Universities, p. 61

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⁴ Watters, II, p. 165.

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Competition kept within Limits

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The absence of annual examinations with prizes and scholarships for the top boys naturally kept the element of competition within proper limits. Bright and promising students were however selected as monitors and entrusted with the teaching of lower classes. So they also got their reward. The absence of alluring prizes and scholarships however naturaly did not make them burn midnight oil, often to the great detriment of their health.

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No Degree to serve as a Shield

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Students in ancient India had not to pass through the fiery ordeal of examinations ; their lot, however, was by no means more enviable than that of the modern students. Armed with his irrevocable degree, the modern graduate can afford to forget all that he had learnt, and no one can question his competence. The scholar in ancient India could not take shelter behind the buttress of a degree. He had to keep his scholarship fresh and up-to-date, for he was liable to be challenged at any moment for a literary affray (Śāstrārtha), and society used to judge his merit by the way in which he aquitted himself in such discussions. All that he had learnt, he had to keep ready at the tip of his tongue ; he could neither point to his diploma nor ask for time to refer to his note-books.

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