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Bharatiya Jyotihshastra (History of Indian Astronomy), translated by R. V. Vaidya v1.c6: Bhuvana Saṃsthā (The Celestial Sphere)

Bhāratīya Jyotiḥśāstra (History of Indian Astronomy), translated by R. V. Vaidya v1.c6

Language
English

Contents

Bhuvana Saṃsthā (The Celestial Sphere)

v1.c6.1

According to our astronomical works the earth is at the centre of the Universe; the moon and other bodies revolve around it; their order is, the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the starry belt; the Zodiac revolves round the axis joining the two fixed poles. The earth is round, it stands supportless and is enveloped by air which is called *bhūvāyu* or earthly-air, Above this is the sky, where blows the wind called *pravaha* by the force of which the moon and other heavenly bodies are kept in motion, and they revolve round the earth. This description is found in all *Siddhānta* works and *Tantras*, but not in *Karaṇa*-works. It is also found in the *Pañca-Siddhāntikā*. In no man-made or written works on astronomy do we find an expression of views more ancient than those found in the *Pañca-Siddhāntikā* and hence the lines presenting the above ideas are quoted below :

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पञ्चमहाभूतयस्तारापंजरे महीगोलः ।। खेयस्कांतांतःस्थो लोह इवावस्थितो वृत्तः ।।१।। मेरोः समोपरि वियतक्षो व्योम्नि स्थितो ध्रुवोऽधोन्यः ।। तत्र निबद्धो मरुता प्रवहण आभ्यते भगणः ।।५।। चंद्रादूर्ध्वं बुधसितरविकुजजीवाकजास्ततो भान ।।३६।।

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"The round ball of the earth, composed of the five elements, abides in space in the midst of the starry sphere, like a piece of iron suspended between magnets. 1. Straight above *meru* in space one pole is seen; the other pole is seen below, placed in space. Fastened to the poles the sphere of the stars is driven round by the *pravaha* wind. 5. Above the moon there are Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and then the stars. 39."* —*Trailokya Saṃsthāna, Chapter 13*.

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The starry belt, along with planets, appears to make one complete revolution round the earth in about one day. But it was only Āryabhaṭa I, who held the modern view that this diurnal motion is not real but apparent and is caused by the diurnal rotation of the earth; others held that the diurnal motion of the starry belt was real and almost all the authors of *Siddhāntas* have blamed Āryabhaṭa for holding a divergent view.

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The planets appear to move from west to east with respect to the stars and in the science of astronomy this kind of planetary motions have principally to be dealt with. The *Sūrya-Siddhānta* has explained this eastward motion of planets as follows :—

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पश्चाद् व्रजंतोऽतिजवा नक्षत्रैः सततं ग्रहाः ।। जीयमानास्तु लंबंते तुल्यमेव स्वमार्गगाः ।।२५।।

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"The planets being overtaken by the stars moving with greater speed in their westward motion, fall behind equal distances in their orbits (and hence they get an eastward motion)"—*Madhyamādhikāra-25*.

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In substance, this means that the diurnal motions of planets being less than those of the stars, the planets lag behind and hence they appear to move eastward with respect to the stars.

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Āryabhaṭa I had already taken it for granted that the diurnal motion of the stars was not real and hence it was not necessary for him to make any assumption like the above to explain the eastward motion of the planets. He had already assumed a real eastward motion for them.

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Another kind of assumption which has been made about the motion of planets is that their eastward motions in their orbits are equal. But the distances of planets from the earth being unequal, the orbits of farther planets are wider than those of the nearer ones; and that is the reason why we notice difference in their eastward motions. The moon being nearest to the earth has the swiftest motion and Saturn being the farthest of all planets, its motion is the slowest. The Pañca-Siddhāntikā says :—

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प्राग्गतयस्तुल्यजवा प्रहास्तु सर्वे स्वमंडलगाः ॥३६॥
पर्यंत शशी शीघ्रं स्वल्पं नक्षत्रमंडलमस्थः ॥
ऊर्ध्वस्थस्तुल्यजवो विचरति महदर्कजो मंदं ॥४१॥
अ० १३ त्रैलोक्यसंस्थान.

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“All planets move towards the east with the same velocity each in its own orbit. 39. The moon which is placed (lowest) below the sphere of the stars revolves quickly in its small orbit; Saturn which is placed highest above revolves slowly in its large orbit with the same velocity.”—Trailokya Saṁsthāna, Chap. 13.

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One complete revolution of a planet in the zodiac is called *bhagaṇa*. It is obvious that the time for one *bhagaṇa* must have been determined after observing the times taken by the planet in making several revolutions. The astro-mathematical works give the number of *bhagaṇas* which each planet completes in the period of one *Kalpa* or one *Mahāyuga*. The motion of a planet as calculated from these periods using the *bhagaṇas* mentioned by the Pañca-Siddhāntikā must be the same for every day. This is called the ‘mean motion’. But the motion of a planet as actually seen in the sky is not always the same. For instance, Jupiter takes about twelve years for one revolution and hence its mean daily motion comes to be about 5′; but the actual observation of the planet shows that Jupiter sometimes moves faster than that and sometimes slower; its daily motion is sometimes found to be as much as 15′ and sometimes it is slower than even 1′; not only this but sometimes the planet also appears even to move in a reverse direction *i. e.* from east to west (this is called retrograde motion). The planet’s daily motion as is actually seen is termed ‘true or apparent’ motion; similary the planet is actualy found to be somewhat ahead of or behind the position calculated from its mean motion. The real position of a planet is called its ‘true place’ and that found by adopting the mean motion is called its ‘mean place’.

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To find the true place of a planet at a given moment, which in other words is to find where the planet will be observable in the sky at a particular time, is the main subject of the mathematical branch of astronomy.

The Ayana Calana

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(The shifting of the solstitial points)

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The period that elapses between two successive ‘conjunctions’ of the sun with a particular star is termed *Nakṣatra saura varṣa* or ‘Sidereal Solar year’. The two points of intersection of the ecliptic and the equator are called *Sampāta* or *Krāntipāta* (*i.e.* equinoxes). The equinox from which the sun enters into the northern side of the equator and which marks the spring season is known as *Meṣa* or *Vasanta Sampāta*, that is, the vernal equinox.

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Let us suppose that at some time there is a star coinciding with this equinoctial point and that when the sun comes to that point the year commences. The equinox has got a motion, and it recedes back at the rate of 50″ per year. On account of this, the stellar zodiac appears to be moving to the east by an equal arc. The time taken by the sun to return to the same equinox is termed as *Sāmpātik Saura* (*i.e.*, tropical) year. This is also called the *ārtava* (seasonal), and the *sāyana* year. When the sun would return to the same equinox it would, as it were, find the above-mentioned fixed star still 50″ ahead, and it would require about 50 *palas* (twenty minutes) more to arrive at the star. Hence, the sidereal year is found to be longer than the tropical year by about 50 *palas*. The seasons depend upon the tropical year. If there is a particular season when the sun comes to an equinox, the same season would recur every time the sun returns to the same equinox again; on the other hand, it is evident that the same season would not be found recurring at every conjunction of the sun with a star. If one point of the orbit shifts its position every other point also does so. As the equinoctial point recedes, the solstitial points also fall back; hence if the winter solstice is found to occur when the sun is near a particular star, the future solstitial transits will be found occurring gradually further westward from that star. The motion of the solstitial points which is the same as that of the equinoctial points was first detected from the westward position of the sun with respect to stars at the time of successive solstices. Hence, this motion is termed as *Ayana Calana* or the shifting of the solstitial points.

The Yuga System of Measuring Time

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The measure (length) of the *Kaliyuga* is 4,32,000 years. Those of *Dvāpara*, *Tretā* and *Kṛta* are respectively twice, thrice and four times of this. These four *yugas* constitute the *Mahāyuga* and its measure is ten times that of the *Kaliyuga* and is equal to 43,20,000 years. One thousand such *Mahāyugas* make one *Kalpa*, which is known as *Brahmā’s* day. The *Kalpa* contains 14 *Manus*. So far, a period equal to 6 *Manus* and 27 *Mahāyugas* has elapsed from the commencement of the *Kalpa* up to the present *i.e.* the 28th *Mahāyuga*; and after passing through *Kṛta*, *Tretā* and *Dvāpara* of the current *Mahāyuga*, we are now passing through the *Kaliyuga*.

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71 Mahāyugas make one Manu and a period equivalent to a Kṛtayuga known as ‘Manu-sandhi’ (i.e., the transition period between two Manus), is reckoned in the beginning of each Manu period. This means that a period equal to 4567 Kaliyugas have elasped from the commencement of Brahmā’s day up to the present Kaliyuga. All Siddhāntas with the exception of that of Āryabhaṭa agree on these points, although they hold somewhat different views on other matters.

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According to the modern Sūrya-Siddhānta and Āryabhaṭa I, all the seven planets including the sun and the moon were together in the beginning of the present Kaliyuga. In other words, the mean longitude of each of these bodies was zero; but according to Brahmagupta and Āryabhaṭa II, all the planets had such a general conjunction only at the commencement of the Kalpa, and not at that of the present Kaliyuga when they were situated within a range of 3 to 4 degrees from one another. There is yet another divergent view which will be explained later on.

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This book relates the history of the study of the positions and motions of heavenly bodies and that of the development of the various aspects of astronomical knowledge in our country. The ancient name of our country is Bhārata Varṣa, Bhārata Khaṇḍa, or Bhārata. Because this book contains the history of astronomical science in our country, it is titled “Bhāratīya Jyotiṣa Śāstra—(its) Ancient and Modern History”.

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Saṃhitā and Jātaka, the two branches of astronomy, depend upon the motions of planets and stars. The chief aim of our astronomy is the prediction of actual planetary positions, that is foretelling what place in the sky a particular planet would be occupying at a particular time. Its complicatedness is inherent. An accurate knowledge of the mean motions and positions of planets emanates from an accurate knowledge of their true positions and motions. Even before they acquired the capacity to predict accurately their apparent positions, the ancients did possess a tolerably accurate knowledge of planets’ mean motions and positions. This was the preliminary stage. The Siddhāntas and other available astronomical works deal with the calculations of true positions and motions of planets. A considerable period of time must, however, have elapsed before man’s knowledge of astronomy reached that stage.

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The history of astronomy has, therefore, been divided into two major divisions, viz., (i) the Siddhāntic period and (ii) the pre-Siddhāntic period, and accordingly this book has been divided into two parts. ‘Part One’ gives the history of how the people in pre-Siddhāntic age had taken increasing interest in astronomy, how the relevant knowledge had grown, and how it reached the stage of foretelling the true places of planets, this history being traced from the casual astronomical references found in the Vedas, Vedāṅgas Smṛtis and the Mahābhārata, and the subsequent history up to the present time is given in ‘Part Two’. The pre-Siddhāntic period and consequently Part One, has again been sub-divided into two sections : (i) the Vedic period and (ii) the Vedāṅga period. The first section deals with the history of astronomy collected from references found in the Vedic Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇic works and some Upaniṣads. The second section deals with the history of astronomy gleaned from the Vedāṅgas, the Smṛti works and the Mahābhārata. The Vedāṅgas contain two works whose whole subject matter is astronomy. These, however, deal with the mean motions and positions of planets and they are more ancient than the Siddhānta works, and that is why their study is given a place in Part One. A discussion of the limits of the periods to be assigned to the Vedic, the Vedāṅga and the Jyotiṣa-Siddhānta ages is given at the end of the part. ‘Part Two’ is devoted to the history of the three branches of astronomy.

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The history of mathematical astronomy in this part has been presented in the order of adhikāra or chapters, as already mentioned, viz., the mean motions, true motions, etc. A description of the celestial sphere, the system of observation, the precession of solstices, etc., have been given in the same part. In the treatment of these subjects references to several works and authors are required to be quoted, and without their knowledge some difficulty is likely to be experienced in rightly appreciating the discussion. Hence a detailed history of astronomical works and their authors is given in the chapter on the mean motions of planets in the beginning of ‘Part Two’ and a discussion of the mean places and motions of planets will be found in the same chapter. The chapter on the ‘true motions’ is devoted to the study of true positions, motions of planets and a detailed description of the five parts of the Pañcāṅga (almanac) and that of different Pañcāṅgas current in different provinces of our country.

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An adequate idea regarding the subjects and the order in which they are dealt with in the two parts may be obtained from the table of contents.

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HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY DURING

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THE VEDIC & THE VEDANGA PERIODS

Section I: The Vedic Period

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Let us consider what subjects relating to astronomy are found in the Vedas and in what manner they have been treated. It need not be explained that the Vedas are not essentially a literature solely devoted to astronomy, and it is, therefore, obvious that no astronomical information would have deliberately been presented through them. Hence, all that one can do is to draw certain general inferences from the astronomical ideas occurring incidentally among other things, and where such inferences cannot be drawn in the absence of sufficient material of a consistent nature, to make a bare statement of stray ideas that may have been elicited.

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Even a cursory glance at the Vedas will at once show that our ancient ancestors had a great liking for the observation of natural phenomena, particularly the wonders of the sky. If one looks into any of the Vedas or even any part or any chapter thereof, it would not generally happen that one does not come across some passages describing the sky, the moon and the sun, the dawn and the sun beams, the stars and asterisms, the seasons and months, the day and night or the wind and clouds. The description itself is enchanting, life-like, beautiful, amazing and awe-inspiring. The author refrains from giving specimens of such descriptions for that would be a digression needlessly leading us far afield.

Origin of the Universe

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Let us now see what description do we find in the Vedas about the “creation of the world” and the “structure of the universe”.

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देवानां नु वयं जाना प्रवोचाम विपन्नया ।। उक्थेषु शस्यमानेषु यः पश्यादुत्तरे युगे ।।१।।
ब्रह्मणस्पतिरेतासं कर्मार इवाधमत् ।। देवानां पूर्वे युगैसतः सदजायत ।।२।।
देवानां युगे प्रथमसतः सदजायत ।। तदाशा अन्वजायंत तदुत्तानपदस्परि ।।३।।
भुर्जज्ञ उत्तानपदो भुव आशा अजायंत ।। अदितर्दक्षो अजायत दक्षाददितिः परि ।।४।।
अदित्त्यं जनिष्ट दक्षया दुहिता तव ।। तां देवा अन्वजायंत भद्रा अमृतबंधवः ।।५।।
ऋ. सं. १०. ७२.

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“(1 and 2) We describe the births of gods in plain words—the (assembly of) gods which even though born in a former *yuga* sees the reciter (*stotā*) in the latter part of the *yuga*, while *śāstras* were sung (in sacrifices) like the *Karmār Brahmanaspati* created the gods. The *sat* (real) was created from *asat* (non-existent) in the first half of the divine *yuga*.

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(3) The *sat* was created from *asat* in the first divine *yuga*; then the directions came into existence and then the *uttāna-pada* followed.

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(4) The *uttāna-pada* gave birth to the earth, which in its turn gave birth to diretions. *Dakṣa* was born of *Aditi*. *Aditi* was born from *Dakṣa*.

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(5) Oh Dakṣa! The praiseworthy and immortal gods were born after your daughter Aditi.” *Ṛk Saṃhitā*, X, 72.

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This means, in a general way, that some kind of Being or Existence arose first, then came into existence the directions and then the earth. The following lines from the *Ṛk Saṃhitā* may be seen :—

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ऋतं च सत्यं चाभीद्धात्तपसोऽध्यजायत ॥ ततो रात्र्यजायत ततः समुद्रो अर्णवः ॥१॥
समुद्रादर्णवादधि संवत्सरो अजायत ॥ अहोरात्राणि विदधद्विश्वस्य मिषतो वशी ॥२॥
सूर्याचंद्रमसौ धाता यथापूर्वमकल्पयत् ॥ दिवं च पृथिवीं चांतरिक्षमथो स्वः ॥३॥
ऋ. सं. १०. १९०.

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“(1) Truth (of thought) and truthfulness (of speech) were born of ardour penance, thence was night generated, thence also the watery ocean.
(2) From the watery ocean was the year afterwards produced, ordaining nights and days, the ruler of every moment.
(3) Dhatri in the beginning created the sun and the moon, the heaven, the earth, the firmament and the happy (sky)”.

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These mantras occur in other Vedas also. The following description is given in a passage in *Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa* :—

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आपो वा इदमग्रे सलिलमासीत् ॥ तेन प्रजापतिरश्राम्यत् ॥ कथमितं स्यादिति ॥
सो पश्यत्पुष्करपर्णं तिष्ठत् ॥ सोमन्वत ॥ अस्ति वै तत् ॥ यस्मिन्निदमधिष्ठिततीति ॥
स वराहरूपं कृत्त्वोपमज्जत् ॥ स पृथिवीमघ आर्छत् ॥ तस्या उपहत्योदम्मज्जेत् ॥
तत्पुष्करपर्णेडप्रथयत् ॥ यदप्रथयत् ॥ तत्पृथिव्यै पृथिवित्वं ॥
अष्टक १ अध्याय १ अनुवाक ३.

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The quotation describes that there was water in the beginning and that the earth was created thereafter. The Taittirīya Saṃhitā also gives similar account of the ‘creation’ in the following lines;—

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आपो वा इदमग्रे सलिलमासीत् तस्मिन् प्रजापतिर्वायुर्भूत्वा चरस्त इमामपश्यत्तां वराहो भूत्वाऽ-
इरस्तां विश्वकर्मा भूत्वा व्यमात् सा प्रथत सा पृथिव्यभवत् तत्पृथिव्यै पृथिवित्वं ॥
अष्टक ७ अध्याय १ अनुवाक ५.

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According to this, water, air, and the earth, is the order of creation. The following passage from one of the Upaniṣads shows a more systematic treatment of the subject of creation.

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तस्माद्वा एतस्मादात्मन आकाशः संभूतः ॥ आकाशाद्वायुः ॥ वायोरग्निः ॥ अग्नेरापः ॥
अद्भ्यः पृथिवी ॥ पृथिव्या ओषधयः ओषधीभ्योन्नं अन्नात् पुरुषः ॥
तैत्तिरीयोपनिषद २. १ (ब्रह्मवल्ली प्रथम खंड)

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“From this Soul (*Ātman*), verily, space (*ākāśa*) arose; from space, wind (*vāyu*); from wind, fire; from fire, water; from water, the earth; from the earth, herbs; from herbs, food; from food, semen; from semen, the person (*puruṣa*).”—*Taittirīya Upaniṣad*, 2.1 Brahma Valli.

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tars and) other gods dwell there. If there be one who has known this, let him come here and relate it to us.”

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The object of the sage is to state that there can be no one who actually knows this.

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Even then it seems that even in the Vedic age, people had a fair knowledge of the structure of the world and at least that of the configuration of the earth.

Configuration of the Universe

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In many places, where a reference is to be made to the world, terms like *Rodasī*, *Dyāvāpṛthivī* or their equivalents, denoting a combination of the heaven and the earth have been used, which in turn shows that the world was supposed to be divided into heaven and earth as its two parts. In some places the heavens are described as being three in number. Three heavens have been indicated at several places in the Rigveda. In some places the heaven is described as the highest part of the sky or the surface of the sky. But in many other places the Universe is supposed to be divided into *Dyu* (sky), *Antarikṣa* (space) and *Pṛthivī* (earth) as the three parts ; of these, the *antarikṣa* lies in an intermediate position between the heaven and the earth and is the abode of the winds, clouds and lightning and the birds fly in it. These three parts are described in clear words in the following well-known lines of the *Puruṣa-Sukta* :—

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नाभ्या आसीदन्तरिक्षं शीर्ष्णो द्यौः समवर्तत ॥ पद्भ्यां भूमिः

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and corresponding to their high and low positions they are believed to have been created respectively from the head, the navel, and the feet of the ‘Supreme Being’.

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The following verses may further be noted :—

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यः पृथिवीं व्यथमानामहंहः पर्वतान् प्रकुपितां अरम्णात् ॥
यो अन्तरिक्षं विममे वरीयो यो द्यामरतभ्नात्स जनास इंद्रः ॥
ऋ. सं. २. १२. १.

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“Oh people ! He is the same god Indra who kept the shaking earth in firm position . . . . . who adjusted the expansive space and who supported the heaven.”

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त्रीणि अश्विना दिव्यानि भेषजा त्रिः पार्थिवानि त्रिः रदत्तमभ्यः ॥
ऋ. सं. १. ३४. ६.

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“Oh Aśvins ! May you give us heavenly medicines thrice from heavens, thrice from the earth and thrice from space.”

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The interpretation of the word *Adbhyaḥ* in the original text is “from the place where water-laden clouds dwell”, meaning the sky (*antarikṣa*); many proofs could be given in support of this interpretation and therefore it is clear that the word *antarikṣa* stands for that space in which water-laden clouds, move.

v1.c6.s3.t2.10

यमहीं रजसो विदुर्विश्वेवासो अद्रुहः । मरुद्भिरग्र आगहि ॥

v1.c6.s3.t2.11

“Oh *Agni* (fire), please come here along with all those *Maruts* (gods) who dwell in the expansive space”.

v1.c6.s3.t2.12

These lines show that the space is the abode of ‘*Maruts*’ i.e. wind.

v1.c6.s3.t2.13

वेदा यो वीनांपदंतरिक्षेण पत्तां॥ ऋ. सं. १. २५. ७.

v1.c6.s3.t2.14

meaning “(Varuṇa) who knows the path of the birds flying through the space” shows that ‘*antarikṣa*’ is the space in which the birds fly.

v1.c6.s3.t2.15

It is clear from the following lines from *Aitareya Brāhmaṇa* (11-6) that ‘*antarikṣa*’ is that space which lies between the heavens and the earth.

v1.c6.s3.t2.16

द्यौरंतरिक्षे प्रतिष्ठांतरिक्षं पृथिव्यां॥ ऐ. ब्रा. ११. ६.

v1.c6.s3.t2.17

That the sun is moving through the highest region of the heavens is described in many places. The following lines may be seen for this:—

v1.c6.s3.t2.18

उद्यन्तं मित्रमह आरोहल्लुत्तरां दिवं॥ हृद्रोगं मम सूर्य हरिमाणं च नाशय॥ ऋ. सं. १. ५०. ११.

v1.c6.s3.t2.19

“Oh Sun-god with agreeable lustre! Cure the disease of my heart after ascending the highest point in the heavens.”—*Ṛk Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t2.20

The idea that the sun shines at a very great distance from the earth can be seen from some of the following lines:—

v1.c6.s3.t2.21

यथाग्निः पृथिव्या समनमदेव मह्यं भद्राः सन्ततयः सन्नमंतु वायवे समनमदंतरिक्षाय समनमद् यथा वायुरंतरिक्षेण सूर्याय समनमद् दिवे समनमद् यथा सूर्यो दिवा चंद्रमासे समनमन्नक्षत्रेभ्यः समनमद् यथा चंद्रमा नक्षत्रैवरुणाय समनमत्॥ तै. सं. ७. ५. २३.

v1.c6.s3.t2.22

“*Agni* (fire) had to stand in a lower position before wind and space on account of the earth. The wind stooped low before the Sun and the sky on account of space. Similarly, the sun had to stand low in position on account of the moon and the stars; and the moon had to ‘bend low’ before *Varuṇa* (god of rains) on account of stars”—*Taittirīya Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t2.23

The description appears to imply that the fire rests on earth, the wind takes shelter in space, the sun traverses the sky and the moon moves through the zodiac. It appears from this that the moon was supposed to occupy a higher position than that of the sun.

v1.c6.s3.t2.24

लोकोसि स्वर्गोस॥ अनंतस्यपारोस॥ अक्षितोस्यक्षय्योसि॥ तपसः प्रतिष्ठा॥ *त्वयीदमतः॥ विश्वं यक्षं विश्वं भूतं विश्वं सुभूतं॥ विश्वस्य भर्ता विश्वस्य जनयित्रा॥ तत्वोपधधे कामदुध- मक्षितं॥ प्रजापतिस्त्वासादयतु॥ तया देवतयांगिरस्वध्रुवासीद॥ तपोस लोके श्रितं॥ तेजसः प्रतिष्ठा॥ त्वयीद...॥ तेजोसि तपसि श्रितं॥ समुद्रस्थ प्रतिष्ठा...॥ समुद्रोस तेजसि श्रितः॥ अपां प्रतिष्ठा॥...॥ आपः स्थ समुद्रे श्रिताः॥ पृथिव्याः प्रतिष्ठा युष्मासु॥...॥ पृथिव्यस्थप्सुश्रिता॥ अग्नेः प्रतिष्ठा॥...॥ अग्निरसि पृथिव्यां श्रितः॥ अंतरिक्षस्य प्रतिष्ठा॥...॥

v1.c6.s3.t2.25

¹ * Six sentences following this, have been given with the necessary change in the gender and number of each of the words *Teja* and *Samudra* (Sea) etc., in the original. They have not been repeated here.

v1.c6.s3.t2.26

अंतरिक्षमस्त्यनौ श्रितं ॥ वायोः प्रतिष्ठा ॥...॥ वायुरस्यंतरिक्षे श्रितः ॥ दिवः प्रतिष्ठा ॥...॥ द्यौरसि वायौ श्रिता ॥ आदित्यस्य प्रतिष्ठा ॥...॥ आदित्योसिवि श्रितः ॥ चंद्रमासः प्रतिष्ठा ॥...॥ चंद्रमा अस्यादित्ये श्रितः ॥ नक्षत्राणां प्रतिष्ठा ॥...॥ नक्षत्राणि स्थ चंद्रमसि श्रितानि ॥ संवत्सरस्य प्रतिष्ठा युष्मासु ॥...॥ संवत्सरोसिनक्षत्रेषु श्रितः ॥ ऋतूनां प्रतिष्ठा ॥...॥ ऋतवः स्थ संवत्सरे श्रिताः ॥ मासानां प्रतिष्ठा युष्मासु ॥...॥ मासाः स्थर्तुषु श्रिताः ॥ अर्धमासानां प्रतिष्ठा युष्मासु ॥ ... ॥ अर्धमासाः स्थ मासु श्रिताः ॥ अहोरात्रयोः प्रतिष्ठा युष्मासु ॥ ... ॥ अहोरात्रे स्थोर्धमासेषु श्रिते ॥ भूतस्य प्रतिष्ठे भव्यस्य प्रतिष्ठे ॥ पौर्णमास्यष्टकामावास्या ॥ अन्नादा स्थानदुधौ युष्मासु ॥ राडसि बृहती श्रीरसी द्रपत्नी-धर्मपत्नी ॥ ओजोसि सहोसि बलमसि आजोसि ॥ देवानां धामामृतं ॥ अमर्त्यस्तमोजाः ॥ ... ॥ तै. ब्रा. ३. ११. १.

v1.c6.s3.t2.27

The word *loka* occurring in the first three lines of the above passage refers to the Universe. It praises Him with the words "Thou art the world, thou the heaven; thou art Unending, Infinite, Eternal and Indestructible." It is needless to point out that the sequence occurring in these sentences does not necessarily imply a high-and-low lineage of created objects. In some places, the relation indicated is cause and effect; in some, the container and the contained, and in some others, the part and the whole. It, however, embodies in the sequence mentioned here before wherein, the heavens are above the space, and space above the earth, and also the idea that the sun is supported by the sky.

The Earth, Space and the Heavens

v1.c6.s3.t3.1

The above discussion in short shows that the earth, space and the sky used to be regarded as the divisions of the Universe. A definite statement is found in the Vedas to the effect that the region which the clouds, the wind, and the lightning are seen to occupy, is nearer to the earth; and that the region in which the sun, the moon and the stars appear to move is far away from the earth. Nowhere in the Vedas do we find the division (of the Universe) into Heaven (*Svarga*), the Earth (*Prthvi*) and the nether-worlds (*Pātāla*).

v1.c6.s3.t3.2

From the quotations given above, it appears that the moon was believed to be occupying a position in the sky higher than the sun, and this belief is contrary to scientific truth and to the astronomical theory propounded in post-vedic period. The scientific fact that the actual position of stars is higher up than the sun, is no doubt implicit in the above description. The reason why the moon was believed to be occupying a position higher than the sun was probably the fact that no stars are visible during the day time when the sun shines, and therefore it was possibly believed that the sun had nothing to do with the stars. That is not the case with the moon. Because the stars near which the moon moves are visible and because of its swift motion, it appears to be moving amongst them. Hence, it was but natural for the people to believe that the stars are higher up than the sun and the moon moves in their region, the moon is also higher than the sun. We, however, get the following quotation from the Vedas confirming the fact that the true position of the moon is nearer to us than the sun and hence lower than the sun.

v1.c6.s3.t3.3

सुपर्णा एत आसते मध्य आरोधने दिवः ॥ ते सेर्षति पथो भृकं तरंतं यह्तीरपो वित्तं मे अस्य रोदसी ॥ ऋ. सं. १. १०५. ११.

v1.c6.s3.t3.4

† It is not necessary to give here the original lines which follow this. However, the whole stanza is purposely given with a view to helping correct understanding of the thoughts from context and also because the important astronomical time units viz., the year, the season, the month, the half-month, a "day and night" occur together in one place and because these are given as they actually occur according to their relative order of the whole and its part.

The Moon's Place

v1.c6.s3.t4.1

Sāyaṇācārya, while commenting on the above verse, observes: “*Yāska pakṣe tvāpa iti antarikṣanāma. Yavhatirapo mahadantarikṣam .........tarantam bṛkam candramasam.*”

v1.c6.s3.t4.2

This shows that according to Yāska and consequently according to Sāyaṇācārya also, the lines suggest that the moon is lower in position than the sun, because it moves in the space (sky). The moon is called a ‘bird’ that is one who traverses the space, in the first verse of this Sūkta and this lends an additional support to the view.

The Infiniteness of the Universe

v1.c6.s3.t5.1

The following lines express the idea that the earth as compared with the Universe is very small and the Universe is very expansive.

v1.c6.s3.t5.2

यदिग्वेंद्र पृथिवी दशभुजिरहानि विश्वा ततनंत कृष्टयः ।।
अत्राह ते मघवन् विश्वतं सहो द्युमनु शवसा बर्हणा भुवत् ।।
ऋ. सं. १. ५२. ११.

v1.c6.s3.t5.3

“(Oh god Indra ! ) if the earth were to magnify itself to ten times its size (and if) men would live for eternity, then and then only the glory of your famous might and valour would be equalled by the heaven”—*Ṛk Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t5.4

Here the term ‘ten times’ is only symbolic. It would be taken to mean many times. The object of the sage in giving this description in the verse is to suggest that the prowess of Indra is very great and it can equal the heaven in greatness. But the life of man who describes it is very short and the earth is also very small in size. If the earth were to grow to a bigger size and if men dwelling on it were to live to eternity, the prowess of Indra will be much extolled and will spread over the infinite universe. What we have to observe is that the idea that the universe is infinitely greater than the earth is clearly stated in this verse.

v1.c6.s3.t5.5

That the universe is infinite has been described in several places. The passage already quoted from *Taittirīya Saṃhitā* (3.11.1) may be seen as an example of this.

Sun, the Sole Support of All Worlds

v1.c6.s3.t6.1

The following lines may be seen as a proof that all worlds are supported by the sun.

v1.c6.s3.t6.2

सप्त युंजंति रथमेकचक्रमेको अश्वो वहति सप्तनाम ।।
त्रिनाभि चक्रमरजरमनर्वं यत्रेमा विश्वा भुवनाधितस्थुः ।।
ऋ. सं. १. १६४. २.

v1.c6.s3.t6.3

“Seven horses are harnessed to that one-wheeled chariot; but only one horse bearing ‘sapta’ (i.e. seven) names draws it. The wheel has three hubs or navels and it is eternal and unhindered, and all worlds stand supported by it (i.e. chariot)”—*Ṛk Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t6.4

Although the word ‘sun’ does not occur in the verse it undoubtedly relates to the sun.

v1.c6.s3.t6.5

सनेमि चक्र मजंर विवावृत उत्तानायां दशयुक्ता वहंति ।। सूर्यस्य चक्षू रजसैतावतं तस्मिन्नार्पिता भुवनानि विश्वा ।। ऋ. सं. १. १६४. १४.

v1.c6.s3.t6.6

“That wheel which traverses only one path and which is indestructible always keeps revolving.........It being the sun’s eye—it keeps on revolving. All worlds rest upon it.”—*Ṛk Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t6.7

मित्रो जनान् यातयति प्रजानन् मित्रो आधार पृथिवीमुत द्यां ।। मित्रः कृष्टी रनिमिषाभिचष्टे... तै. सं. ३. ४. ११.

v1.c6.s3.t6.8

“*Mitra* (Sun) (knowing the worth of each one) inspires him. *Mitra* supports the heaven and the earth. *Mitra* sees the men and the gods.”—*Taittirīya Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t6.9

This verse appears even in the Rigveda, but in a slightly different form. Many more such quotations could be given.

Sun, the Cause of the Seasons

v1.c6.s3.t7.1

The following line can be cited to show that the sun is the cause of the seasons:—

v1.c6.s3.t7.2

पूर्वामनु प्रदिशं पार्थिवानामृतून् प्रशासद्विधावनुष्ठु ।। ऋ. सं. १. १५. ३.

v1.c6.s3.t7.3

“The Sun generates all the earthly directions one by one and controls the seasons.”—*Ṛk Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t7.4

Many other quotations could be given to show that the seasons are created by the sun, but they are not given here for want of space. Readers will come across some lines in the study of seasons which forms part of the subject of time units.

Sun, the Cause of Winds

v1.c6.s3.t8.1

That the sun is mainly responsible for the blowing of winds may be seen from the following lines.

v1.c6.s3.t8.2

सवितारं यजति यत्सवितारं यजति तस्मादुत्तरतः पश्चादयं भूयिष्ठं पवमानः पवते सवितृप्रसूतो ह्येष एतत्पवते ।। ऐ. ब्रा. २. ७.

v1.c6.s3.t8.3

“(The *Hotā*) recites the ‘*Yājya*, mantras in honour of the sun. The wind blows from north-west because he worships the sun and because the wind blows after being born of the sun.”—*Aitareya Brāhmaṇa*.

v1.c6.s3.t8.4

It is not the intention to maintain that the Vedas hold that the earth and other planets depend upon the sun, because of their attraction by him, and that they revolve round him, but there is no doubt that we do find the idea in the Vedas that the sun is the support of the universe in as much as the seasons are created by him and that all the worlds depend upon him for light, heat and rain.

Seven Horses of the Sun

v1.c6.s3.t9.1

We, no doubt, come across a description of the sun's chariot as having seven* horses. However, statements are by no means wanting in Vedic literature which go to show that it is all metaphorical and that the sun has neither a chariot nor any horses.

v1.c6.s3.t9.2

अनश्वो जातो अनभीशुरर्वा कनिक्रदत्पतयद्‌धर्वंसानु : ऋ. सं १. १५२. ५.

v1.c6.s3.t9.3

"The sun born without horses........swiftly jumps high up in the sky :" —Ṛk Saṃhitā.

Only One Sun and One Dawn

v1.c6.s3.t10.1

The following verse from Ṛk Saṃhitā will show that there is only one sun and not two, twelve, or many in number.

v1.c6.s3.t10.2

एक एवाग्निर्बहुधा समिद्ध एक: सूर्यो विश्वमनु प्रभूत: ।। एकैवोषा सर्वमिदं विभाति......।। ऋ. सं. ८. ५८. २.

v1.c6.s3.t10.3

"Only one sun is the lord of the universe, one dawn gives light to the universe".

v1.c6.s3.t10.4

It is worth noting that in the above lines, the dawn is said to be only one. The dawn is the twilight before sunrise. At many places in the Vedas, we come across the curious description of there being many dawns, because a dawn is observed every day before sunrise, but the fact was no doubt known that just as there is only one sun, so there is only one dawn permanently associated with him.

The Earth, Round and Supportless

Day and Night

v1.c6.s3.t12.1

स वा एष न कदाचनास्तमेति नोदेति तं यदस्तमेतीति मन्यन्तेन्ह एव तदंतमित्वाथात्मानं विपर्यस्यते रात्रीमेवावस्तात् कुरुतेह: परस्तादथ यदेनं प्रातरुदेतीति मन्यंते रात्रेरेव तदंतमित्वाथात्मानं विपर्यस्यतेहरे- वावस्तात् कुरुते रात्रीं परस्तात् स वा एष न कदाचन निम्रोचति । ए. ब्रा. १४. ६.

v1.c6.s3.t12.2

"He (i.e. the sun) neither sets nor rises. What is believed to be his set is (as a matter of fact) his turning himself round at the end of the day. He makes night on this side and day on the other. Similarly, what is taken to be his rise in the morning is (as a matter of fact) his turning himself round at the end of the night, when he makes this day on this side and the night on the other side. In fact he (the sun) never sets.*"—Aitareya Brāhmaṇa.

v1.c6.s3.t12.3

∗ Commenting on "Amiye Saptaras mayah", Sri Shanker Pandurang Pandit, the editor of Vedartha Yatna, writes (on page 683, Vol. II, of the issue for April 1878), "that the sun has seven rays is stated here in Ṛk 8-72-16 in clear words. From this it appears that the modern theory of the sun's rays consist of seven colours was not unknown to the Aryans in ancient times".

v1.c6.s3.t12.4

The knowledge of the earth being round in shape and being suspended in space and separated from the sky, is clearly perceived through the above mentioned allusions from the Brāhmaṇas. Even in Gopatha-Brāhmaṇa (9-10) of the Atharva Veda, we come across lines almost similar in meaning.

v1.c6.s3.t12.5

It seems that it was known to the people even in the Rigvedic age that the earth is round and stands supportless.

v1.c6.s3.t12.6

The following verse may be seen

v1.c6.s3.t12.7

चक्रागास: परीग्रहं पृथिव्या हिरण्येन मणना शुभमाना: ॥
न हिनवानास्तितिरुस्त इंद्रं परि स्पशो अदधात्सूर्येण ॥

v1.c6.s3.t12.8

ऋ. सं. १. ३३. ८.

v1.c6.s3.t12.9

"The messengers (of periphery of the earth), who are shining with golden ornaments were unable to vanquish Indra, even when they were flying round the earth's periphery and running with great speed. He then covered** them with sun's light."—Ṛk Saṃhitā.

v1.c6.s3.t12.10

If the earth were flat, the sun's rays, immediately after sunrise, would have fallen at one and the same time on the whole earth, or at least on half of its surface; but references show that the rays instead of falling at once, do so one after the other. The following verse may be seen :—

v1.c6.s3.t12.11

आप्रा रजांसि दिव्यानि पार्थिवा श्लोकं देव: कृणुते स्वाय धर्मणे ॥
प्र बाहू अत्राकू सविता सवीमनि निवेशयन् प्रसुवन्नक्तुभिर्जंगत् ॥

v1.c6.s3.t12.12

ऋ. सं. ४. ५३. ३.

v1.c6.s3.t12.13

"The brilliant sun filled with light the regions of the heaven, the space and the earth."—Ṛk Saṃhitā.

v1.c6.s3.t12.14

The sun is rising and stretching out its arms, putting the world to sleep by turns and awakening it by turns by means of its lusture.

v1.c6.s3.t12.15

The mantra "the sun rises causing a gradual sleep and a gradual awakening" may be taken to mean that as the sun traverses the sky, there is night fall in some parts of the world which are thus enveloped in darkness; and because it gradually throws light on some other parts, there is day time there. This betokens a knowledge of the roundness of the earth.†

v1.c6.s3.t12.16

† It is clear that the Saṃhitās of all the Vedas, the Brāhmaṇa works and the Upaniṣads were not compiled in the same age. It is very difficult to assign limits to their times. (contd. to next page)

v1.c6.s3.t12.17

Any such references in the Vedas as to show the earth as having been divided into Meru-mountain, Jambudvīpa and other seven islands can not perhaps be found.

v1.c6.s3.t12.18

∗ The speaker is observing this with respect to his own place. The words "this side" refer to the side on which he stands with respect to the sun. By the words "turns himself round" he means to say that the sun, after moving in one direction till evening, changes his direction after dawn after sunset.

v1.c6.s3.t12.19

∗∗ Commenting on this verse, Shri Shanker Pandurang Pandit the editor of Vedarth-Yatna, observes (Vedarth Yatna, Page 380, Vol. I), that "The words "Parinaham chakra-nasha" clearly show that our Aryan ancestors, at the time of composing these verses doubtless knew that the earth is not flat but round spherical in shape".

v1.c6.s3.t12.20

So far we have considered as to what is found in the Vedas about the creation of the world and the structure of the universe. Let us now see what do we find about the units of time like the year, the month etc., the positions and motions of the sun and the moon, the stars, eclipses, planets, etc.

Units of Time

v1.c6.s3.t13.1

THE KALPA.—Let us first consider the ‘time-units’. The term *Kalpa* used as one of the time units in the astronomical works of post-Vedic period, not only does not find a place in the Vedas, but also the word *Kalpa* is not found having anywhere been used in the Vedas in the sense of some kind of time-unit.

v1.c6.s3.t13.2

THE YUGA.—The word *Yuga* has occurred in several places in the Vedas, where it denotes some unit of time. As it would be convenient to consider this subject properly, all those references which contain the word *Yuga* or the names of any of the four *Kṛtādi* Yugas are given below.

v1.c6.s3.t13.3

देवानां पूर्वे युगेसत: सदजायत ॥ ऋ. सं. १०. ७२. २.

v1.c6.s3.t13.4

तदूबुषे मानुषेमा युगानि कीर्तव्यं मघवा नाम बिभ्रत् ॥ उपप्रयंदस्युहत्याय वज्री यद्ध सूनु: श्रवसे नाम दधे ॥ ऋ. सं. १. १०३. ४.

v1.c6.s3.t13.5

“*Maghavā* (Indra) adopted the same famous name for the *Stotas* in this *human yuga*, which the very mighty *Indra* had adopted when he marched with the thunderbolt in his hand to kill *Dasyu*.*”—*Ṛk Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t13.6

Sāyaṇācārya observes that the word *yuga* has to be taken to mean the four *Kṛtādi* yugas.

v1.c6.s3.t13.7

विश्वे ये मानुषा युगा यांति मर्त्य रिष: ॥ ऋ. सं. ५. ५२. ४.

v1.c6.s3.t13.8

ईर्मान्यद्वपुषे वपुश्चक्रं रथस्य ये मधु: ॥ पर्यन्या नहुषा युगा मन्हारजांसि दीयथ: ॥ ऋ. सं. ५. ७३. ३.

v1.c6.s3.t13.9

“Oh *Aśvins*! you revolve round the worlds . . . . . . . . with the second wheel of your chariot.”—*Ṛk Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t13.10

दीर्घतमा मामतेयो जुजुर्वान् दशमे युगे ॥ अपामर्थं यतीनां ब्रह्मा भवति सारथि: ॥ ऋ. सं. १. १५८. ६.

v1.c6.s3.t13.11

The period can however be divided into (i) The Saṃhitā age, (ii) The Brāhmaṇic age and (iii) The Upaniṣad age, and their sub-divisions would be too many to mention. Instead of dividing the time into several parts for the sake of drawing a few conclusions regarding the astronomical knowledge of that period, it is convenient to leave it to the readers after simply mentioning the works from which those Vedic references have been taken, and that is why all these references in the Vedic period have been included. It is needless to say that the ‘Brāhmaṇas’ are more ancient than the ‘Upaniṣads’, and the ‘Saṃhitās’ and specially the Ṛk Saṃhitā are the most ancient.

v1.c6.s3.t13.12

*In translating the Vedic mantras the author has strictly adhered to the original and nothing has been added which does not exist in the original text.

v1.c6.s3.t13.13

“Dīrghatamā, the son of Mamatā, having grown old in the 10th yuga, became the charioteer (in the form of Ritvik) of the Karma (action) which leads to some (divine) result”.—Ṛk Saṃhitā.

v1.c6.s3.t13.14

Sāyaṇa, in his commentary on the above verse, says that Dīrghatamā after happily passing his life for 10 yugas through the grace of Ashwees, finally attained old age. He does not state in clear words what a ‘yuga’ should be taken to mean, still the context of his writing suggests that it should be interpreted as ten kṛtādi yugas.

v1.c6.s3.t13.15

युगे युगे विदथ्यं गृणद्भ्योनेरथि यशसं धेहि नव्यसीम् ॥
ऋ. सं. ६. ८. ५.

v1.c6.s3.t13.16

“Oh God of fire (agni)! Give riches and success to us who offer new words of praise to thee for the sake of sacrifices in each yuga”.—Ṛk Saṃhitā.

v1.c6.s3.t13.17

या ओषधीः पूर्वा जाता देवेभ्यस्त्रियुगं पुरा ॥
ऋ. सं. १०. ९७. १.

v1.c6.s3.t13.18

“The herbs which created by Gods in three yugas before”—Ṛk Saṃhitā.

v1.c6.s3.t13.19

In his commentary on the above line Sāyaṇācārya interpreted the word Triyuga as either the three yugas Kṛta, Tretā and Dvāpara or the three seasons Vasanta (Spring), Varṣā (Rains) and Śarad (Autumn).

v1.c6.s3.t13.20

The same mantra occurs even in Taittirīya Saṃhitā in the form—

v1.c6.s3.t13.21

या जाता ओषधयो देवेभ्यस्त्रियुगं पुरा ॥

v1.c6.s3.t13.22

Even in Vājasaneyī Saṃhitā the same mantra is found in the following form, and Mahīdhar, the commentator has interpreted the word ‘Yuga’ as the three seasons—spring, rains and autumn :—

v1.c6.s3.t13.23

या ओषधीः पूर्वा जाता देवेभ्यस्त्रियुं पुरा ॥

v1.c6.s3.t13.24

A reference to the word ‘Yuga’ is made in Vājasaneyī Saṃhitā in the following line :—

v1.c6.s3.t13.25

श्रुत्कर्ण ८० सप्रथस्तमं त्वागिरा दैव्यं मानुषा युगा ॥
वा. सं. १२. १११.

v1.c6.s3.t13.26

In all these references the word yuga has undoubtedly been used to denote some unit of time, but none of them clearly indicates the number of years which the word is supposed to denote. In the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa, a yuga is supposed to be a unit of 5 years. It cannot, however, be said for certain that the word is definitely used in the same sense as in the above lines, nor can it be said for certain that it is not so used; for it will be seen later on that the names Saṃvatsara, Parivatsara, etc., which form parts of the five-yearly yuga of the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa do occur in the Vedas.

v1.c6.s3.t13.27

In the quotation “Dīrghatamā became old in the tenth yuga” it is not the object of the writer to point out some infirmity of Dīrghatamā. It is clear that he intends to express some speciality about him; and if it be taken to mean units of 5 years it would on the other hand show his infirmity, as he would be regarded to have attained old age at fifty. Therefore, instead of assuming that the span of life was a thousand years, if it be assumed as of some limited number of years, say a hundred years, the term yuga has to be taken to mean at least a period of ten years. From this and from the Rigveda quotation “We praise you in new terms in every yuga”, it appears that the yuga must have been a unit of time smaller than the span of human life, that is smaller than 100 years. It cannot, however, be said that the idea of a *yuga* representing a much longer period of time, never existed. The remarks “It so happened before in the divine age”, “the human ages of the present time” cannot emanate from a speaker unless he has in his mind that a *yuga* does indicate an abnormally long period of time.

v1.c6.s3.t13.28

It must be said that the word *yuga* had no standard meaning and consequently it has to be believed that even in the Vedic times it must have had its meaning in the general astronomical sense of a “period of time after which a phenomenon occurring once repeats itself in the same order”. The eclipses of the sun and the moon which occur in some order or at certain intervals during a period of eighteen years, recur in the same order and at the same interval, so as to be visible at some place or the other on the earth; this can, therefore, be said to be a sort of an ‘eclipse-yuga’ of 18 years. It is clear from the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa and from other examples that the word *yuga* has been used in astronomy in accordance with the principle underlying this sense. All planets come together at the commencement of each of the four *yugas* and of the Mahāyuga, and after making a number of revolutions in each *yuga* they come together again in the beginning of the next *yuga*. This period is termed a ‘*yuga*’ and though the *yuga* is employed in the astronomical works in the sense of a period of 432,000 years or its multiples, it is found used even in its original sense. For instance, in the *Bhaṭaprakāśikā*, a commentary by Sūrya Deva Yajva on the work of Āryabhaṭa I, the following lines give the measures of the *yugas* of the nodes and aphelia of planets :—

v1.c6.s3.t13.29

खाकाशाष्टकृतद्विव्योमेष्वद्रीष्वन्वहः ।। युगं बुधादिपातानां...।। ३५७५०२२४८००. रव्युच्चस्य रसेकांर्किगर्यष्टिनवशंकरः ।। सहस्रघ्नः युगं प्रोक्तं...।। ११६१६७९१६०००.

v1.c6.s3.t13.30

“The *yuga* (cycle) of the node of Mercury consists of 35,750,224,800 years and that of the sun’s apogee of 119,167,916,000 years.” The number of years for each is of course different, which shows that the word ‘*yuga*’ is used in the above lines to denote the periodic measure of time after which a phenomenon recurs. Hence, after reading the Vedic verses one is inclined to think that the word *yuga* must have been used in these lines, in its original sense and the measures of time indicated by the word must have been used in these lines in its original sense and the measures of time indicated by the word must have been different for different phenomena. It cannot, however, be said as to what was the actual measure of time and what was the recurrent phenomenon on which it depended; and although the definition of Mahāyuga meaning 4,320,000 years has not come in vogue in the Vedic age, *yuga* was no doubt used in the sense of some very lengthy measure of time. Not only this, but that the idea that the *yugas* were four in number was prevalent at the time of compilation of the three Vedas, can also be clearly seen from the line “*Yā jātā oṣadhayo devebhyaḥ triyugaṃ purā*”.

Krta and Other Words Occurring in the Vedas

v1.c6.s3.t14.1

Now the lines in which the words Kṛta and Tretā occur are quoted below from *Taittirīya Saṃhitā* :—

v1.c6.s3.t14.2

प्राची दिशां वसंत ऋतूनामग्निर्देवता ब्रह्म द्रविणं त्रिवृत्स्तोमः स उ पंचदश वर्तनिसत्रयविवर्यः कृतयानां... त्रेतायानां... द्वापरयानां... आस्कंदोयानां... अभिभूयानां पितरः पितामहाः परेवरे ते नः पांतु तेनोवंतस्मिन् ब्रह्मन्स्मिन्स्तत्रयमाशिष्यस्यां पुरोधायामस्मिन्कर्मन्स्यां देवहूतयां ।।

v1.c6.s3.t14.3

It will be seen that just as a prayer, ‘May the manes, etc., protect us’ occurs at the end of the stanza, the prayer ‘May Kṛta and Dvāpara protect us’ also does appear there.

v1.c6.s3.t14.4

कृतायादिनवदर्शं त्रेतायै कल्पिनं द्वापरायाधिकल्पिनमास्कंदाय सभास्थाणुं ।
वा. सं. ३०. १८.

v1.c6.s3.t14.5

“*Adinavadarśa* is to be offered to Kṛta, Kalpi to Tretā, Adhikalpi to Dvāpara and Sabhāsthānu to Āskanda”—*Vājasaneya Saṃhitā*.

v1.c6.s3.t14.6

The commentator Mahīdhara renders ‘Ādinavadarśa’ as one who can see fault known as Ādinava, and ‘Kalpi’ as one who imagines. The Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa gives a similar but slightly different line under ‘Puruṣamedha’, which runs thus :—

v1.c6.s3.t14.7

कुत्राय सभाविन्नं ॥ त्रेताया आदिनवदर्शं ॥ द्वापराय बहिःसयं ॥ कलये सभास्थाणुं ॥
तै. ब्रा. ३. ४. १.

v1.c6.s3.t14.8

“A *Sabhāvi* should be procured for Kṛta, an *ādinavadarśa* should be offered to Tretā, *bahiḥsada* to Dvāpara and a *sabhāsthānu* to Kali”—*Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa*.

v1.c6.s3.t14.9

This stanza names the ‘sacrificial persons’ which should be offered to different deities. The commentary by Mādhava gives the meanings of these terms as follows :—

v1.c6.s3.t14.10

‘Sabhāvi’ is one who sits in the gambling hall; an ‘ādinavadarśa’ is the observer examiner of the game (of gambling) ; a ‘bahiḥsada’ is the one who witnesses the game without taking part in it, and a ‘sabhāsthānu’ is the one who does not leave the hall even when no game is being played.

v1.c6.s3.t14.11

The story of Hariścandra occurs in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa. Hariścandra had no son. He invoked god Varuna to grant him a son, promising that the son would be offered to him in sacrifice. He then got a son who was named Rohita. After some years when the son was being sacrificed, he ran away into a forest. After wandering in the forest for a year he returned to his village. At that time, Indra, taking a human form, met him and advised him to return to the forest. This happened repeatedly for four years. When Rohita returned again, Indra said to him.

v1.c6.s3.t14.12

कलिः शयानो भवति संजिहानस्तु द्वापरः ॥
उत्तिष्ठस्त्रेता भवति कृतं संपद्यते चरैश्चरैवेति चरवेति ॥
ऐ. ब्रा. ३३. १५.

v1.c6.s3.t14.13

“One who sleeps becomes Kali, one who sits becomes Dvāpara, one who gets up becomes Tretā, and one who becomes a wanderer attains Kṛta. Therefore keep on roving, keep on roving.”—*Aitareya Brāhmaṇa*.

v1.c6.s3.t14.14

ये वै चत्वारः स्तोमाः ॥ कृतं तत् ॥ अथ ये पंच ॥ कलिः सः ॥ तस्माच्चतुष्टोमः ॥
तै. ब्रा. १. ५. ११.

v1.c6.s3.t14.15

“The four *stomas* are Kṛta and five are Kali and hence the *Jyotistoma* sacrifice should be *Catuṣṭoma*”—*Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa*.

v1.c6.s3.t14.16

This gives a limit to the number of ‘stomas’ i.e. (oblations). Some say five and some only four. Offering five would be Kali which is bad and offering four would be Kṛta which is good, and that is why the rule of offering four has been stipulated.

v1.c6.s3.t14.17

It can not be proved that the words Kṛta, etc. have been used in the definite of time; still the idea that they represent four deities is quite clear from the above sentences. Similarly, the belief that Kṛta indicated something good, and others were increasingly inferior, Kali being the worst, is also indicated in these sentences. As it is evident from several lines in the Vedas that yugas were regarded as units of time and they were believed to be four in number, there is no doubt that the origin of the deeply rooted views about the yugas in the post-Vedic age lies in these very lines from the Vedas in which the terms Kṛta and others occur. The word Dvāpara occurs in Gopatha Brāhmaṇa (1·28) in the sense of a unit of time.

The Five-Year Cycle

v1.c6.s3.t15.1

In the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa the yuga is taken to be a cycle of five years. The names of these years are *Saṃvatsara, Parivatsara, Idāvatsara, Anuvatsara* and *Idvatsara*. Although these names do not occur in the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa itself, there is no doubt that these were the names of the years, in as much as they occur in the Vedas, and writers like Garga and others have given these very names. Let us see what the Vedas state about this:—

v1.c6.s3.t15.2

संवत्सरस्य तदहः परिष्ठयन्नमंडूकाः प्रावृषीणं बभूव ।।
ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचमक़त ब्रह्मकृण्वंतः परिवत्सरीणं ।।
ऋ. सं. ७. १०३. ७, ८.

v1.c6.s3.t15.3

It can not be definitely said that the words *Saṃvatsara* and *Parivatsasa* have been given in this verse to show that this is the correct order of the names, still it is certain that the names did occur in this very order. And looking into the fact that when any thing is to be said about the year in a general sense, the word year is generally rendered in the Rigveda by some such words as *Śarad, Hemanta*, etc. which denote a season, it is thought that the above words must be the names of two of the years comprising the five-year cycle. The word *Parivatsara*, however, occurs in the Rigveda at one more place (10-62-2); the names of the other three years are nowhere to be found.

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