Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c40: 4. Materials and Concepts in Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c40

Language
English

Contents

4. Materials and Concepts in Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī

v2.c40.1

PĀṆINI’S Aṣṭādhyāyī is a veritable store-house of information (Vasu, 1891) on Sanskrit language and ancient India. We learn quite a lot about minerals and metals in ancient India from Pāṇini, who illustrated his grammatical rules by referring to the words of a very great diversity including scientific and technical words (Katre, 1968; vide Appendix ‘C’).

v2.c40.2

It is widely accepted that Pāṇini was born at Śalātura which has been identified with Lahur, a small town four miles north-west of Ohind, in the angle of the river Kābul meeting the Indus. The question of Pāṇini’s date has been widely debated. Summarising the various arguments, Agrawala (1953: 455-75) has noted that the various dates assigned by scholars to Pāṇini range from the seventh to the fourth century BC, the majority of scholars being inclined towards the fifth and the fourth century BC. Agrawala himself favours a date about the middle of the fifth century BC and suggests that he was a contemporary of the Nanda King named Mahānanda.

v2.c40.3

The scholars who prefer the later dates presume that Pāṇini’s work has not been touched or amended by his followers. This assumption may not be perfectly valid. At least in one case we find that the reference to the Kedara gold coin (Pāṇ. 5.2.120) corresponds to the post-Christian era and therefore could hardly have been made by Pāṇini himself. We may conclude that Pāṇini lived around 500 BC near the ancient city of Takṣaśilā or Taxilā after this was founded under the Achaemenid influence.

v2.c40.4

The second urbanisation in India started around the early part of the first millennium BC. Settlements grew into small kingdoms or janapada about which an early reference is available in Chāndogya Upaniṣad (5.11.5). There must have been a boost to mining and metallurgy in the north-western part of India after the partly successful intrusion of the Persians into India during the later half of the sixth century BC. Pāṇini’s work reveals the contemporary awareness and activities in the fields of (a) mine and mineral engineering, (b) extractive metallurgy, (c) minerals and inorganic compounds, (d) metals, (e) coinage metals besides the development of several other technical and scientific concepts.

Mine and Mineral Engineering

v2.c40.s1.1

Pāṇini recognised that the word khan or to dig (well, mine etc.) had appeared in the Chandas or the Vedic literature. He explained (3.2.67) the genesis of the derivative words ākhanika and khanitra meaning a spade. Mani-prastāra (3.3.32) or scattering or vein of gems was recorded as an important mineralogical information. The commercial importance of mining during Pāṇini’s time is revealed from his discussion on ākarika (4.3.75) which meant miner, mining officer as well as mining revenue.

v2.c40.s1.2

Utilisation of big-size rocks containing specific minerals involved size-reduction and purification and, in the case of metal extraction, certain steps in process metallurgy. Jambhaka (7.1.61) alluded to crushing using jaw which reminds us of the modern-day jaw crusher. Further size reduction or grinding peṣam could be done under dry condition (śuṣka/rūkṣa/cūrṇa) or under wet condition (udpeṣam) (Pāṇ., 3.4. 35-38, 6.3.58, etc.). Crushing resulted in small particles of different sizes and densities, and therefore these were separated (or purified) from each other by several technique including winnowing or paripavana (8.4.34). Winnowing is a pneumatic (air) separation/purification technique exemplified in the traditional separation between rice and husk. Pavana means air and pāvaka means purifier. There seems to be an etymological relationship between the two words.

Extractive Metallurgy

v2.c40.s2.1

An ore is defined as a metal-bearing rock from which metal may be extracted by process or extractive metallurgy. The art of making copper from its ore was known in the Pre-Harappan age, and iron-making was discovered around 1200 BC. The Vedic literatures contain references to blacksmiths or kārmāra blowing air (dhma) in a furnace. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa mentions bhastrā merely as a leather bag. Pāṇini explains for the first time, the use of leather bellows in a furnace for blowing air into it. A furnace may have more than one bellow in which case it is called bahubhastrikā (7.3.47). Bellow pipe and pair of bellows with nozzles have been found in the Parthian stratum in Sirkap during the excavations at Taxila.

v2.c40.s2.2

The word bhraṣṭṛ in Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.4.47 and 8.2.36 — meaning ‘one who roasts’ — suggests that sulphide ores were probably roasted before smelting. Samid-dṛṣada, fuel stone or firewood was mentioned by Pāṇini (5.4.106). Was it coal or lignite by chance, or some plain hard firewood? Probably it was used in the metallurgical furnace. The scholars who do not have metallurgical background may have difficulty in appreciating the link between the words pūta (cleaned, purified) and pūti (foul smelling, putrid, stinking). Copper and other sulphide minerals were purified (pūta) in the furnace or smelter which produced foul furnace (pūti) smell (gandha) of sulphur dioxide. Thus, the sulphide smelting furnace could be called pūtigandhi (Pāṇ., 5.4.135). Crude metal was further purified in crucibles. Pāṇini does not seem to mention mūṣā, the Indian word for crucible, which appeared in the post-Pāṇini literatures. However, Pāṇini mentioned sruva or ladle (6.3.115) from which liquid gushes out, and might have observed molten metal being poured from a ladle for the operation of casting in mould.

v2.c40.s2.3

In the Vedic literatures, the word maṇi was used in a general sense indicating anything ‘which decorates’. Quite a few materials of organic origin were known and used: ivory, conch-shell, coral, pearl, etc. In Pāṇini, we find the mentioning of several colouring agents — some organic dyes such as raucanikā, haridrā, lākṣā (known even earlier), kajjala or lamp black, etc. and some inorganic pigments such as rocanā (4.2.2) which is probably yellow arsenic sulphide, called orpiment.

v2.c40.s2.4

Lohitaka (red) and sasyaka (blue gem) are mentioned by Pāṇini (5.4.30 and 5.2.68). The most interesting reference about a mineral in Pāṇini is related to cat’s eye, beryl or vaidūrya. In 4.3.84 Pāṇini states that the minerals came from the city of Vidura, and that is how the word vaidūrya (originating in Vidura) was derived. Later, it was stated by Patañjali that the mines of vaidūrya were in the mount Vālavāya, but the gem was cut in Vidura (Bhāṣya, 4.3.84; 2.3.13). We are not sure about the location of Vālavāya mountain. This was probably in the Deccan. Pāṇini had geographical acquaintance down south up to the site of Aśmaka on the river Godāvarī. The city of Vidura was probably in the Vidarbha region in Madhya Pradesh. The pale green gem mineral vaidūrya became one of the most precious items adored by the Indians.

v2.c40.s2.5

Pāṇini explained in 5.4.94 that ayas stands for metal in general, but when qualified, it could mean a specific metal such as kālāyasa, black metal or iron, lohitāyasa, red metal or copper. Thus ayas was taken both as a genus (jāti) as well as species (saṃjñā). Unless qualified otherwise, ayas sometimes meant iron. The world *lauha* meaning iron evolved much later. It could have originated either from *loha* (red) meaning that which is extracted from the red ore of hematite; alternatively, it could have been a verbal derivative from *lu* which means to cut, sever, or divide, *lauha* meaning something which cuts, severs or divides. The second postulate receives some support from the fact that *lavitra* meaning a sickle (3.2.184) is related to the verb *lū*.

v2.c40.s2.6

Another word related to *ayas* is *ghana* or *ghna*. *Ghana* means compact, solid, hard, firm, dense (Pāṇ., 3.3.77-78). Pāṇini continues in the text 3.3.79-83 to explain that *ghana* is often used as *ghna* or *han*, meaning one which destroys or deforms. In this sense, *ayoghana* or *ayoghna* meant forge hammer or sledge hammer (3.3.82), *udghana* carpenter's bench, *vighana* hammer or mallet, *drughana* an axe (3.3.82) *stambaghana* meaning small hoe for weeding clumps of grass and so on. A related word, *parigha* (3.3.84) or *parighana*, earlier used in the Vedic literatures, meant an iron beam used for locking or shutting the gate or an iron club. From the word tongs (*kutilikā*), the blacksmith, *karmāra* was also known as *kautilika*. Whereas *ayasmaya* meant metallic (1.4.20), *ayo-vikāra* stood for iron fabric (4.1.42) and *āyah-śulika* meant iron spike (5.2.76).

v2.c40.s2.7

Pāṇini mentioned that the words *lohitāyasa* (copper), *trapu* (tin), *kāṃsya* (bronze or bell metal) had been used in the Vedic literatures. A newly defined term *trāpusam* meant modification or *vikāra* of *trapu*, i.e., an alloy of tin, just as *jātusam* meant modification of *jatu* or lac (Pāṇ., 4.3.138). This shows that tin and bronze (copper-tin alloy; *kāṃsa*) were commonly used during Pāṇini's time. Whether *kāṃsa* meant brass (copper-zinc alloy) also, is not known. Possibly brass became popular in Taxilā after the instrusion of the Greeks. *Ghosa* came to mean bronze long after Pāṇini's time. Pāṇini was probably the first to mention the word *kupya* indicating base metal other than gold and silver (3.1.114).

Gold and Coins

v2.c40.s3.1

The goldsmith was known as *svaranakāra*, who made ornaments as well as coins of gold and silver. Pāṇini referred to some special ornaments; ear-rings (*karṇikā*, later the famous term *maṇikarṇikā* associated with Vārāṇasī), frontlets (*lalatikā*), finger-rings (*aṅguliyaka*) (4.3.62-65), etc. *Ākarṣika* was one skilled person who could test gold on the touchstone (*ākarsa*, 5.2.64). The goldsmith undertook three kinds of jobs. (Agrawala, 1953:235) He could start with new gold or silver bar or ingot brought to him. Secondly, he could melt and re-shape old ornaments: *niṣatapati suvarṇam*. Thirdly he could repolish or brighten the old ornaments by heating them only once (*anāsevane* : Pāṇ., 8.3.102).

v2.c40.s3.2

The earliest historical record of the Indian coins is found in Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī. We have noticed that the Vedic literatures mentioned the golden niṣka, sometimes as an ornament and sometimes as a medium of exchange. We postulate that the word niṣka was etymologically related to the word niṣaya mentioned by Pāṇini to indicate binding, meaning financial bond or commitment. Pāṇini referred to several derivative terms based on niṣka: dviniṣka (two niṣka or units of money), bahunaiṣkikam (worth many niṣkas — Pāṇ., 5.1.30), uttamanaiṣkikam (worth the highest niṣka or denomination of money — Pāṇ., 5.1.20). Gold was known as jātarūpa, ‘beautiful when it appears’. Pāṇini forwarded a linguistic hypothesis (we are not sure of its validity) that all words for gold indicating weight or measure (of money) end with an e.g. suvarṇa, svarṇa, hiranya, etc.

v2.c40.s3.3

jātarūpebhyaḥ parimāṇe aṇ (Pāṇ., 4.3.153).

v2.c40.s3.4

Similarly when a weight of copper was used as coin, it was known as paṇa : paṇaḥ parimāṇe (Pāṇ., 5.1.34).

v2.c40.s3.5

Pāṇini also explained the genesis of the word for silver : rūpyaḥ or raupya. Next to gold, silver was used as the coinage metal. Some form (rūpa) of the king or ruler was embossed (āhatam) : rūpāt, āhata, praśamsayoḥ yap (Pāṇ., 5.2.120). Thus raupya was derived from rūpa and became the new name of rajata or silver during the Achaemenid rule (sixth century BC). There was a special name for a stamped or embossed silver coin vārk rūpya or silver stamped with vṛka die (Pāṇ., 4.2.106).

Śatamāna to Kārṣāpaṇa

v2.c40.s3.t1.1

V.S. Agrawala (1953:471) pointed out that śatamāna as a coin had been mentioned in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa only in those Kāṇḍas (5 and 12-14) associated with the name of later day sage Yājñavalkya. Thus this currency probably existed during the latter part of the Brāhmaṇa era (c. eighth-fifth century BC). Pāṇini witnessed the transition of the Indian coinage system from the śatamāna to the kārṣāpaṇa denomination. Pāṇini also mentioned a gold coin vista of 80 rattis or ratikās (Pāṇ., 4.1.22; 5.1.31).

v2.c40.s3.t1.2

Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (13.4.2.10) made it clear that both gold as well as silver śatamāna coins were in circulation. No gold śatamāna has been discovered; probably all such objects were ultimately melted and re-used for some other purpose.

v2.c40.s3.t1.3

The heavist silver punch-marked pieces so far discovered are the oblong bars in the Bhir Mound at Taxilā assignable to the middle of the fourth century BC. These are twice as heavy as the Achaemenid or Persian siglos. Weighing around 180 grains or 100 ratti/māna/kṛṣṇalas, the Taxilā bent bar coins (śalākā) probably represent the ancient śatamāna coins (Pāṇ., 5.1.27).

v2.c40.s3.t1.4

The most important (one-eighth) fraction of śatamāna was a śāna (Mahābhārata, Āraṇyakaparva, 134.14). Pāṇini refers to the silver coin śāna in several places (5.1.35-36; 7.3.17). He refers to certain taxes levied in East India (6.3.10), on which the Kāśikā cites sūpeśanaḥ (6.2.64 and 6.3.10)—a special cess at the rate of one śāna coin per kitchen (sūpa) or household.

v2.c40.s3.t1.5

The kārṣāpaṇa monetary system started around sixth century BC probably as a standard for collecting kara or tax, toll and royal revenue (Pāṇini, 5.1.29 and 6.3.10). The word kārṣāpaṇa is unknown in the Saṃhitā or Brāhmaṇa literature, and is peculiarly a Sanskrit term of the Sūtra period. (Agrawala, 1953:264) Numerous hoards of this punch-marked coin, also known simply as paṇa, have been found in various parts of India. The sub-multiples of kārṣāpaṇa were known as: ardha (1/2), pāda (1/4), dvi-māṣa (1/8), māṣa (1/16) and ardha-māṣa or kākaṇī (1/32) and ardha-kākaṇī (1/64). Pāṇini mentioned part of this series in 5.1.34: paṇa-pāda-māṣa-śatādyāt. Pāda means a quarter, and there had been pāda-niṣka or panniṣka coins in the Vedic age. In Pāṇini 5.1.34, pāda meant quarter of a kārṣāpaṇa.

v2.c40.s3.t1.6

Māṣa in the above sūtra was both a silver and a copper coin. The silver māṣa was one-sixteenth of a kārṣāpaṇa and weighed 2 rattis or 2 kṛṣṇalas or 3.6 grs:

v2.c40.s3.t1.7

द्वे कृष्णले समधृतो विज्ञेयो रौप्य-माषकः
dve kṛṣṇale samadhṛto vijñeyo raupya-māṣakaḥ
(Manu, 8.135).

v2.c40.s3.t1.8

Actual specimens of silver māṣa coins have been found in a hoard at Bhir mound, Taxilā. These are minute coins, 0.2. inch diameter weighing 2-3 grains.

v2.c40.s3.t1.9

The copper māṣa was a sub-multiple of the copper kārṣāpaṇa and weighed 5 rattis, i.e., one-sixteenth of a tāmrika-paṇa of 80 rattis. The kākaṇī and ardha-kākaṇī copper coins were not mentioned by Pāṇini, and became common later during the period of Kauṭilya.

v2.c40.s3.t1.10

The silver kārṣāpaṇa of 32 rattis was upgraded by the Nandas. Instead of 16 māṣa kārṣāpaṇa they introduced heavier 20 māṣa silver coin which came to be known as vimśatika. Pāṇini mentioned (5.1.24) vimśatika as well as the 30 māṣa trimśatika coins being in circulation.

v2.c40.s3.t1.11

We have mentioned Pāṇini’s explanation as to how the word raupya for silver originated: on a silver coin the rūpa or form of the king was embossed. “The mode of manufacturing the punch-marked silver coins was first to get ready a hammered sheet, which was then cut into strips, and sub-divided into lengths of approximately the desired weight, which was adjusted by clipping the corners when necessary”. After this, the metallic pieces were subjected to the process of stamping symbols on them by means of a separate punch for each symbol. It is this particular stage in the process of manufacture to which Pāṇini refers in the famous sūtra:

v2.c40.s3.t1.12

रूपात् आहत प्रशंसयोः यप्
rūpāt āhata praśaṃsayoh yap
(5.2.120)
‘Silver was stamped with a praise-worthy form’.

v2.c40.s3.t1.13

Whereas kārṣāpaṇa was a punch-marked coin, the later day dināra (Denarious) and kedāra (Kedāra Kuṣāṇa coin third century AD) were actually cast in moulds and not punched.

Concept of Unit Operations

v2.c40.s4.1

The modern terminology ‘unit operation’ means the physcial step(s) which are important pre-requisites towards purification and preparation of materials with or without some chemical change termed as ‘unit process’. Pāṇini’s India was familiar with quite a few unit operation principles.

v2.c40.s4.2

Drava (Pāṇ., 3.3.27) meant melting or something which can be melted. Few more words were also used to denote melting: pralaya (melting, losing shape, dissolution — Pāṇ., 7.3.2), vipātana (melting of loha or copper, sneha or fat — Pāṇ., 7.3.39), etc. Sru meant (for liquid) to flow or gush out (Pāṇ., 7.2.13) and the derivative sruva (6.3.115) an object like a ladle, from which liquid gushes out.

v2.c40.s4.3

The opposite of drava (melting), pralaya (losing shape) and sru (to flow) was reckoned as the phenomenon of a molten object or liquid becoming frozen (śita, 6.1.24-26) or solidified (mur, 6.4.21). From mur was derived mūrtta and mūrti, the phenomenon of assuming shape which is possible only for a solidifying object. Coagulation is the aggregation of dispersed phase in a heterogeneous system not necessarily accompanied by loss of heat, as exemplified in coagulation of the protein matter from milk. This phenomenon of coagulation (śīna — coagulated) was distinguished from the process of being frozen (śīta) on account of cooling (Pāṇ., 6.1.24-26).

v2.c40.s4.4

It was realised in ancient India that preparation of material such as somajuice, surā, gold, copper, etc. often involved separation from impurities or purification. The first two alphabets in ‘pure’, namely pu meant ‘to purify’. The link between the European word and the Sanskritic origin is so obvious. Pūta meant ‘cleaned or purified’ (Pāṇ. 6.2.187), and pāva stood for ‘purifying, clarifying or cleaning’ (Pāṇ., 3.3.28 and 49). The words derived from pāva strongly suggest how a particular kind of purification may take place. Niṣpāva, for example, stands for winnowing as well as a step of purification which involves (ni or) downward movement. We have explained that winnowing does involve differential downward movements of particles of different sizes and densities.

v2.c40.s4.5

Utpāva meant a purification step involving some kind of ascent which is implicit in evaporation (upward escape of water vapour from ghī being purified through heating over fire — Pāṇ., 3.3.49) and distillation (in which the escaping vapour is condensed to yield pure liquid as in the case of alcohol, mercury, etc.). The idea of vapour going over for subsequent condensation was reflected in the word pārāyaṇa (5.1.72). Although Pāṇini did not state ‘distillation’ as one of the meanings of pārāyaṇa (going over), and did not refer to pārā or pārada (mercury, which is purified by distillation), the link between the words is quite obvious.

v2.c40.s4.6

Pāṇini mentioned that the word kṣariti means to flow, break away, glide or to distil (7.2.34). The basic idea was the transport of one component or its migration from another. (Akṣara meant the opposite of removal, i.e., that which is indestructible). Pāṇini categorically mentioned kṣara to mean distillation and kṣaraja to mean a substance produced by distillation (Pāṇ. 6.3.16).

v2.c40.s4.7

Allchin (1979) mentioned India as ‘the ancient home of distillation’. The earliest literary reference related to kṣara, yam . . . na viśvadhakṣaradhyai (Rgveda, 1.63.8) refers to rain-water being discharged by Indra all over the world, and clearly alludes to the later part (condensation) of distillation. Pāṇini referred to a distiller as śauṇḍika (4.3.106), the word alluding to intoxication rather than the distilled product causing it.

v2.c40.s4.8

Apart from distilling alcohol or surā, the ancient Indians of the pre-Christian era most probably distilled mercury and zinc also. In Taxilā certain artefacts unearthed look like distillation outfits. Vermillion (assaying 85 per cent plus mercuric sulphide HgS) found in Taxilā might have been used not only as a pigment but also to produce mercury by distillation. A brass vase assaying 34.34 per cent zinc (Marshall, 1951: 568) could not be obtained by the cementation process; zinc metal for this must have been prepared separately by a distillation process. It is significant that while mercury was later mentioned as rasa, zinc came to be known as rasaka, probably implying the ‘juice’ which is obtained like rasa, by a similar process (of distillation).

v2.c40.s4.9

Certain unit operations, though not practised in the area of minerals and metals, were very useful in terms of food processing. We have indicated that winnowing or nispāva using a winnow or śūrpa was widely practised in the ancient India, starting from the Harappan age, for separating grain from husk. Niṣkoṣaṇa meant extraction in the sense of husking shelling of grains, disembowelling, de-seeding of fruits, etc. (Pāṇ., 5.4.62). Such a technique was used for removing the cortex from agate mineral grains also. Su and āsu meant to press out the juice from materials like soma plant-stem and tendril, and the oil from the vegetable oil-seeds (Pāṇ., 3.1.126; 3.2.103; 7.2.72, etc.). After squeezing the juice out, it was necessary to strain or filter the soma-juice, etc. free from suspended solids. Wire-mesh, fibre-mesh or cloth was used as a filtering medium. Such a step of purification was known as prapavana (Pāṇ., 8.4.34), this word being one more in the series derived from the base pu meaning purification.

Technical Concepts in Aṣṭādhyāyī

v2.c40.s5.1

Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī contains references to not only the uses of materials, such as minerals and metals in ancient India, but also to the mode and rationality of the said uses. Besides the unit operations, several thought processes or technical concepts were illustrated.

v2.c40.s5.2

Pāṇini elevated his work on grammar to the level of a science of languages, explaining in great detail the verbal and other kinds of roots of large number of Sanskritic words. He never lost objectivity and admitted that some words were coined accidentally and did not have any clear root. The surprising thing is that he could discover the dhātu (root or constituent) of such a large number of words.

v2.c40.s5.3

Padārtha originally meant the meaning (artha) of a word (pada) and very soon came to denote a thing, material or object whose name conveys a district meaning or a material which is well-defined (Pāṇ., 1.4.96). Thus Pāṇini brought us from the linguistic to the material science. During Pāṇini’s time, dhātu meant the constituent, and later it denoted metallic constituent or a metal. Sattva meant reality, substance or the essence of an object (Pāṇ., 1.4.57; 2.3.33). The Rasa-Śāstras of the post-Christian era adopted the word sattva to mean the metallic essence in the ore mineral(s).

v2.c40.s5.4

Pāṇini’s outstanding deliberation on words denoting concepts, shines brilliantly in several instances, e.g., pramāṇa, upajñā and upakrama. Pramāṇa originally meant (and still means) a standard or scale for measurement and therefore an ‘authority’ (Pāṇ., 3.4.51; 4.1.24; 5.2.37; 6.2.4 & 12). Gradually the idea of ‘proof’ originated from the notion of authenticating an object or an idea through its reference to a previously accepted yardstick or an axiom (pramā means basis or foundation). Thus *pramāṇa* came to mean a scientific or logical proof.

v2.c40.s5.5

Notwithstanding the dogmatic belief of some traditional scholars in the ‘infallibility’ of the Vedas which are supposed to be the ‘repositories of all knowledge’, the non-traditional scholars of the ancient India adored *upajñā* and *upakrama*. Pāṇini honoured this tradition of searching for truth by explaining that *upajñā* meant discovery or invention by one’s self, a new knowledge not handed down by tradition. This newly acquired knowledge in its turn gives rise to a new enterprise or application, that is *upakrama* (Pāṇ., 2.4.21; 4.3.115 and 6.2.14). Even the modern science and technology rest upon the conceptual trinity of *pramāṇa*, *upajñā* and *upakrama*.

v2.c40.s5.6

Agrawala, V.S., 1953, *India as known to Pāṇini*, University of Lucknow.

v2.c40.s5.7

Allchin, F.R., 1979, India: the Ancient Home of Distillation, In *Man* 14(1), 1979, pp. 55-63.

v2.c40.s5.8

Katre, S.M., 1968, *Dictionary of Pāṇini*, Deccan College, Pune, 3 Volumes.

v2.c40.s5.9

Marshall, John, 1951, *Taxila-Archaeological Excavation*, 1951, 3 Volumes, 1975 edition.

v2.c40.s5.10

Monier-Williams, M., 1899; *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1986 edition.

v2.c40.s5.11

Vasu, Srisa Chandra, 1891, *The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini*, edited and translated, Motilal Banarsidass, 2 Volumes, 1962 reprint.

Linked texts (7)