History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c27: Veterinary Science

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c27

Language: English

v1.c27.s1 Ethnology — 7 parts
v1.c27.s2 Written Literature — 14 parts
v1.c27.s3 Nature and Extent of Information — 7 parts

Veterinary Science

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Krishnaswamy has compiled fairly large and valuable information on ancient veterinary science literature in India, while the search for indigenous drugs has been forwarded by others (Perera, 1940, Singh and Kohli, 1955).

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A part of Śālihotra’s Aśvaśāstra (vide Apte, M.S), Jātakapari jātaka, Śukranīti and Jayadatta’s Aśvavaidyakam are now available in English translation and my observations are mainly based on these works. A symposium on ‘Veterinary Literature in Ancient India’, was also organised in 1986 (IJHS, 22(21), 93-169), which also serves as important source material.

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The ancient system of Indian medicine is termed Ayurveda (Gavyāyurveda for cattle, Hasthyāyurveda for elephants and Aśvāyurveda for equines). It is confined within the limits of Tridoṣa theory of physiopathology (Vāta, Pitta and Kapha) and Pañcaśīla theory of pharmacy (five principles of matter/drugs viz Rasa, Guṇa, Vīrya, Vipāka and Prabhāva) (Sircar, 1982), and these concepts are still require to be updated in current timeframe.

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Ayurveda possibly remained outside the influence of Renaissance in Europe. Scientific contents in Indian veterinary science books remained particularly hidden, and their features have found no mention in modern textbooks.

Ethnology

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Morgan developed a Principle of Comparative Method for interpreting ancient history from the conditions of ancient tribes, while conducting his studies among American aboriginals. Satija (1987) has likewise tried to put on record the Indian folk veterinary practices, using comparative methods, so that their origin may be placed in historical frame of development.

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Primitive human societies in various geographical regions have been using plants and plant products for various remedies. A large number of these folk prescriptions are endemic to certain areas and have survived through ages, from generation to generation through the word of mouth. They do not exist as written knowledge. In aboriginals, who reside in remote areas lacking organized medical infrastructure, dependence on their endemic prescriptions is exclusive.

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A list of ailments for which folk prescriptions are available is given in Table 1. The Table 2 gives names of plants used in same disease conditions by different tribes. Method of agreement in terms of disease conditions calls for a study of common useful factors in various plants used.

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Table 1 — Disease conditions for folk treatment

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Table 2 — Plants used for same disease condition in different ethnic groups in India

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| Disease condition | Hisar area | Bastar area | Kumaon area | Santhal area | Ladakh area |
| Diarrhoea | *Vernonia anthelmintica* (kaliziri) *Acacia arabica* (kikkar) | - | *Bergenia ligutata* (pakhanbed) | - | - |
| Internal worms | - | *Mucuna prurita* (kawanch) | *Brassica rugosa* (rai) (rai) | - | - |
| Indigestion | *Curcuma zeodaria* (kacuri) | - | - | - | *Prangos pabularia* |
| To induce lactation | *Citrus aurantifolia* (nibu) | - | *Brassica gugosa* | - | - do - |
| Fractures | - | *Coxylospermum religiosum* *Nyctanthes arbortristes* (harsinghar) | - | *Abrus* | - |
| Leucorrhoea | *Caesalpinia crista* | - | *Aesculus indica* | - | - |

Written Literature

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Reviewing the sources of ancient literature on veterinary sciences, Garg (1987) refers to several manuscripts, their authors, availability and possible historicity.

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Among the ancient authors are found the names of Śālihotra, Pālakāpya, Rājaputra, Vaiśampāyaṇa, Vyāsa, Nakula, Sahadeva, Garga, Mṛgasarmā, Bṛhaspati, Nārada, Gaṇa, Jayadatta Sūri, Dinapathi, Malladeva Paṇḍita, Siṃhadatta, Nala, Vatsya, Śukra, Manu, Kauṭilya and Paraśāra ; and among the authors of later date come Jayadeva, King Indusena, Bhoj, Sāraṅgadhara, Someśvara, Vahada, Bāsavamantri, Girvana, Yuddhavikrama, Viśvanath Vajpaye, Śivarāma Bhupati, Dipaṅkar, and the poet Rudradeva. Each one of them is reported to have contributed a book on veterinary science; many of these works are now lost either in part or in full but some fragments of a few of them are still available here and there, in libraries and oriental institutions. Of all the authors mentioned, names of Salihotra as the authority on horses, and Pālakāpya on elephants stand pre-eminent.

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Śālihotra is said to have lived in Salutar, a country near Gandhara, the modern Kandahar. Manuscript entitled Aśvayurveda Siddhayoga Saṃgraha (P.P.S. No 11251 and Burnell Catalogue No 12302, S.M. Library, Tanjore) is ascribed to Salihotra, who seems to be the foremost and indeed, the father of all Indian authors on veterinary science. Antiquity of Śālihotra may be inferred from the fact that he has been quoted by Hemadri in Vratakhaṇḍa. Some portions from his work have been quoted in the Agni Purāṇa, the Matsya Purāṇa and Garuḍa Purāṇa. This tends to prove that Śālihotra’s work is pre-Puranic.

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Śālihotra is again mentioned in his commentary called Tikasarvasya of Nāmaliṅgānuśāsana, the dictionary of Amarsiṃha. Moreover, many other authors on horses, who are equally antique and authentic began their writings by paying respect to Śālihotra as the originator of the science.

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Śālihotra’s work on horses appears to be a very comprehensive one, consisting of eight parts (16,000 ślokas in 120 chapters) dealing with practical farriery. It is a complete guide to the science of horses, dealing with their breeding, training, feeding, watering, stabling, grooming, and their care in health and disease; with an elaborate description of several diseases they are susceptible to, and their treatment. The entire work is not extant. A portion of it is available at Tanjore, and other portions in stray parts are reported from Calcutta, Lucknow, Baroda, and Nepal.

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Next in importance is Pālakāpya, the first and most ancient author on Elephantology. Edgarton, Professor of Sanskrit, Yale University, USA, remarks in the introduction to his book ‘The Elephant Lore of the Hindu’, ‘All known texts agree in attributing the founding of scientific elephantology to a mythical sage, Pālakāpya. They likewise agree in making this elephant lore to an apparently mythical Romāpada, the king of Aṅgas, whose name is not otherwise known’ etc. The name of Romāpada, the king of Aṅgas, occur in Bālakāṇḍa of the great epic Rāmāyaṇa, where it is stated that king Daśaratha had invited to Ayodhya the sage Ṛṣyaśṛṅga, the son-in-law of Romāpada. This points to the indication that Pālakāpya’s book on elephantology must be older than epic period.

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The works of other ancient persons, their availability, probable period and source is compiled in Table 3. The works of authors on Veterinary Sciences in ancient India can be classified in three periods as below:

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The Vedic Period: Atharvaveda contains treatise on medicine and some information on veterinary science belongs to this period.

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Epic Period: During this period Ayurveda or the sciences of knowledge of life came to existence. To this period Śālihotra, Pālakāpya, Rājputra, Mṛgaśarmā, etc belonged. In the age of Mahābhārata, Nakula and Sahadeva flourished.

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Period of Purāṇa and Sūtra: Several puranas wherein copious information on veterinary matters is available are Matsya, Garuḍa, Agni, Brahmāṇḍa, Viṣṇu and Liṅga Purāṇas. Several books on polity like Manu Saṃhitā, Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, Bṛhaspati Mātā, Parāśara Saṃhitā and Sukranīti, where much information on veterinary matters exists, belong to this period.

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Table 3 — Ancient Veterinary Literature and related information

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* Exact place/ library or availability not specified.

Nature and Extent of Information

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Based on limited verterinary science literature available in English, possibilities have been searched to relate it to modern veterinary science literature (Mandokhot, 1987, Kalra, 1987). The literature screened in this context is *Aśvavaidyakam*, *Aśvasastra*, and *Sukranīti*, in the form available.

Scope of information content

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In terms of species covered, the maximum information pertains to equines. Other species covered are elephants and bovines, besides camels.

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Owing to several qualities, elephants were used like modern tanks in wars by the kings in ancient India. Perhaps nowhere else worldover, so rich information is available on elephants as in India. According to Krishnaswami, *Hasthyāyurveda* by Pālakāpya can serve as a foundation book for further build up. It is supposed to contain well classified, varied and interesting information. Under the heading of fevers in chapter 9 of part 1, and ‘wasting diseases’ in chapter 40 of part 2, it is supposed to contain information on tuberculosis, perhaps the first record of the disease.

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Study of book ‘Aśvavaidyakam’ reveals that not only the classification of its contents into chapters has been on scientific lines, comparable to those in modern books, rather the practice of reviewing the literature was also followed. Names of sages/gods reviewed are Śaṅkar, Brhamā, Śālihotra, Nakula and Suśruta.

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Information on camels, whatever available, should also be exclusive, because this species was domesticated in Indian subcontinent.

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The Aśvavaidyakam consists of 1,800 slokas distributed in 68 chapters, covering right from parts of body (Anatomy) to management, nutrition, breeding and diseases.

Parts of body

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Importance of parts of body is given in sloka 1 in chapter 2 of Aśvavaidyakam, which reads ‘The fool, who does not know the sign of horse’s body in detail, does not know the sign of horse nor the treatment of their diseases’. In fact this fundamental aspect is given in the very second chapter, after devoting first chapter to the scope and purpose of the book (Uddeśaḥ). Different parts of body are described in precise topological sequence starting from the mouth to the back dorsally, downward upto the sole, and then ventrally.

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Our ancients were equally concerned with measurements of body parts in the normal state of health. For this parameter, they had evolved a methodology suited to the timeframe, when education was imparted through recitation of slokas. Slokas 145-147 of Śukranīti reads ‘If an image is to be made, the appropriate pattern should always be placed in front. No image can be made without a model. So the artist should frame the limbs after meditating on the horse in the manner indicated’.

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In the ślokas 85-144 of Śukranīti, comparative dimensions of body parts of horse are given; ślokas 79-82 deals with elephants and 299-300 with bulls. Unit of measurements are Angula or Finger’s width called Muska (4 angulas), Cubit (length of arm) and length of face. Detail of measurements cover lengths, widths, heights, ‘circumferences and spaces and they correspond well to what is given in modern anatomy books.

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Thumb of rule for dimensions of bulls are ‘Circumferences of belly is four times that of face, the height together with hump is three times the face and length is 3.5 times the face’.

Control of Animals Including training

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A fairly good account of the requirements of horses in terms of action, pace and speed is given in chapter 3 of Aśvavaidyakam. śloka 93 reads ‘A chearful horse runs swiftly, lifting the legs high up as if they touched burning coals’. A good horse should be able to cover 400 cubits in 16 fillips. If it covers 380 or 360 cubits, the horse is medium or lowest, respectively.

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While horses have been classified into various breeds according to the speed (besides other criterion), importance of good training is nonetheless, highlighted. Citation from Magasthene’s Indika reveals that the training of horses was imparted during Mauryan period also. ‘Those trained from boyhood can control horse with bit and bridle and can make them move at a measured pace and in a straight course.

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Trainers train them by forcing them to gallop round and round in a ring. Such trainers have strong hand and thorough knowledge of horses. They could control with ease a team of four high mettled steeds when whorling round a circle’.

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Chapter 7 of *Aśvavaidyakam* is devoted to the rules for training horses (*Vahan Vidhāne*), under following heads:

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i. Classes of horses (*Vipraditad vahana vivaraṇam*)

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ii. Nature and strength of horses and their training (*Satvaśakititad vahana vivaraṇam*)

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iii. Description of training ground (*Raṅga bhūmi vivaraṇam*)

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iv. Merits and Demerits of a rider (*Doṣa guṇa taraṅga vivaraṇam*)

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v. Duties of a rider (*Sadi kārya vivaraṇam*)

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Modern books on horses describe five types of gaits of horses, all of which are provided both in *Śukranīti* as well as *Aśvavaidyakam*. In Table 4 is given the terminology used for various types of gaits.

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Table 4 — Gaits of Horses Terminology in

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Judging age of animals

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*Śukranīti* demarcates infancy from middle age with replacement of naval teeth. Horses have six lower incisors. In the first year, their colour is milky white, which turns muddy in second year. In the third, fourth and fifth years respectively, central, lateral and corner pairs get replaced by permanent teeth. With advancing age, permanent teeth acquire dots, whose colour changes in order from Black (*Kālikā*), Yellow (*Hārini*), White (*Śukla*), Glassy (*Kaśa*) to Honey or Chocolate (*Makṣika*). Finally, Conchshell holes (*Saṅkha*) appear followed by final shedding.

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Besides the above changes in teeth, horses having attained full age also acquire three circular rows on upper lips.

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Similar information on judging of bulls is also given.

Breeding

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Elephants were allowed to breed in natural habitat and trapped, as is the practice in present day also. In general the elephants with long cheeks, eyes, brows and forehead, swiftest speed and with auspicious marks on the body were considered to be the best. They were classified in four categories (*Table 5*).

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Table 5 — Classification of elephants

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Cattle breeding apparently was one of the important aspects of animal husbandry practices in ancient India. The administrative authorities appeared to be fully aware of its importance. The king was enjoined to preserve the breed of cattle in the country and a government officer called Superintendent of Cattle was entrusted with the exclusive task of supervising the livestock in the country, keeping census and ensuring their proper breeding and rearing. He was also supposed to maintain a record (register) classifying the cattle as male calves, steers, tamable cows, draught oxen, yoke and breeding bulls, cattle fit for slaughter, buffaloes, female calves, heifers, pregnant cows, milch kine, barren cattle etc.

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The criteria detailed for selection of bulls for breeding purposes can be grouped to indicate vigour, health, body conformation and freedom from congenital defects/infections as shown in *Table 6*. It may be noticed that these empirical criteria are valid even in the present day context when claim is made to have comprehensive understanding of the selection attributes. Information is also available about the particulars of the time of the service and the ratio of the males to the females to be maintained in the herd of cows and buffaloes. Inclusion of four bulls in every herd of ten cows or buffaloes had been recommended. In the case of cows the colour of pigment of skin was considered to be the index of nutritive value of milk. The milk of black cows was considered to be the most nutritive, of the red next to it, and that of white to be the least.

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Table 6 — Correspondence of modern equivalent to the referred selection criteria for bulls

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| Vigour | Thundering roar, walk like infuriated elephant, capability to protect the herd |
| Health | Shining eyes, neither wicked nor idle |
| Genetic Attributes | History of coming from milch cow with young ones living and not deficient of any limb |
| Conformation of body | Well formed body, broad back, elevated shoulders, soft and straight tail with big tuft of hair, tender cheek, sharp horn, high stature hump |

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For Horses, detailed description regarding various body signs like colour and lustre of the body, marks and whorls present on the body, voice, odour, congenital habits, general appearance, body size, gait and motion are available. These body signs have been linked with desirability or undesirability of the animals for auspicious reasons and luck through fulfilment of desires for war/battle and prosperity and success. In reference to present day knowledge, the utility of many of body signs described may be obsolete. Śālihotra classified horses as good, medium or inferior, on the basis of their height, length etc. (Table 7).

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Table 7 — Classification of horses according to measurements

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| | Measurements in cubits (C), fingers (F) | | |
| | Good | Medium | Adhama or Inferior |
| Height from hoof to withers/girth | 4 C | 3.5 C | 3 C |
| Length from outer canthus of the eye to the root of tail | 7.5 C | 6 C | 6 C |
| Shank | 16 F | 14 F | 12 F |
| Face, breast, loins | 32 F | 30 F | 28 F |
| Hoof | 7 F | 6 F | 4 F |

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The good, medium and inferior breeds of horses were also recognised on the basis of their Janamadeśa, i.e. the country of their origin. The good horses were supposed to come from deśa (country) like Jajikaḥ (Arab), Pārasikaḥ (Persia), Kekkana (Konkana, a strip of land between Sahyādri and the sea) and from Prastha (not yet identified). The horses born in Tura (Turkey), Kira (Kashmir), Bhuruṣṭa (Bhṛgukaccha, probably modern Bharouch in Maharashtra), Bhāṇḍa (not identified), the hills of Sindhu and Sārasvata, were considered medium. Those from Sambhala (Sambal Moradabad, also a name of Birdhist Bactriana), Kusa (possibly Tamilnadu) and Jaṭādeśa (not identified) were considered to be inferior.

Judgement of Prognosis

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Eye symptoms of horses as revealed in Śālihotra’s *Aśvaśāstra* is also an interesting piece of information. Terminology used is *Vāta*, *Pita* and *Kapha*. As a background information, Sircar represents Vata as Nervous disorders, Pita as Metabolic disorders and Kapha as organic trouble to tissues. Śālihotra recommends that the eyes should be fully opened for examination at the inner canthus. Index to prognosis from eye symptoms is given in *Table 8*. Other aspects dealt in *Asvavaidyakam* are given in *Table 9*.

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| Chapter | Aspects dealt |
| 14 | Cauterisation |
| 15, 16 | Enema with medicinal extracts/oleogenous drugs |
| 17 | Drug administration through nose |
| 18 | Modes of sweating |
| 19 | Oleogenous drenches |
| 20, 21 | Preparation of medicated oils and ghees |
| 22 | Care of animals after exercise |
| 23 | Three signs of prognosticating deaths |
| 24 - 68 | Glanders (*Mrgroga*), diseases due to variation of *Vāta*, Diseases in order from mouth and eyes onwards, well known diseases of eyes viz., Opacity (*Kācam*), Tumors (*Pracaram*), Conjunctivitis (*Raktam*), formation of membrane on the eyes (*Paṭalam*), Filaria oculi(*Muñja jalam*), diseases of brain arising from *Vāyu*, *Pīta* and Kapha and combination of them (*Sannipāta*), excessive pressure of blood. |

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Apte, M.S. (Ed) : *Śālihotra’s Aśvaśāstra*, *INAR*, **15**, 415-420.

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*Aśvavaidyakam* of Jayadatta Suri, (Edited by) U.C. Gupta, Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1887; 463 Slokas out of 1800 also brought out by N.N. Majumdar, *INAR*, **1**, 64-67 118-123, 3, 221-26, 4, 142-50, 234-241, 5, 271- 76, 15, 209-214; 16, 28-31, 118-123, 196-204, 261-264.

Linked texts (18)

Agnipurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Garuḍapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Liṅgapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Matsyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Mānava Dharmaśāstra — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit
Jātakapārijāta — Vaidyanātha Dīkṣita, Sanskrit
Nāmaliṅgānuśāsana (Amarakośa) — Amarasiṃha, Sanskrit
Bṛhaspatismṛti — Bṛhaspati, Sanskrit
Parāśarasmṛti — Parāśara, Sanskrit
Ἰνδική — Λούκιος Φλάουιος Ἀρριανός, Ancient Greek
Raghuvaṃśa — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Viṣṇupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Atharvavedasaṃhitā — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
Aśvavaidyaka — Jayadatta Sūri, Sanskrit
Aśvacikitsita (Aśvaśāstra) of Nakula — Nakula, Sanskrit