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A Concise History of Science in India c10: 6 Agriculture

A Concise History of Science in India c10

Language
English

Contents

6 Agriculture

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S. P. RAYCHAUDHURI LALLANJI GOPAL B. V. SUBBARAYAPPA

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The word ‘agriculture’ (*agri* = field; culture = tillage) means tillage of the soil leading to production of crops. The origin of agriculture could be traced to the early human attempts at settling down in congenial environments and gradually exploiting the animal and plant resources which were found easily accessible. Undoubtedly, wild plants, their roots, fruits and seeds were among the principal plant resources belonging to the vegetable kingdom used as food by early man. In course of time it is natural to suppose that he must have gained a practical knowledge of their growth-characteristics, factors conducive to their rearing as well as reproduction, and their effect on the human system. There were indeed several steps between the necessity of gathering wild fruits, roots and seeds, and that of the regular cultivation of plants which produce them. When man began to lead a settled life, possibly being assured of an adequate supply of wild plant products some of which he could also store for a reasonable period, he was doubtless in a definite position to indulge in what may be called plant domestication even if it was on a small scale. The archaeological evidence indicates that in the old world the main area of such a domestication of plants was the Near East which is sometimes referred to as the ‘Fertile crescent’, and which includeda Mesopotamia, eastern coast of the Mediterranean and the Nile valley. It is now known that by about the eighth or seventh millennium b.c., there were definite practices of plant domestication in the Near East although the beginnings of cultivation occurred at different periods in different places of the region. The digging stick and the hoe were the early contrivances of cultivation and the plough appears to have arrived on the scene by about the fourth millennium b.c. (probably in the eastern Mediterranean region) when agriculture became one of the most important productive enterprises.b In India, the history of agriculture begins with the practices of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley riparian culture. The fertile alluvial soil, rather a heavy monsoon rainfall at that time and the water of the Indus were conducive to the growth of a number of domesticated plants. As Marshall says: ‘Great cities with teeming populations like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa could never have come into being save in a country which was capable of producing food on a big scale, and where the presence of a great river made transport, irrigation and trade easy.’a Indeed the economy of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization was based on agricultural produce, which was quite substantial, although it would appear that, when compared with that of Mesopotamia, it was noticeably less. As regards the agricultural implements, they did not know the use of plough, but had only toothed harrow as may be inferred from one of the Indus ideograms.b They, however, knew the technique of flood-irrigation.

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a Candolle, pp. 2–3.

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b *Encyclopaedia Britannica* (edition 1969), pp. 369 ff.

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It has been surmised that a certain jar-type of pottery (called ‘scored pottery’) might have been used by the farmers of Mohenjo-daro as an appliance for raising water in a manner similar to that of the wheel used in most parts of the Near and Middle East even now. The specimens found at the Mohenjo-daro have deep grooves suggestive of the possibility of their being lashed to a wheel. The base and the rim of this type of pottery are also of shapes suitable to the operation of taking out water. However, in view of the fact that a number of these have been found near small public wells, it has been doubted whether they were used for obtaining a constant stream of water. Mackay says: ‘It is more than probable that some arrangement for drawing water for irrigation, by means of an endless rope working on a wheel, with pottery vessels attached to it at intervals, was in use in Sind and other parts of Western India from very early times, though it may not have taken the form of the modern wheel. The latter may have been an improvement introduced into India from Persia. The use of the so-called Persian wheel is almost exclusively confined to Baluchistan, Sind and the Panjab, and some parts of the Bombay Presidency.’c

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The intensive excavations at Kalibangan, one of the important pre-Harappan sites in Rajasthan, have laid bare a furrowed field showing that even in the third millennium B.C. the technique of agriculture was of a sufficiently developed type.

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The querns found in the excavations show how the grinding of the grain was done on an extensive scale. Agriculture in those days mainly comprised cultivation of wheat, barley, sesamum, peas, cotton, date-palm, pomegranate and banana. It is indeed interesting to note that at Mohenjodaro the wheat unearthed (*Triticum sphaerococcum* or *Triticum compactum*) belongs to a group which is still cultivated in the region of modern Panjab.d

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a Marshall, I, f.n. 1.

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b Kosambi, pp. 62–64.

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c Marshall, I, f.n. 318.

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d Marshall, I, p. 27.

The Vedic Period

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In the Vedic period agriculture was an important vocation and the agricultural practices had social and religious undertones even. Domestic (*gṛhya*) rites and festivals then, as now, often synchronized with the four main agricultural operations of ploughing, sowing, reaping and threshing.a Some of the *gṛhya* rites also implied the need for maintaining cattle in abundance. That the Vedic people attached great importance to agriculture can be very well understood by the reference made to it in the several hymns. A Ṛgvedic hymn says: 'With the master of the field, our friend, we triumph; may he bestow upon us cattle, horses, nourishment, for by such (gifts) he makes us happy... May the herbs (of the field) be sweet for us; may the heavens, the waters, the firmament be kind to us; may the lord of the field be gracious to us... May the oxen (draw) happily; the men (labour) happily; the plough furrow happily... Auspicious *Sītā* (furrow), be present, we glorify thee: that thou mayst be propitious to us, that thou mayst yield us abundant fruit... May the ploughshares break upon land happily; may the ploughman go happily with the oxen; may Parjanya (water the earth) with sweet showers happily...'.b Similar ideas are expressed in the *Atharvaveda*c which has also a number of hymns which are in the nature of invocation to the god of plenty, of rain and of cattle with a view to getting good harvests and cattle wealth. These reveal that the agricultural practice was regarded as one of noble occupations.

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The Vedic word used to denote agriculture is *kṛṣi* which literally means the act of ploughing, the produce being called *sasya*. The Ṛgvedic terms like *yavaṁ kṛṣ* and *sasya* have their identities with the expressions *yao karesh* and *hahya* in the *Avesta*, indicating a possible relation between the agricultural practices of the Vedic India and those of Iran. The agricultural implements mentioned in the Vedic literature include the plough (*lāṅgala*,d *phāla*,e *sīra*f and *sītā*) and *dātra*,g *sṛṇī*.h *Lāṅgala* was of a lace-pointed type, having a smooth handle, while *sīra* was a large and heavy one. Sieve (*titau*) was in use to separate the grain from the straw, and winnowing (*śūrpa*) was resorted to. *Ūrdara*i was the vessel used for measuring the grain.

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Plough (*lāṅgala*) was used extensively, drawn by oxen in teams of six, eight or even twelve, and repeated ploughingj was resorted to with a view to enabling the soil to acquire the desired quality. The ploughland was called *urvarā* or *kṣetra*. Cow-dung (*śakṛt*) was used as manure and the dried cow-dung (*karīṣa*) was found to be better. The *Kāṭhaka Saṁhitā* describes a process of cultivation as well as harvesting using the plough and sicklek respectively. Agriculture was considered by the Vedic people as one of reproduction in much the same way as human procreation, as the *Atharvaveda* says: ‘Scatter the seeds in the prepared ground (*yoni*)’.

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a *Śat. Br.*, I, 6.1.3.

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b *RV.*, IV, 57.1–3.

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c *AV.*, III, 17.

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d *RV.*, IV, 57.4; *AV.*, II, 8.4; *Taitt. S.*, VI, 6.7.4.

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e *RV.*, IV, 57.8; X, 117.7.

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f *RV.*, X, 101.3–4; IV, 57.7.

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g *RV.*, VIII, 78.10.

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h *RV.*, I, 58.4.

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i *RV.*, II, 14.11.

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j *RV.*, I, 23.15.

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k *Kāṭh. S.*, XVI, 10.

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Of the important grains grown during the Vedic period, viz. wheat, rice and barley, it is significant to note that the *Ṛgveda* does not mention rice at all. Obviously, then, rice was a wild growth and not yet cultivated in the area in which the *Ṛgveda* was compiled. It began to be grown at a later time as evidenced by the reference to rice in the *Taittirīya* and the *Kāṭhaka Saṃhitās*, and the *Atharvaveda*. The term used for rice of good quality is *taṇḍula*, *vrīhi* and *śāli*, and for the wild variety, *nīvāra*. The *Taittirīya* even refers to the husked (*karṇa*) and unhusked (*akarṇa*) rice.

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The Vedic farmers knew the method of improving the fertility of the soil by what may be called the method of rotation. As the *Taittirīya Saṃhitā* mentions, ‘rotation of crops’ might have been practised inasmuch as rice would be sown in summer and pulses in winter on the same field. According to Roxburgh, the Father of Indian Botany, ‘the Western World is to be indebted to India for this system of sowing’. Generally, in the Vedic period two harvests a year were gathered. The made of stone; and water was raised, with the help of the wheel, in a pail using a leather strap. Yet another device is referred to as *droṇa*, which was a sloop. There was also a *ghaṭayantra* or *udghāṭana* which was of the type of a drum-shaped wheel round which went a pair of endless ropes with *ghaṭa* or earthen pots tied to them at equal distances. The technical details of all these devices are, however, still unavailable.

The Post-Vedic Period

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In the post-Vedic period, the political unification which was brought about by the monarchs of Magadha contributed a great deal to the development of agriculture. It must be emphasized that the State then had an established machinery for collecting taxes from its subjects who followed different vocations, the principal ones which provided the people with the means of livelihood being *kṛṣi* (agriculture), *paśupālana* (cattle-tending) and *vāṇijya* (trade). The three together were recognized as *vārttā* (derived from *vṛtti*, meaning livelihood). The most important of the three vocations was, as could be expected, agriculture. The rural economy was based upon the *grāma-kṣetra* (the arable land of the village) which was cultivated not unoften by means of co-operative irrigation. There were also large holdings—estates of 1,000 *karīsas* (probably acres) or even more and one which required for its cultivation as many as 500 ploughs and a number of hired labourers to ply the ploughs with their oxen.

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The *Arthaśāstra* of Kauṭilya contains information of value to the understanding of importance of agriculture in those days. Undoubtedly, the State gave considerable encouragement to the settlement of people on unoccupied (*śūnyaniveśa*) land with a view to not only providing them with employment but also increasing the agricultural production. It also supported the construction as well as maintenance of irrigation works and was vigilant so as to ensure continued tilling of the lands, making the act of keeping the fertile land uncultivated, a punishable offence soil which would be conducive to their efficacy. The two medical classics give details of the distinctive traits of different types of soil commended for the culture of medicinal herbs and certain grains. Suśruta recommends a ground 'which possesses a soil which is glossy, firm, black, yellowish or red and does not contain any sand, ash or any other alkaline substance, is permeable to the germination of seeds and easily pervious to the roots of plants growing thereon, and which is supplied with the necessary moisture from a nearby stream or reservoir of water'.a He divides the land into three categories, viz. *jāṅgala*, *anūpa* and *sādhāraṇa*, according to the geographic and climatic conditions. *Jāṅgala* is one which presents a flat surface and has scanty growth of thorny shrubs, isolated hills or knolls, where strong gales of warm wind blow and water gets drained. *Anūpa* is a watery or swampy region with woods and forests, hilly and which is impassable owing to its network of rivers and sheets of accumulated water. *Sādhāraṇa* is midway between the two. A similar type of classification is found in the *Caraka Saṃhitā*.b

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The *Arthaśāstra*, which throws enough light on the state of agriculture possibly of its time, speaks of the science of agriculture and the Director of Agriculturec (*Sītādhyakṣa*). The latter was expected to be conversant with the suitability of the soil, ploughing, preparation of the soil, selection of proper seeds, etc., on the one hand, and the amount of rainfall that was expected to occur in different seasons of the year on the other. The text says: 'In conformity with that, he (the Director) should cause crops to be sown, requiring plenty or little water. *Śāli*-rice, *vrīhi*-rice, *kodrava*, sesamum, *priyaṅgu*, *dāraka* and *varaka* (*Phaseolus trilobus*) are the first sowings. *Mudga*, *māṣa* and *śaimbya* are the middle sowings. Safflower, lentils, horse-gram, barley, wheat, *kalāya*, linseed and mustard are the last sowings … which should be in conformity with the season … A (region) where the foam strikes (*phenāghātaḥ*) the banks is suited for creeper fruits; (regions on) the outskirts of overflows, for long pepper, grapes and sugar-cane; those on the borders of wells, for vegetables and roots, those on the borders of moist beds of lakes, for green grass …'

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The *Arthaśāstra* refers to the preparation of the field by ploughing three times (*trīn karṣakān*) in heavy rains.d Often deep ploughing was done. The ploughshare which was fitted in the central bent portion (*potra*) of the plough was made of iron.

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According to this text, the seeds need treatment before sowing, keeping the seeds (rice, wheat, barley) in the dew (by night) and drying in the sun (by day) for a week would bestow on them the desirable qualities. The seeds of pulses were to be similarly treated for three to five days and nights. Honey, ghee, pig's fat, cow's dung, etc., were also used for treating different seeds. When sprouted, the seeds were fed with fresh acrid fish along with the milk of *snuhi* (*Euphorbia antiquorum*) plant. Though the text does not give details of the method of watering different plants, it significantly asserts that ‘the (farmers) shall pay a water-rate of one-fifth when lifted from rivers, lakes, tanks and wells’.a Irrigated cultivation has been classified so as to include flower-gardens, fruit-orchards, vegetables, wet cropfields and roots.

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a *CS. Sū.*, 37, 1.

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b *CS. Sū.*, 6.7.

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c *Aś.*, 2, 24.11 and 22.

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d *Aś.*, 2, 24.9.

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Pāṇinib mentions a practical classification in terms of cultivated and uncultivated lands. The former was known as *karṣa* and the latter included *ūṣara* (waste land) and *gocara* (pasture). The fields were also classified on the basis of the crops grown (*vraiheya* where *vrīhi* was raised; *śaileya*—*śāli*; *māṣya*—beans; *tilya*—sesamum, etc.) and also the quantities of seed required for sowing (*prasthika*—field sown with a *prastha* measure of seed; *drauṇika*—*droṇa*, etc.).

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There were three crops, one sown in the rainy season and collected in granary in Māgha (January-February), another sown in autumn and collected in granary before Caitra (March-April) and the third sown in spring and stored by Jyeṣṭha (May-June). Two or three crops in a year imply the knowledge of crop rotation. No doubt rotation of crops as a scientific method developed in modern times. Without implying that such a practice was consciously developed with the help of scientific observations, we may say that the knowledge of the requirements of different crops and the different harvest seasons may have led to a rudimentary form of crop rotation. But it must be added that the method had not come into general practice. The cultivator took advantage of the double or triple harvest system or kept the fields fallow depending on the wealth of his fields and as his resources permitted or his needs required. A passage in the *Arthaśāstra* suggesting that for augmenting the finances, the administration could prevail upon the cultivators to raise a second crop indicates that the practice of keeping lands fallow was also resorted to in many cases. The sowing of mixed crops was also widely practised. Patañjali tells us that sesamum was sown with beans (main crop), and the ploughing was done according to the requirements of the main crop. The seeds of the minor crop used to be sown by scattering them here and there.c

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As a recognition of high position accorded to agriculture by the rulers as well as the people at large, the construction of tanks and other types of reservoirs was considered to be an act of religious merit even. Construction of irrigation works was regarded as one of the most important welfare activities which the State was expected to provide. There are many inscriptions testifying that the rulers honoured this responsibility with devotion. The Maurya monarchs took keen interest in the irrigation schemes. This is borne out by the account of Megasthenesd who speaks of a band of officers who ‘superintend the rivers, measure the land, as is done in Egypt, and inspect the sluices by which the water is let out from the main canals into their branches, so that everyone may have an equal supply of it’. An irrigation work of historical significance in Saurāṣṭra, called Sudarśana Lake, was constructed by Puṣyagupta under Chandragupta Maurya and restored later by Tusaṣpa, the Yavana governor of Aśoka. The vast reservoir suffered a breach (420 cubits long and 75 cubits deep) in the second century A.D., owing to heavy flood and onrush of the rivers Suvarnarekha, Palasini, etc., and was repaired by the Parthian *amātya* Suviśākha who was the governor of Rudradāman, the Śaka ruler of that time, at the latter's personal cost.a There is no doubt that on this lake depended the prosperity of the people of that area for a long time. In western India the successors of Rudradāman continued the tradition of constructing tanks.

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a *Aś.*, 2, 24.18.

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b Agrawala, pp. 195–97.

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c Agrawala, p. 200.

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d Abo, XV, 1.50–52.

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In the central and south India huge tanks of great engineering skill were constructed. The technical skill that went into the construction of these tanks is clear from the fact that some of them even now serve the purpose for which they were made. The pioneer work in this respect was done by Karikala I, who reigned towards the close of the first century A.D., when he tamed the river Kaveri by means of embankments for utilization of the water of the Kaveri through a number of canals. He also excavated tanks for the benefit of those parts of the kingdom which could not receive water from the river. In those days in south India there used to be tank sub-committees of the village assembly, which looked after the maintenance of tanks.

Classical Age and Later

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In the Classical Age and later, agriculture made great headway as indicated by the wide variety of agricultural products grown in different parts of the country, and also the royal encouragement given to irrigation works. The well-organized governments under the Guptas in the Gangetic basin, Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar, of the Vākāṭakas and Chālukyas in the Deccan and of the Pallavas in the south took keen interest in, and adopted concerted measures for, the development of agriculture, which led to increased agricultural produce and a flourishing trade in a number of agricultural products. The State had realized the importance of the cultivation of waste lands (*khila*) and so offered liberal terms to the people to purchase them. Land-grants were also made by them on many occasions. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who visited India at this time gives an account of the agricultural as well as horticultural products grown in different regions, such as rice, wheat, ginger, mustard, tamarind, mango, melon, wood-apple, pear, plum, peach and apricot. He even speaks of a variety of rice produced at Po-li-ye-ta-lo (Pāriyātra, i.e. Bairat) which ripened in 60 days.b There is no denying the fact that in the period under reference food-grains and fruits were being cultivated on an extensive scale in several parts of the country. A number of literary works of the period, including the encyclopaedic ones, allude directly or indirectly to the agricultural practice as well as the rich produce. While the encyclopaedic ones like the *Amarakośa* and the *Bṛhatsaṃhitā* have in them sections on certain aspects of agriculture, a specific text known as *Kṛṣi Parāśara* deals entirely with agriculture. The contents of the latter may be taken to be as clearly indicative of the then existing knowledge and practice relating to agriculture, such as soil classification and land use, manuring, rotation of crops, irrigation, agricultural meteorology, tillage implements, protection of crops from diseases and pests, care of draught animal and grazing of cattle. The *Kṛṣi Parāśara* asserts: ‘… one taking to agriculture can become a sovereign monarch in the world. Rice is vitality, rice is vigour too, and rice (indeed) is the means of fulfilment of all the needs (of life). Gods, demons and human beings—all subsist on rice… Blessed is agriculture, holy agriculture and agriculture is the life of creatures… One furrow is conducive to victory, three are the givers of success and furrows numbering five give always crops.’a

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a Sharma (R. S.), pp. 95–96.

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b Watters, p. 300.

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The text no doubt has portions relating to rites and ceremonies in association with various agricultural operations. Not infrequently superstitious ideas, too, find expression in it. Nevertheless, it must be noted that religious practices of several descriptions were intricately woven into the social fabric of the ancient Indians and, as agriculture was the mainstay of the people, religious rites of superstitious nature were considered necessary in order to be successful in that operation which was, more often than naught, a gamble in rain.

Soil Classification and Land Use

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The suitability of different lands for the cultivation of different crops and herbs enumerated in the *Arthaśāstra* and the medical classics respectively has been mentioned already. But the *Amarakośa* describes 12 types of land depending upon the fertility of the soil, irrigation and physical characteristics. The 12 types as mentioned in the *Bhūmivarga*b of this lexicon are: *urvarā* (fertile), *ūṣara* (barren), *maru* (desert), *aprahata* (fallow), *śādvala* (grassy), *paṅkila* (muddy), *jalaprāyamanūpa* (watery), *kaccha* (land contiguous to water), *śarkarā* (land full of pebbles and pieces of limestone), *śarkarāvatī* (sandy), *nadīmātṛka* (land watered from a river) and *devamātṛka* (land watered by rain). In the *Vaiśyavarga*c we are informed of the different kinds of soils particularly fit for the cultivation of different kinds of crops as follows: *kṣetram*—rice and corn; *yavya*—barley; *tailīnam*—sesamum; *maudgīnam*—green gram, etc. There are also different names for lands ploughed once, twice and thrice, and at several stages.

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Use of Manure

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The *Bṛhatsaṃhitā*d prescribes that seeds which have been properly treated are to be sown with the addition of pork or venison into the soil (where previously sesame crop was raised, dug up and trodden) and sprinkled daily with water mixed with milk (*kṣīra*). It says further:a ‘To promote inflorescence and fructification, a mixture of one *āḍhaka* (64 *palas*) of sesame, 2 *āḍhakas* of excreta of goats or sheep, one *prastha* (16 *palas*) of barley powder, one *tolā* of beef thrown into one *droṇa* (256 *palas*) of water and standing over seven nights should be poured round the roots of the plant.’ In order to ensure sprouting and growth of luxurious stem and foliage, according to the *Bṛhatsaṁhitā*,b the seed should be soaked in an infusion made of paddy powder, *urad* (*māṣa*), sesame and barley which are mixed with decomposing flesh and the whole mass steamed with the addition of turmeric (*haridrā*). For the growth of *kapittha* (*Feronia elephantum*), the seeds should be soaked for a short time in a decoction of *āsphoṭa* (Jasmine), *āmalaki* (*Phyllanthus embellicus*), *dhava* (*Grislea tomentosa*), *vāsaka* (*Justica adhatoda*), *vetula* (*Calamus rotung*), *sūryavallī* (*Gynandropsis pentaphyta*), *śyāmā* (*Echites fructescens*) and *atimuktaka* (*Aganosma caryophyllata*) boiled in milk. The soaked seeds should be dried in the sun and the process is to be repeated for a month. A circular hole is to be made in the ground (1 cubit in diameter and 2 cubits in depth), and the milky decoction poured into it. When it dries up, it is burnt and pasted over with ashes mixed with ghee and honey. Three inches of soil should now be thrown into them along with the powder of bean, sesame and barley, and then again three inches of soil. Finally, washings of fish are to be sprinkled and the mud beaten to a thick consistency. Now the treated seeds should be placed in the hole.c

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a *Kṛ. P.*, 3–8, 143.

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b *Amara.*, 5–6, 10–13.

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c *Amara.*, 6–8.

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d *Bṛh. S.*, 55, 19–20.

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According to the *Agnipurāṇa*,d ‘a tree becomes laden with flowers and fruits by manuring the soil with powdered barley, sesamum and the offal matter of a goat mixed together and soaked in washings of beef for seven consecutive nights. A good growth of these is secured by sprinkling the washings of fish on them’.

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The *Kṛṣi Parāśara* says: ‘In the month of *Māgha* a dung heap is to be raised with the help of a spade. When it becomes dried in the sun, smaller balls are made out of it. In the month of *Phālguna*, the dried balls are placed into holes dug for the purpose in the field, and at the time of sowing they are scattered into the field.’e The practice of not disturbing the dung heap for a month means the minimization of the loss of nitrogen, the chief fertilizing element, that of drying into balls results in the reduction of active ammonia which may be injurious to the plants, while that of placing the dung balls into pits increases the humus which undoubtedly contributes to the fertility of the soil.

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The use of flesh of animals, fish-washings, vegetable products and the farm-yard manure consisting of the excreta of various animals, mixed with litter which would absorb the animal urine, indicates that the farmers of the ancient period were well aware of their fertilizing property and also the physical effects of the manure upon the texture and water-holding power of the soil, although they did not certainly possess the precise chemical knowledge of these fertilizers. It is now known that the farm-yard manure contains all the essential plant nutrients, viz. nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. It is obvious that the knowledge of manuring in those early days was apparently the result of extensive practical observations and not based on the laboratory observations of the modern type.

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a *Bṛh. S.*, 55, 17–18.

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b *Bṛh. S.*, 55, 26–27.

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c *Bṛh. S.*, 55, 22–26.

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d *Ag. Pu.*, 282, 11–12.

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e *Kṛ. P.*, 109–110.

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*Agricultural Implements and Accessories*

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The *Amarakośa* lists a number of agricultural implements such as plough (*lāṅgala*, *hala*), pin of yoke (*yugakīlaka*), shaft of the plough (*lāṅgaladaṇḍa*), goad (*prājana*, *tọdana*), harrow (*koṭiśa*), spade or hoe (*khanitra*), sickle (*dātra*, *lavitra*), tie for fastening the yoke to the plough (*yotra*), post for threshing grain on the floor (*medhī*), winnowing basket (*śūrpa*, *prasphoṭana*) and sieve (*cālanī*, *titau*).a But it is in the *Kṛṣi Parāśara* that we find a detailed description of the plough. According to this text the plough consists of the following parts:b *Yuga* (yoke), *aḍḍacalla* (pins of the yoke), *īṣa* (pole of the plough), *niryola* (rod of the plough exclusive of the pole and the ploughshare), *śaula* (an extra piece of wood that tightly fixes the *niryola* to the pole), *niryolapāśikā* (plates), *halasthāṇu* (strong piece of wood fixed to the *niryola* at the end opposite to where the ploughshare is fixed), *paccanī* (goad made of bamboo with iron top), *abandha* (iron rod which prevents *niryola* from getting out of the pole, *yoktra* (tie) and *phāla* (ploughshare). The text also gives dimensions of some of the parts in terms of plough.

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In addition, details are also given of *sṛṇī* (sickle), *khanitra* (hoe), *musala* (pestle), *udūkhala* (mortar), *śūrpa* (winnowing basket), *dhānyakṛt* (winnowing fan), *cālanī* (sieve) and *methī* (threshing post).

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*Irrigation*

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As already noted, one of the types of land went under the appelation *nadī-mātṛka* which depended on irrigation utilizing the river water. There is enough evidence to indicate that due recognition was given to irrigation, both natural and artificial. The former channelled the water of the rivers and the monsoons in the northern and north-eastern parts of India respectively and the latter which utilized the stored water in tanks, pools and wells was adopted in the central, north-western and southern parts of India.

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The *Nāradasmṛti* states that the erection of dyke in the middle of another man's field is not prohibited in view of the fact that it would be advantageous for irrigation purposes, while the loss is trifling. It states further that a man with the permission of the owner canc restore a decayed dyke although without the owner's consent he cannot use it. Nārada classifies the dykes into *kheyā* (which is dug into the soil to drain off excess water) and *bandhya* (which is constructed to prevent the water from flowing out).a

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a * Vaiśyavarga, 12–15, 26.

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b *Kṛ. P.*, 110–17.

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c *Nār. Smṛ.*, 11, 17 and 20.

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The State evinced keen interest in the upkeep of irrigation works and even framed rules for their proper functioning. A large number of canals were constructed with a view to not only carrying the water from the rivers or tanks but also preventing the lands from being inundated by swollen rivers. Rightly, therefore, the *Amarakośa* refers to the canals as drains (*jalanirgamah*).b In the eighth century A.D. King Lalitāditya of Kashmir got constructed a series of water-wheels to distribute the seasonal flood waters of the Vitasta and the Mahāpadma lakes to various villages and this resulted in the irrigation of the fields. Later in the ninth century, during the reign of Avantivarman, his minister Sūrya constructed a number of dams and irrigation canals which enabled the country to possess abundant agricultural produce.c

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Reference has been made already to the Sudarśana Lake. When this lake burst again due to heavy rainfall, Cakrapālita, who was the governor of the region, reconstructed it after two months' effort involving huge expenditure. The embankment made was 100 cubits in length, 68 cubits in breadth and seven-man heightd (about 312 cubits).

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Crops

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In the Gupta period there were three harvests—summer, autumnal and vernal crops—as mentioned in the *Bṛhatsaṁhitā*.e The seeds sown in summer would be duly reaped in *Śrāvaṇa* (early part of autumn) and the harvest was known as autumn crops. The grains sown in autumn yielded vernal crops and those sown in early spring gave the summer crops in *Caitra* or *Vaiśākha*.f It is reasonable to suppose that the first two crops were stable crops such as rice and wheat, and the last was of pulses, beans, etc. The rules of cultivation depending upon the season, rainfall, etc., had established themselves and the farmers had the necessary practical knowledge of engaging in agricultural operations leading to the production of a number of grains. A number of crops were grown during this period such as rice, wheat, barley, peas, lentil, pulses, spices and vegetables. Kālidāsa in his *Raghuvaṁśa* refers to paddy being grown in the fields of Bengal.g The varieties of rice grown included *śāli*, *kamalā*, *nīvāra*, *uñccha*-paddy and *śyāmāka*-paddy, red rice, yellow rice and hog's rice... *Śāli*-paddy was grown as transplantation and this means that the transplantation technique was known to the cultivators. Wheat was grown in the Panjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and Rajasthan, as a *rabi* or winter crop and wherever possible through irrigation. Of the vegetables grown, the *Amarakośa* mentions cucumber, onion, pumpkin and gourd. Sugar-cane was cultivated in the fields where rice used to be grown and harvested generally in winter. Cotton was grown mainly in Saurāṣṭra or Kathiawar. The cultivation of silk-cotton, flax and hemp was also known. Pepper and cardamom were grown principally in the southern parts of India, particularly in the valleys of the modern Nilgiris. The other spices grown included mustard, cloves, ginger and turmeric. Saffron, betel-nut, tamarind, sesamum, linseed, *priyaṅgu*, aloe, indigo, etc., were also raised. Of the number of fruits grown, mango was the most popular. Coconut was extensively used in the coastal areas of Bengal, Orissa and Madras.

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a *Nār. Smṛ.*, 9, 18.

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b *Amara., Pātālavarga*, 7.

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c *Rājt.*, 4, 191; 5, 69–72, 80–121.

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d *E.I.*, VIII, 43.

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e *Bṛh. S.*, 8, 47; 9, 42–43; 11, 2–3; 25, 2; 27, 1.

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f *Bṛh. S.*, 8,12.

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g Maity, pp. 80–81.

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*Treatment of Plant Diseases*

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The *Vṛkṣāyurveda* of Śūrapāla, which is believed to have been written by about the tenth century A.D., gives an interesting account of treating the plant diseases. The diseases of all trees are classified into two groups, viz. (i) those arising from the body, e.g. internal, and (ii) those attacking from outside. The bodily or internal diseases are said to arise from disorders of the wind (*vāta*), phlegm (*kapha*) and bile (*pitta*), while the extraneous ailments are caused by vermin, frost, etc. To indicate some of the well-known methods of treatment mentioned in the text,a the relevant translations of the Sanskrit portions are given below:

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‘One should cure the diseases of wind-disorders by the administration of flesh, lymph, fat and *ghee*. Nutriment provided by these substances removes all wind-troubles.
Liberal fumigations with oils in which soap-berry, cow’s horn, horse’s hair, black pepper, *ghee* and porpoise have been boiled, and the lymph of a hog added, quickly remove the diseases of the wind.
The trees are cured of bilious diseases by being watered with the decoctions of liquorice, honey and *madhuka* and with milk mixed with honey.
All kinds of trees are relieved of bilious diseases if they are watered with the decoction (?) of the three myrobalans in which *ghee* and honey have been mixed.
Insects are destroyed by the administration of water containing milk, carcass, *vacā* and cow-dung, and by the plaster prepared from white mustard, *mustā* grass, *vacā*, *kuṣṭha* and *ativia*.
Fumigation of the tree with the fumes of white mustard, *rāmatha* (?), *viḍaṅga*, *vacā*, black pepper, beef, *ambu* (a kind of Andropogan), horn of buffalo and flesh of a pigeon, mixed with the powder of *lodhra*, at once destroys the colonies of insects infesting the trees.
Plastering with *viḍaṅga* mixed with *ghee*, irrigation with diluted milk for seven days and a poultice of beef, white mustard and sesamum are effective in destroying insects like *kandara* (?).

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a Manuscript, Oxford, No. 324 B (Mr. Walkar 137). available in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.

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Injury caused by insects is healed by a plaster of *vidaṅga*, sesamum, cow's urine, *ghee* and white mustard and by watering with milk.

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The broken trees are (healed and) restored to health if their fractures are filled with fertile soil, plastered with (the powder of) the barks of *plakṣa* and *udumbara* mixed with *ghee*, honey, wine and milk and then tightly tied with ropes and sprinkled with buffalo's milk and, finally, watered copiously at the roots.

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The trees, whose branches have fallen off, would grow branches so abundantly that they would obstruct the view of the sky, if the broken ends of their branches are plastered with honey and *ghee* and they are watered with diluted milk and fumigated.

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Trees damaged by fire would cover the sky with foliage, if they are plastered all over with the paste of the lotus-plant and fed with carcass-water.

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Trees struck by lightning would bear beautiful leaves, if they are plastered with *vidārī*, sugar, red arsenic and sesamum and watered with diluted milk.'

Animal Husbandry

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In the ancient period, a good deal of attention was paid to animal husbandry which included breeding, feeding and maintenance of domestic animals or livestock. Cows and bulls particularly received special treatment. The *Bṛhaspati-smṛti* prescribes severe and cruel punishment for the theft of a cow.a The offender was made to lick a ploughshare made of iron having weight of 12 *palas* and heated to redness. If he was not *burnt* in this process, he would be set free. Bulls and bullocks which were employed widely as draught animals were looked after with great care. The *Kṛṣi Parāśara*b contains a number of rules of tending the cattle. Practically every village possessed common pasture and woodlands and places of drinking-water for the cattle. Cowsheds were always kept clean and the *Kṛṣi Parāśara* gives directions as to how the shed could be kept clean.c According to this text, a shed measuring five by five (?) is good for the healthy growth of cattle and 'the washing of rice, hot scum of the boiled rice, fish broth, cotton seeds and husk, if kept in the cowshed, prove baneful to the cattle'. Incidentally, this gives an idea of the fodder of the cattle at that time. 'To safeguard against the breaking out of diseases, the shed should be occasionally fumigated with vapours of *devadāru* (*Pinus deodara*), *vacā* (oris root), *māṁsī* (pulp of some fruits?), *guggulu* (a fragrant gum resin), *hiṅg* (asafoetida) and mustard seeds mixed together', according to the *Agnipurāṇa*.d The *Viṣṇudharmottara*e describes certain medical practices of treating the diseased cattle for curing their affected horn, ear, eyes, tooth, tongue, throat, bladder, etc. The text says that oil in which the pounded mass of ginger, *baṭa* and *jaṭāmāṃsī* has been cooked, and rock-salt and honey added, should be applied to the roots of the horns. The powder of the roots of wood-apple tree, *apāmārga*, *dhātakī*, *paṭala* and *kuṭaja* when rubbed into gums removes toothache. Ginger, turmeric and the three myrobalans are indicated in the cure of sore-throat, and a certain prepared collyrium for the eyes. For the reunion of fractures, *priyaṅgu* mixed with salt is recommended. The bilious disorders are stated to be cured by the administration of cow’s *ghee* in which liquorice has been cooked. Ailing calves should be made to drink *pāṭhā* stirred in butter-milk or turmeric dissolved in milk for the alleviation of their suffering. Oilcake in general was considered to be an elixir for the cattle. Salt is to be given to the cattle once in 15 days to prevent constipation, colic diseases and loss of appetite.a On the whole, animal husbandry was of sufficiently high order in the ancient period.

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a *Bṛh. Smṛ.*, 10, 2.

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b *Kṛ. P.*, 84–88.

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c *Kṛ. P.*, 89–92.

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d *Ag. Pu.*, 292, 33.

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e *Vi. Pu.*, 2, 43.1–27.

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In the ancient period, agriculture in India, though noted for its extensive and vigorous growth, was not entirely free from conventional practices which sometimes bordered on superstitions and astrological beliefs. Agricultural meteorology, for that matter, was undoubtedly based on conventional knowledge and a good deal of astrological calculations made inroads into it. The rainfall in different seasons of the year was sought to be correlated with the *nakṣatras* or lunar asterisms, and one of the planets was considered to be the presiding deity of the rainfall of the year. The commencement of the agricultural operation, worship of the plough and the animals, auspicious time for harvesting, etc., were conceived in terms of the prevailing planetary influences. Even now, this type of knowledge is current in most rural parts of the country.

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While considering agricultural practices in India in the ancient period, there is one important aspect which should not go unnoticed. India for ages has been known for its pithy sayings and proverbs which contain specialized information on various subjects in an epigrammatic style. These are in several Indian languages like Maithili, Tamil, Bengali and Hindi. Many a popular saying has been found in one of the manuscripts on *Vṛkṣāyurveda* and in the *Kṛṣi Parāśara* enshrined in the Adyar Library, Madras. Some of these sayings are given below:b

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‘Wheat should be sown in a somewhat dry field and barley in a wet field. If there is heavy rain, then chicken-pea should be sown.
Maize, jowar and millet should be sown somewhat sparesely.
Whosoever sows millet at the intervals of a step, and jowar at the intervals of frog’s leap, would be able to fill his barn with the crop.
If the August-September (*Bhadon*) sowing of paddy be done in a field which has been well dug up and prepared (in the month of *Jeṭh*, i.e. May-June), then there would be plenty of rice-flakes (*chinda*) to enjoy.

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a *Vi. Pu.*, 2, 43.28.

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b *Vṛ. Āyur.*, 91–178.

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Poppy and linseed should be sown (close) in a wet field.

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In one *bighā* of land the following quantities of different seeds should be sown:

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| Barley and wheat | .. | .. | 25 seersa each |
| Peas | .. | .. | 30 seers |
| Chicken-peas | .. | .. | 15 ,, |
| Maize | .. | .. | 2 ,, |
| Arhar, methi and urad | | .. | 2 ,, |
| Cotton | .. | .. | 1½ seer |
| Rice | .. | .. | 25 seers |
| Jodhan | .. | .. | 15 ,, |
| Sāwan (rice) | | .. | 1½ seer |
| Sesamum and mustard | | .. | A handful each |
| Barrain and kodan | | .. | One seer each |
| Linseed | .. | .. | 1½ seer |
| Millet, bajri and sāwan | | .. | 1½ ,, |
| Kodan and kakun | | .. | ½ ,, |

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A cultivator who sows according to the above proportion would be rewarded with double the crop.

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If there be moisture below (in the soil) and clouds above, then the veterans declare that *gerui* disease would be rampant.

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If the east wind blows during the month of *Phāgun* (February-March), then wheat crop would be infected with *gerui*.

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If the east wind blows in the months of *Māgha* and *Pauṣ* (December-January), then mustard would be eaten away by *mohun* (an insect).

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If the south wind blows, how it would be possible to taste the scum of boiled rice (for, there would be no harvest of paddy)?

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The *gerui* disease begins when the sun is in the sign of Aquarius (i.e. February-March) and disappears when it is in the sign of Pisces (March-April). It starts from the stalk and eats away the leaves.

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If wheat is infected with *gerui* and paddy with *gandhi*, then the cultivator would die of starvation (i.e. want of food-grains).

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If in the month of *Māgha* (January-February) the colour of the cloud is red, then surely there would be a shower of hail-stones.

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If chicken-pea crop is chilled with cold, then it could be eaten away by the insect called *gadhaita*.

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If there is rainfall under the *Citrā* constellation, then the entire harvest would perish.

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Under the *Maghā* constellation the locusts thrive and under the *Pūrvā dāns* (insects) flourish. But under *Uttara* all these are destroyed.

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If there is continuous rainfall day and night, then *sāwan* and *sathi* would be ready for harvesting in 60 days.

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a 1 seer = about 2 lb.

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With rainfall under the constellation *Maghā* and food served by the mother, the starving person (would get so much that he) will not have to pray to God for food.
If there be rainfall at the rise of constellation *Citrā* and at the setting of *Hastā*, then the people would not complain howsoever heavily they may be taxed by the king.
If the weather is not sufficiently cold in the month of *Māgha* (January-February), then take it for granted, my friend, that food-grains would become dear (by their prices rising high).
If the south wind blows during the months of *Pauṣ* and *Māgha*, then it is a good sign for (rainfall during) the month of *Sāwan*.
If there is rainfall under the *Maghā* constellation, then all food-grains will have good crop.
If the *Hastā* constellation wags its tail (i.e. sends showers just before setting), then the wheat would thrive without much effort.'

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Agriculture as an avowed occupation of the countless Indian peasants flourished with centuries of experience and struggle against the natural oddity in the plains, the hilly tracts and in areas where semi-arid conditions prevailed. With passage of time cultivated areas were on the increase, more rivers harnessed for irrigation and more tanks, wells and other reservoirs constructed. For in the ancient period, Indian economy was intimately interlocked with agriculture.

The Medieval Period

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In the medieval period, the pattern of agricultural practices was more or less the same as that in early India, save for important changes which were evident in the introduction of new crops, trees as well as certain horticultural plants by the foreign traders and introduction of new land tenure system by the rulers during the period. The geographic distribution of the main food-crops was also more or less the same as we find it today. In respect of irrigation, newer efforts were made to construct canals of great length, and tanks, big and small, in great numbers, the former being noticeable particularly in the north-western part of India and the latter in south India.

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An account is given in the chapter on Botany of the principal crops, viz. wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton and sugar-cane, and also some of the new plants introduced in this period. It may be noted that the cultivation of cotton was on the increase and that of sugar-cane more widespread in the Mughal times.a Bayona region was producing the best indigo, while Malwa and Bihar were known for the production of opium. On the Western Ghats, the cultivation of coffee plants had just begun in the seventeenth century, though the coffee seeds obtained were not of good quality. Western Kashmir was famous for saffron and fruits, the Pandyan kingdom for ginger and cinnamon, Malabar for cardamom and the Malay hills (modern Ootacamund) for the fragrant sandalwood and Kerala, South Canara and Bengal for coconuts. In particular, Kerala was the land of the coconuts and by-products which with salt panned at the seashore paid for the major imports of cloth, metals and even grains. Out of the fibres of the nut ropes were made and used for binding the ships together and also as cables. The kernel found use not only as the main ingredient of a number of sweetmeats but also as a source of oil which was used, as it is now, for lighting purposes and as hair-oil. The other products included charcoal from shell, the trunk of the tree for construction of shelters and houses, fishing boats, etc.

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a Habib, pp. 36 ff.

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Of the new plants introduced in this period, the cashew (the nut) of South American origin was the most valuable as a money crop then as now. The cultivation of pineapple did not register significant progress, while the potato, guava and custard apple grew better outside Goa where they were introduced first by the Portuguese in the early sixteenth century. About a.d. 1550, the Jesuits of Goa introduced systematic mango-grafting, which improved the Indian fruit out of all recognition and created a further source of income for the horticulturists. Tobacco and chillies (*capsicum*) were also introduced in India in the latter half of the sixteenth century.a

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In respect of irrigation, wells, tanks and canals continued to be the principal means. In the Upper Gangetic plains and *Dakhiṇa*b wells were common. In the Panjab, *arhat* or *rahat* (Persian wheel) was used as a device for lifting water while in the Agra region the *charas*, a sort of a bucket made of leather, was used to lift water with the help of yoked oxen. At places where the water-table was rather high, *denkli*, which was based on the lever principle, was in use. In the south, tanks were constructed in increasing numbers. A Chola king built the Great Anicut (below the island of Srirangam across the river Kaveri) which was a huge dam constructed out of unhewn stone, 1,080 feet long and 40–60 feet broad.c There was yet another tank at Porumamilla of greater dimensions—some 6,250 yards long (slightly less than four miles), 83 yards in height and 10 yards broad or wide. This tank was completed in two years probably in the thirteenth century a.d. and we are informed by the Porumamilla tank inscription (a.d. 1291) that there were 1,000 labourers working every day and a fleet of 100 carts were pressed into service to bring the masonry material for the construction of the sluice and the dam. Tank-digging was considered to be one of the greatest meritorious acts in which the king and the people at large took abiding interest. The tank builders exhibited extraordinary skill not only in the construction of tanks but also in the restoration of breaches and distribution of excess of water from tank to tank in times of floods.d Wells were also in use for purposes of irrigation and the water-lifting device employed was known as *ettam*, a type of pulley-wheel with a bucket suspended by rope and worked by hand. In south India the canals were relatively small.

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a Gode (P. K.), III, p. 25.

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b Habib, p. 26.

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c *Imperial Gazetteer of India*, IX, p. 306.

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d Appadorai, pp. 204–12.

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In areas near the sea such as Kerala and Goa, where the country consists of hilly land and the main food-producing soil lies at the bottom of the valley, it was recognized that to prevent water-logging the stream had to be allowed to flow at a rate that would keep the water-table high enough for the cultivation of rice, the only crop grown on such lands. It was also recognized that the salt water from the estuaries should not be allowed to enter at high tide, i.e. dykes must be kept in constant repair, and for this purpose strong flood gates were operated by one or more paid servants. Up some of the streams seasonal clay dykes were built for regulating the water-supply. The land at the bottom of the valley was held in common without fixed partition among the members of the agricultural community. The lower land was separated from the second level by rivetted embankments rising from three to ten feet. The hilltop land was generally held in common for grazing as well as for obtaining firewood. The rest of the land was assigned to the joint families for raising plantation crops. There were also plots for slash and burn cultivation on the sloping hillside. Flat patches on the hilltops provided naturally the soil for cultivation as usual. It may be added that the salt and fish from the sea were mixed with plant ashes and used as fertilizer.

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Cites (16)