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Vanaspati: Plants and Plant-Life as in Indian Treatises and Traditions c5.s5: Section V. Plant Physiology

Vanaspati: Plants and Plant-Life as in Indian Treatises and Traditions c5.s5

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English

Section V. Plant Physiology

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1. Nourishment—General.—Guṇaratna in his commentary on the Ṣaḍdarśana-samuchchaya¹ very aptly describes the influence of soil and food upon the vegetable system in producing health and disease:

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¹ Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907).

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“तथा, यथा मनुष्यशरीरं स्तन्यौरव्यञ्जनोदनाद्याहारा-
भ्यहारादाहारकम् एवं वनस्पति शरीरमपि भूजलाद्या-
हाराभ्यवहारादाहारकम् । तथा, यथा मनुष्यशरीरमिष्टा-
निष्टाहारादि प्राप्ता वृद्धिव्यात्मकं, तथा वनस्पति-
शरीरमपि ।”

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“Just as the human body receives sustenance through the assimilation of the mother’s milk, dishes, etc., so also the vegetables assimilate food according to the nature of the earth (soil), water, etc.”

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“Just as the human system is at ease and is diseased according as it takes wholesome or unwholesome food so also plants grow or decay by assimilation of suitable and unsuitable food.”

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Thus connected with the nourishment of plants the most important factor is the soil—

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the principal source of sustenance. It is roughly divided into urvvarā (सर्व्वशस्याढ्या—fertile with every crop), and ūshara¹ (barren or sterile on which nothing can grow). The fertile soil being that which is capable of supplying the plants with their necessary food materials while the sterile soil is that which does not possess this capacity.

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¹ जषरे न प्ररोहन्ति बीजाङ्कुराः कथञ्चन । मत्स्यपु०, p. 701, Bangabasi Ed. 1316 B.S.

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2. Absorption, Transport, Transpiration and Assimilation of food.—Plants draw food materials from the soil through the help of the roots which constitute exactly what is mouth to man, another name for tree being पादपः, i.e., that which drinks through roots. It is common knowledge that the food materials from the soil enter plant organism in the shape of liquid and not solid, and the ancient etymology evidently anticipated the accuracy of modern scientists.

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The elaborate process by which plants absorb, transport and assimilate food is described in the following verse of the Mahābhārata.²

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² Śānti Parva, Chap. 184 p. 855 (Basumati Ed.)

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"Just as water may be drawn up through the lotus petiole applied to the mouth, so plants (with roots) drink (absorb the solution) with the help of air."

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The comparison is evidently significant. In drawing water through the lotus petiole a force—a sucking force—in the mouth which draws in, is pre-supposed, as also uninterrupted passages in the petiole through which the water is to go up. The one end of the petiole is dipped in water and the drawing force is applied to the other. The similie does not stand on all fours because water stands for the liquid food materials from the soil, the uninterrupted passages stand for similar passages in the stem, but the drawing force is wanting. We clearly see that food materials are drawn up in the case of the plant as water is drawn in the case of the man in whose mouth there is the sucking force. But we do not see which draws up the food materials in the case of plants? Rationality demands that in one case as in the other there must be a drawing force without which the action cannot take place.

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It is a hypothesis only that we have knowledge of the working force in the leaves of the plant—the existence of a sucking force in man—a knowledge which, in its present discovery, was an accomplishment of the ancients. The function of maintaining the sucking force was not explained. We now know that it is hence transpiration force.

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(suction force in leaves) is greatly accelerated by air.

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After the food materials in solution are brought into the leaves the process of assimilation (जीर्ण) commences, which is thus well-described:

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“Agni (energy) and air (CO₂?) help in the digestion (assimilation) of the water (watery food materials) which is absorbed through the roots of the trees (and conveyed to the leaves). And it is on account of the assimilation of this watery solution that the vegetable kingdom undergoes development and becc graceful.”

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We have so long hypothetically assumed the existence of the leaf as the centre of sucking force, and practically the kitchen where the food of plants is prepared. What warrants us in the assumption? Besides the full-fledged development of the scientific knowledge of nutrition, we have in some of the provincial proverbs attributed to the mythical Khanā, the depository of the wisdom of ages, a distinct knowledge of the function of leaves in the maintenance of plant-life pre-supposed. A proverb¹ runs :

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¹ "কলা রুয়ে না কাটো পাত, তাতেই ভাত।"

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After you have planted the plantain trees,
[cut off the leaves, and this will bring
[fruit.]

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[When the leaf is fully made
[the fruit-bunch is seen to be
[formed.]

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Another proverb emphasising the same truth runs² :

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² "পান বরজে না কর দান।"

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[Do not plant in the world that paddy
[should grow under shade.]

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The implication is that during rainy weather, when available solar energy is limited, there will be the production of leaves in the paddy. But, for betel vines, we want the leaves and the shade, and we know that the shade-loving plants have larger leaves, and even when a sun-plant with narrow leaves is transferred to a shady place it tends to develop larger leaves. The cause of the pungency is also due to the absence of sun-light, and the reason is that the destructive metabolism cannot reach its final stage and consequently more acid and other astringent bye-products are formed. The other proverb is ¹ :

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¹ “দিনে রোদ রাতে জল, দিন দিন বাড়ে ধানের বল।”

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“The paddy develops day by day owing to sunshine by day and water by night.”

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The modern scientific explanation of the fact would be that during day time with the sunshine food is prepared, assimilated and stored and during night time the growth of the organism takes place, and for this a supply of water is needed. The Ancients broadly knew the utility of these two factors, although they by no means seem to be acquainted with the scientific details.

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That water besides going up to the leaves also circulates all over the trees, and this circulation is not due to sun's rays, etc., is also noticed by Kaṇāda in his Vaiśeshika Philosophy.² And Śankara Miśra in his Upaskara³ has tried more elaborately to answer how water circulates in trees. Thus :

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² Kaṇāda. 5-2-7. “ত্বচামিসর্পনমিয়দৃষ্টকারিতম্।”

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³ S. B. H. Vol, VI. p. 177 (Panini Office).

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“ The circulation (of water) in trees is caused by *adrishtam*¹ (destiny).”

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¹ Adrishta (lit. unseen) stands for “ unknown cause, ” or “ unexplained Nature.” Seal, page 133, (1915). ² Gough’s Translation, p. 166. ³ 3rd Skanda, Chap. X.

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Upāskara commenting on the above aphorism explains :—“ Water poured at the roots goes up in all directions through the interior of a tree. Neither impulse, nor impact, nor the sun’s rays prevail there. How then is it caused ? The action by which waters rise, and cause the growth of the tree results from conjunction of destiny with the souls of those in whose souls pleasure and pain is effected by the growth of the leaves, stem, fruit, flowers etc., as its non-coherent cause ; from destiny as its efficient cause, and in water as its co-inherent cause.”²

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That water rises up in trees is also mentioned in the *Bhāgabatapurāṇa*³ as one of the fundamental properties of plants.

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3. Planting.—The Science of planting is a very ancient science in India, and the origin of it is lost in obscurity, but a full-fledged development of it is mentioned in the *Arthaśāstra*⁴ where a particular officer is referred to as the Superintendent of Agriculture who must be "possessed of the knowledge of the science of agriculture dealing with the plantation of bushes and trees, or assisted by those who are trained in such sciences."

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²⁰ Srimat Sridhar Swami Krita Bhabarthadipika Tika Sametam, Calcutta, 1294 B.S. “उत्स्रोतसस्ततः प्राया अन्तस्पर्शा विशेषिणः । १३।१०।२०। (ऊर्ध्व स्रोत:—आहार सञ्चारो येषाम्) ⁴ See Sec. 24, p. 138 (Shama Sastri).

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A typically nice description is contained in the following verses from *Brihat-saṃhitā*¹:

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¹ Vrikshāyurvedādhyāya, Chap. 54. Vol. II, p. 743.

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"Let us first of all talk of the trees that should be planted in a garden or in the house itself: *Arishta* (Melia azadirachta) *Aśoka* (Saraca indica), *Punnāga* (Calophyllum inophyllum), *Śirīṣa* (Mimosa sirissa) with *Priyaṅgu* (Aglaia Roxburghiana) should be planted in the garden or in the house as pre-eminently conducive to the welfare (मङ्गल्याः) of the house."

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Kāśyapa adds in addition *Champaka* (Michalia champaca), *Udumbara* (Ficus glomerata) and *Pārijātaka* (Erythrina indica), and they should be planted in "देवालये तथोद्याने गृहेषूपवनेषु च".

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The following verses from *Agnipurāṇa*² give us similar instructions with fuller details:

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² Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. II, 1876, Chap. 281, pp. 42, 43.

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"It becomes conducive to the welfare of the house if *Plaksha* is planted towards the north of it, Banyan in the east, Mango in the south and *Aśwattha* in the west."

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"Thorny bushes (कण्टकद्रुमाः) towards the south near the house are also good."

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“*Arishtāśoka*, *Punnāga*, *Sirīṣa*, *Priyaṅgu*, *Aśoka*, *Kadalī* (Plantain), *Jambu* (Blackberry), *Vakula* (Mimusops) and *Dāḍima* (Pomegranate) are to be planted in the garden adjoining one’s house.”

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The following are the essential preliminaries of plantation:—

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In Brihat-saṃhitā¹:

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¹ See Chap. 54, Vol. II.

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“One should plant the tree after oneself being pure and after worshipping the tree with a bath and anointment, and the result will be that the tree will be graced with luxuriant growth of leaves.” 8

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“Uttarā, Rohiṇī, Anūrādhā, Chitrā, Mṛga-sirā, Revatī, Mūlā, Viśākhā, Tiṣya, Śravaṇā, Aświnī and the Hastā—these are the stars under the influence of which a tree when planted will flourish.” 31

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In Agnipurāṇa² there are verses of similar import. Thus:

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² See *Supra*, p. 37

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“One should take or plant the tree after worshipping the moon and Brahmin, and make sure to propitiate the five stars—Vāyavya, Hastā, Prājesha, Vaiṣṇava and Mūlā.” 3 & 4

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“One should perform the work (of plantation) after worshipping Varuṇa, Viṣṇu and Parjjanya,—the rain God.” 6

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Next comes the question—whether all parts, or different parts of a plant are to be planted in different seasons of a year? Varāhamihira in the Brihat-saṁhitā¹ directs:

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¹ See Supra, p. 37.

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"In the months of Māgh and Falgoon (शिशिरे) the trees whose branches and leaves are not developed (अजातशाखान्—अजात लताङ्कुरान् वृक्षान्); in the months of Agrahāyaṇ and Pouṣ (हेमन्ते) the plants with just-developed branches (जात-शाखान्); in the months of Śrāvaṇ and Bhādra (वर्षागमे) plants with well-developed branches (सुस्कन्धान् )." Kāśyapa is more clear on the above directions:

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"Plant in Śiśira those trees with undeveloped branches, in Hemanta those with developed branches according to prescribed rules (विधानतः) and those that are provided with well-developed branches (सुस्कन्धाः) during the rains."

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Methods of plantations by cuttings and graftings:

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In addition to the ordinary method of propagation by seeds the methods of propagation by cuttings and graftings were known from time immemorial, so much so, that the plants to which these methods can be applied are definitely named.

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The following verses from Brihat-saṁhitā¹ distinctly name the plants and these methods:

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¹ Brihat-saṁhitā, Chap. 54, Vol. II, p. 743. N.B.—All the Ślokas are from the same Chapter—54 of the Brihat-saṁhitā.

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“*Kanthāl* (Jack fruit tree), *Aśoka*, *Kadalī* (plantain), *Jambu*, *Lakoocha*, *Dāḍima*, *Drākshyā*, *Pālibata*, *Vījapura* (*Mātulanga*), *Atimuktaka*—these are the plants to be propagated by means of cuttings besmeared with cowdung (एते द्रुमाः काण्डरोप्य गोमयेन प्रलेपिताः).” 4 & 5

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“Better than this method is the method of propagation by graftings. This can be done in two ways—the cuttings of one plant is either inserted on the root of another plant, or on the stem of another plant (मूलोच्छेदेऽथवास्तम्भेरोपणीयाः परं ततः).” 6

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“Grafts should be smeared with cowdung. For transplanting (अन्यदेशे नीत्वा रोपयेदित्यर्थः) the plants should be smeared from root to the top (आमूलस्कम्भलिप्तानां) with ghee (clarified butter), sesame oil, the honey of the Khudra variety of the bee of the Ushira (Andropogon Laniger or Andropogon Citrarum), the *Viḍanga* (Embelica ribes) milk and cowdung.” 7

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What should be the soil for such plantation? The same author says:

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“The most suitable ground to plant in is soft soil that has been sown with Sesamum indicum and dug up and trodden with sesame in flower.” 2.

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Kāśyapa is more elaborate on the point:

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“दूर्वावीरणसंयुक्ताः सानूपा मृदुमत्तिकाः ।
तत्र वाप्यः शुभा वृक्षाः सुगन्धिफलशाखिनः ॥”

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The final direction of planting is:

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According to the same author—

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“It is best to plant trees at intervals of 20 cubits, next at 16, and 12 cubits’ interval is the minimum that can be prescribed.” 12.

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Agnipurāṇa¹ has the same thing:

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¹ Agnipurāṇa, Chapter 281, Slokas 8-9.

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“It is best to plant trees at intervals of 20 cubits, an interval of 16 cubits is next, and worst is the interval of 12 cubits. Closely planted trees become fruitless (barren).” 8 & 9.

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“The trees that are not at first planted after the Sāstric injunctions are destined to be fruitless.”

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And why this minimum limit? The answer is given in Sloka 13 of the same chapter of Brihat-samhitā. Thus:—“the roots thereby becoming mingled together will interfere with each other’s function and will become ill at work, and fruits will not be produced (मिश्रैर्मूलैश्च न फलं सम्यगच्छन्ति पीडिताः ).”

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After the trees are planted in the manner aforesaid “one should water them in the morning and evening in summer, at the end of the day in winter, and during the rainy season only when the earth is dried.”¹

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¹ { Brihat Saṁhitā, Śloka 9, Chap. 54. Agnipurāṇa, Śloka 7, Chap. 281.

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4. Manuring.—The ancients had a pretty sure knowledge of the fact that the plants derive their food materials from the soil, and they had an excellent knowledge of the science of manuring. This is more elaborately dealt with in the Book of Agriculture.

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The origin of manuring the soil can be traced as early as to a verse of the Atharva Veda.² The verse runs:

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² A. V. II. 8. 3.

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“With the straw of the brown, whitish, jointed barley for thee, with the sesame, stalk of sesame let the, etc., etc.”

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A more elaborate instruction in manuring is found in the Brihat Saṁhitā³ and Agnipurāṇa,⁴ in each of which a whole chapter is devoted to the purpose known as Vrikshāyurveda. Thus in Brihat Saṁhitā:

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³ Chap. LIV.

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⁴ Chap. 281.

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“To promote inflorescence and fructification, a mixture of one adhaka (64 palas) of sesame, two adhakas (128 palas) of excreta of goats or sheep, one prastha (16 palas) of barley powder, one tula (100 palas) of beef, thrown into one

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droṇa (256 palas) of water, and standing over for 7 nights, should be poured round the roots of the plant. The measures given are for one plant.”¹ This measure is for all kinds of plants (... वनस्पतेः। वल्लीगुल्मलतानां च फलपुष्पाय सर्वदा). 17 & 18.

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¹ Translation of these Slokas of the Brihat Saṃhitā are quoted from Dr. Seal's Positive Science of the Hindus.

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Agnipurāṇa has almost precisely the same thing:

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“To increase the production of flowers and fruits one should sprinkle ghee with cold milk, also a mixture of sesame, excreta of goats and sheep, barley powder and beef, thrown into water, and standing over for 7 nights should be poured round the roots of the plant.” (गोमांसमुदकञ्चैव सप्तरात्रं निधापयेत्, etc.) 11 & 12.

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Brihat Saṃhitā :

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“To ensure inflorescence, etc. (कुसुमयुक्तमेव) the seed before being sown should be treated as follows:—The seeds should be taken up in the palm greased with ghee and thrown into milk; on the day following the seeds should be taken out of the milk with greased fingers and the mass separated into single seeds. This process is to be repeated on 10 successive days. Then the seeds are to be carefully rubbed with cow-dung, and afterwards steamed in a vessel containing the flesh of hogs or deer. Then the seeds are to be sown with the flesh, with the fat of the hogs added in a soil previously prepared by being sown with sesame and dug up or trodden down"—and then to be sprinkled daily with water mixed with *kshīra* (क्षीर) 19 & 20.

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"To ensure the growth of *Ballaris* (i.e., sprouting and the growth of luxuriant stems and foliage)," Varāhamihira directs, "the seeds should be properly soaked in an infusion of powdered paddy, *Māsha* (Bean), Sesame and barley mixed with decomposing flesh, and then steamed with *Haridrā* (turmeric). This process will succeed even with the *Tinṭiḍi* (Tamarindus indica). For the *Kapiṭṭha* (Feronia elephantum) the seeds should be soaked for about 2 minutes (literally such length of time as it would take one to make a hundred rhythmic claps with the palms (तालशब्दः) in a decoction of eight roots: *Asphoṭa* (Jasmine), *Āmalakī* (Phyllanthus embellicus), *Dhaba* (Grislea tomentosa), *Vāsika* (Justica guaderussa), *Veṭula* (Calamus rotung), *Suryyavallī* (Gynandropsis pentaphyla), *Shyāma* (Echites frutescens) and *Atimukṭaka* (Aganosma caryophyllata) boiled in milk. The seeds then should be dried in the sun. This process should be repeated for 30 days. A circular hole should be dug in the ground, a cubit in diameter, and 2 cubits deep, and this should be filled with the milky decoction. When the hole dries up it should be burnt with fire and then pasted over with ashes mixed with ghee and honey. Three inches of soil should now be thrown in, then the powder of bean, sesame and barley, then again three inches of soil. Finally washings of fish should be sprinkled and the mud should be beaten and reduced to a thick consistency, then the seed previously prepared should be placed in the hole under three inches of the soil and fish washings (with fish) poured. This will lead to luxuriant ramification and foliage which will excite wonder." 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 & 26.

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The Agnipurāṇa¹ adds that the mango is specially benefited by cold fish washings (मत्स्यो-दकेन शीतन आम्राणां सेक इष्यते ). One can see this process is still resorted to in many mango gardens of Bengal.

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¹ Chap. 194, pp. 305 and 306 (Bengali Translation).

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Agnipurāṇa² also prescribes pouring of fish-washing as a general measure for luxuriant growth of trees (मत्स्याम्भसा तु सेकेन वृद्धिर्भवति शाखिनः).

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² Chap 281. 13.

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The same idea of pouring fish-washings as a means of helping development of fruits is conveyed in one of the aphorisms of Khanā³ which runs thus:

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³ মাছের জলে লাউ বাড়ে, etc.

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"Gourds flourish under the influence of fish washings."

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Chakradatta in his Chikitsā-saṃgraha,⁴ under section वातव्याधि-चिकित्सा (Treatment of Rheumatism), gives a long recipe for the preparation of an oil, where it is said that when a dry barren tree is sprinkled with this oil (at the root) it becomes full of flowers and fruits, graceful and strong (...सूतेऽमुनाभूरुहाः । सिक्ताः शोषमुपागताश्च फलिनः स्निग्धाभवन्ति स्थिराः).

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⁴ Sloka 86, pp 293, 294, edited by Pyarimohan Sengupta, 1294 B.S.

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In the next Sloka¹ he gives another recipe where he says that " if this oil be poured at the root of a dry tree it will sprout and bear flowers and fruits."

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¹ Sloka 87 . " अनेनैव च तैलेन शुष्यमाना महाद्रुमाः । सिक्ताः पुनः प्ररोहन्ति भवन्ति फलशालिनः ॥

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"Thus it will be seen that these elaborate recipes are empirical contrivances for supplying the plant with the requisite nitrogen compounds, phosphates, etc., these being potentially contained in the mixtures and infusions prescribed." (Seal).

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As to the rotation of crops—in the same field two crops were used to be grown—rice in summer and pulses in winter. Rotation of crops was thus known, and " to India Dr. Roxburgh believes the Western world to be indebted for this system."²

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² Mrs. Spier, Life in Ancient India, Chap. VII, p. 151, London 1856 Cf. also Fragment XI--Fragments of Indika of Megasthenes, Bonn, 1846.

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5. Treatment of plants.—The science of the treatment of plants (*Vrikshayurveda*) which does not yet technically exist in the West is represented by a regular section of the monumental work of Varāhamihir¹ as well as one in Agnipurāṇa.² The chapter entitled the “ *Vrikshāyurveda* ” or the science of treatment of plants in disease denotes elaborate care.

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¹ Brihat-saṃhita, Chap. 54.

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² Agnipurāṇa, Chap. 281.

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Guṇaratna in his commentary³ writes— “ Just as the human body is subject to jaundice, dropsy, shofa (?), emaciation and defects (dwarfness) of finger, nose, etc., etc., so also plants suffer from similar diseases such as inception of disease, displacement or dislocation of flower, fruit, leaves, bark.”

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³ Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907).

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“ And just as by the application of the appropriate remedies unnatural growth, deterioration, wounds, fructures, etc., can be cured, so also in plants by application of proper drugs as prescribed in *Vrikshāyurveda*.”

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Śaṅkara Miśra⁴ also in his Upāskara notices ‘ application of drugs ’ in plants (भेषजप्रयोग).

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⁴ On Vaiseshika Philosophy, 4.2.5

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Varāhamihir⁵ gives the following signs of the diseased condition of plants (एतैश्चिह्नस्तरुः स रोगो ज्ञेयः) :

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⁵ Chap. 54, Vol, II.

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“ Cold climate (low temperature), wind (dryness) and sun (high temperature) are the causes of disease. (When the plant is diseased) the leaves become yellow (etiolated), buds (प्रवालानां) do not develop or their growth arrested, branches become dry and the sap (rasa) exudes.” 14.

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Kaśyapa says “those plants that have yellow leaves (पाण्डुरैः पत्रैश्च), that are fruitless and denuded of leaves and these caused by coldness, excessive heat, too much rain, dry wind and by the intermingling of roots of different plants are to be known as diseased, and are to be treated accordingly.”

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Treatment.—Remedies are prescribed both preventive and curative.

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As a general prophylactic Varāhamihir says : “As a sort of general prophylactic mud kneaded with ghee and Viḍanga should be applied to the roots, after which milk diluted with water should be poured.” 15.

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In the Agnipurāṇa remedies are given almost to the same effect :—“Viḍanga mixed with rice, fish and flesh—all these mixed together constitute a remedy invigorating to the plants and curative of their diseases.” 13.

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Turning to curative: A cure is prescribed for that most incurable of diseases—barrenness. Varāhamihir prescribes—“As a remedy against barrenness a hot decoction should be made of Kulattha (Dolichos biflorus), Māsha (Phaseolus mungo var Roxburghii), Mudga (Ph. radiatus), *Tila* (Sesamum indicum) and *Yava* (Barley) which when cooled should be poured round the roots.” 16 & 20.

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Almost an identical recipe occurs in the Agnipurāṇa—“*Viḍaṅga* and ghee kneaded with mud and sprinkled with cold water together with *Kulattha*, *Māṣa*, *Muṅgo*, *Yava* and *Tila* should be used in a case of barrenness (फलनाशे).” 10.

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6. Respiration.—Respiration in plants in the modern sense was perhaps unknown to the ancient Indians. But the injurious effects of carbon dioxide (a gas given out by the plants during respiration) seems to be not unknown to them, a fact which is evident from an injunction of Manu.¹ Thus :

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¹ Manusaṃhitā, IV, 73.

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“One should not stay (sleep) during night hours under a tree, nor pass under it.”

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7. Movements.—Irritability. The phenomena of the movements of plants, their capacity for sleep, their sensitiveness to touch (contact), heat, wind, noise (thunder), etc., were noticed long ago.

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In the Mahābhārata, Śāntiparva,² we get an account of the sensitiveness of plants to touch, heat, thunder, etc.

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² Chap. 184.

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The Buddhist Scholiast Dharmottara in his Nyāyavindu Tika³ notices the phenomenon of sleep—contraction of leaves in the night (स्वाप: रात्रौ पत्रसङ्कोच:) in certain plants (नहि सर्व्वे वृक्षा:).

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³ Bibliotheca Indica, Chap. II, 23, edited by P. Peterson, 1889.

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Udayāna in his Kiraṇāvalī,¹ in a chapter named पृथिवीनिरूपणम् (Prithivīnirūpaṇam), notices in plants “the phenomena of life, death, sleep, waking, disease, drugging, transmission of specific characters by means of ova, movements towards what is favourable and avoiding what is unfavourable.” (इत्थं प्रतिनियत भोक्ताधिष्ठिता: जीवन-मरणस्वप्नजागरणरोगभेषजप्रयोग-सजातीयानुविद्धानुकूलोपगम-प्रतिकूलोपगमादिभ्य: । प्रसिद्धशरीरवत्).

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¹ Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1342 (1912), Fasc. III, pp. 238-244.

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Guṇaratna in his commentary² enumerates the following characteristics of plant life:— Various kinds of movements or actions connected with sleep, waking, expansion, and contraction in response to touch, also movements towards a support or prop.

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² Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907), Sloka 49, p. 157.

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Guṇaratna also gives a list of plants that exhibit the phenomena of Sleep and Waking. He also notices the sensitiveness to touch of plants like the Mimosa pudica (लज्जावती—hence the name) which show a manifest reaction in the form of contraction. (लज्जालुप्रभृतीनां हस्तादि-संस्पर्शात् पत्रसंकोचादिका.)

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He also notices that Nelumbium speciosum (lotus) opens with the sunrise; Ghoshātaki (Luffa amara or acutangula) and others in the evening and Lily with the rise of moon. “पद्मादीनां प्रातर्विकसनं, घोषालकादिपुष्पानां च संध्यायां, कुमुदादीनां तु चन्द्रोदये।”

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Śaṅkara Miśra in his Upāskara¹ also notices plants as characterised by “approaching the agreeable and avoiding the disagreeable,” etc. “सजातीयानुबन्धानुकूलोपगम-प्रतिकूलोपगमः सम्भवति।”

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¹ S. B. H., Vol. IV, and Gough's Translation and Edition, 4, 2, 5.

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In this connexion we might mention that the name ‘Sūryyamukhī’ (Sunflower) for the particular plant—a flower which always faces the rising sun—is significant.

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8. Growth.—The stages of growth in plant life are very briefly but comprehensively noted by Guṇaratna in his commentary. Thus:

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(1) Stages of infancy, youth and age. (बाल-कुमार-युव-वृद्धता-परिणामः.)

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(2) Regular growth—“Just as man experiences the stages of infancy, adolescence, youth and old age thereby demonstrating full consciousness, so also do trees.” “And just as the human system undergoes constant growth through the stages of infancy, adolescence, youth, etc., likewise a tree undergoes growth through stages of sprouting, seedling with new leaves, branching and so forth.” “वनस्पतिशरीरमरकिङ्कसलय-शाखाप्रशाखादिभिर्विशेषैः प्रतिनियतं वर्द्धते इति।”

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The conditions of growth seem to be not unknown to the ancient Indians. Thus:

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(1) *Food*—The same Commentator mentions growth or decay by assimilation of suitable or unsuitable food.

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(2) *Water*—(भुजलाद्याहार, etc.). The necessity of water as a condition of growth (बलं) of plants is emphasized by the mythical prophetess Khanā—“Light by day and water by night—these two lead to the growth of strength to plants.”

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(3) *Light*—as a factor for healthy growth is also mentioned. Light as a general rule retards growth, absence of light or shade accelerates it. The following aphorism of Khanā¹ very tersely puts the truth:

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¹ “ছায়ার ওলে চুলকায় মুখ, কিন্তু তাহে নাহি দুখ”।

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“*Ol* (Amorphophallus campanulatus) grown in a shady place, *i.e.*, in the absence of direct sunlight causes irritation in the mouth, but it is not to be regretted,” for what is lost in quality is gained in quantity, *i.e.*, *Ol* grows in volume in shade which is economically the more important.

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“Betel leaf in shade and paddy in sunlight”² also testifies the same truth.

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² “ছায়ায় পান, রোদে ধান”।

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But for healthy growth light is necessary is clear from the aphorism already quoted under factor ‘water.’

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9. *Age and Death.*—The marvellous longevity attained by plants is also referred to by Guṇaratna, in his commentary¹ to the extent of a maximum of ten thousand years (दशसहस्रा-यत्कृष्टायुः ).

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¹ Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907), pp. 157, 158.

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He also mentions the causes of death, such as assimilation of suitable and unsuitable (इष्टा-निष्टाहारादिप्राप्ता ) food, also disease.

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Udayāna also notices in his Kiraṇāvalī² death, disease, drugging, etc., in plants. (जीवनमरणस्वप्न-जागरण-रोगभेषजप्रयोग, etc.)

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² Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1342 (1912), Fasc. III, pp. 238, 239, etc.

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So also in Upāskara³ (जीवनमरण, etc. )

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³ Sacred Book of the Hindus Series, Vol, VI, pp. 159-60. (Panini office.) Also A. E. Gough's translation, Benares, 1873, pp. 147-148.

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10. Consciousness in Plants.—The phenomenon of consciousness in plants was well known to the ancient Hindus, and throughout the whole of their literature we find scattered references unmistakably bearing testimony to this knowledge. In popular superstition as well as in profound speculation we meet with this testimony. The popular notion of Vriksha-Devatā or presiding deities of trees corresponding to the Dryads of the Greeks is a matter of common knowledge. Some of the Jātakas which are systematised popular stories relating to Buddha, mention the Bodhi-Sattwa born as Tree-spirit for 33 times. And the grammatical treatise like Kalāpa referred to this prevalent popular belief as to the trees being animated by spirits.

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Coming from popular belief to profound speculation we meet with precisely the same thing. A verse in the Rigveda¹ is addressed to the plants evidently referring to their possession of the gift of hearing. The practice is repeated both in the Rig and the Atharva² Vedas.

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¹ Rigveda, X, 97. 21

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² Atharva Veda, XI, 6 10. "In obedience to the thundering voice of the vital breath (prāṇa) that the plants are fecundated, that they conceive and multiply." Dr. Barua's History of Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy, I, p 25, 1921.

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Mahīdās Aitareya³ includes the herbs and trees along with animals in the organic world. According to him plants belong to the last of the four classes of beings, *i.e.*, propagated from germs. In his theory of the gradual development of the soul he says, "In herbs and trees, for example, Sap (life) only is seen, but thought (Chitta) in the widest sense is in the higher forms of life.", In another place of his Book (I. 2. 4. 14) he says, "all forms of life eat and drink. All lower animals propagate the species. Even the plants when they are grown up, bear fruits."

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³ Aitareya Āraṇyaka, I, 5. 1. 9.; II. 6. 1. 5.—Barua, IV, pp. 57, 58.

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Uddālaka says that "the living principle is the potentiality of living bodies—the real seed of things. It is, for example, that potentiality or vitality in an infinitesimally small seed from which a large Banyan tree springs into existence. It is the spirit which animates all the parts of a living being. When this spirit leaves any branch of a tree, that withers, i.e., ceases to be an integral part of the living whole, when it leaves another branch, that too withers. And when in this way it leaves finally the whole tree withers and perishes. But the living principle never dies.”¹

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¹ Chhāndogya Upanishad, VI. 12. 1 2 Barua, *ibid*, VIII, pp. 136-137. ² Manu, I. 49. ³ Barua, *ibid*, XXI, p. 308. ⁴ Śāntiparva, 184th Chapter, p.

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The Manu Saṃhitā² distinctly states that the trees are trees on account of their being under the influence of tamóguṇa (तमोगुणः), but they “possess a sort of dormant or latent consciousness, and are capable of pleasure and pain.” (अन्तःसंज्ञा भवन्त्येते सुखदुःखसमन्विताः).

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According to Maskarin Gosāla³ “the plant life or vegetable kingdom, like the elemental life, is possessed of only one sense, the sense of touch. But Gosāla admits that plants in general stand higher in the scale than elemental lives.”

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There is a lengthy, philosophical or rather an analytical exposition of the theme of consciousness in plants in the Mahābhārata, Śāntiparva.⁴ “Brahman,” interrogated Bharadwāj, “if bodies both moving and unmoving, are made up of five elements, why do we not then perceive their existence in the immovables? Plants and creepers, can neither hear, nor see or smell, taste or touch. Nor are there in them liquids like blood, the elements of fire (energy), earth represented by bone and marrow, the element of air represented by activity, and the sky (ether) represented by empty space (pore). How then, can they be regarded as constituted of five elements?”

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⁸⁵⁵ Kāliprasanna Singha's Translation, Basumati Edition.

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“Brahman,” replied Bhrigu, “we cannot indeed perceive the existence of Ether in them through the naked eye because they are solid ( घनभूत ), but when we ponder over the fact how they constantly produce fruits and flowers this existence becomes manifest to us. How can we doubt the existence of their *gift of touch* seeing that their leaves, bark, fruit and flowers wither under the influence of heat? We must infer the *gift of hearing* in them seeing that their fruits and flowers dry up under the influence of wind, fire and the sound of thunder. Eyeless creatures can never go their way of themselves, and as creepers approach and wind round the trees and move at will, we must admit the existence of sight in them. And as they can be healed of their diseases by the application of odour both pleasant and unpleasant and also by frankincense of various types, it is sure that they possess the *power of sense*. The *organ of taste* in them must be inferred from the fact that they are capable of drinking water through the root. As we suck up water through a lotus stalk applied to the mouth so do plants with the help of air drink up water through their roots. Thus as they are found to be sensitive to pleasure and pain, and as they are seen to undergo regeneration after mutilation, we must admit the existence of *life* in them. Fire (energy) and air (CO₂) help in the assimilation of the water that unmoving beings like trees take up (from the soil) through the roots.”

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Udayāna¹ also notes “that plants have a dormant unmanifested consciousness which is extremely dull” (अतिमन्दान्तःसञ्ज्ञतया, etc).

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¹ Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1342 (1912), Fasc. III, pp. 238-244.

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Guṇaratna² in his commentary refers distinctly to the consciousness of plants as a point of similarity between plants and man (अतः पुरुषशरीरतुल्यत्वात् सचेतनो वनस्पतिरिति). He then elaborates his remarks.

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Upaskāra³ commenting on Kaṇāda’s aphorism (4.².5) refers to plants as being the “ground of experience of the consequences of acts.” Thus—“Trees and the like also are no doubt so many kinds of bodies, being the seat of experience (i.e., the field wherein particular souls reap the consequences of their acts in previous births). For without the characteristic of being the seat of experience, life, death, sleep, waking, use of medicine, propagation of the seed, approaching agreeable, avoiding the disagreeable, etc., would be impossible."

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² Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907).

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³ S.B.H., Vol. VI, Panini Office.

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The Bhāgabat Purāṇa¹ very definitely points out the following peculiarities of plants (तेषां साधारणं लक्षणमाह):

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¹ 3rd Skanda, 10th Chap., Slokas 19, 20, p. 30, with Sridhar Swami's Commentary, Calcutta, 1294 B.S.

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(1) their process of taking of food from below upwards (उत्स्रोतसः).

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(2) dormant consciousness (तमःप्राया अव्यक्त-चैतन्याः), and

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(3) the possession of the sensation of touch (अन्तःस्पर्शा).

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"Chakrapāṇi notes in the Bhānumati that the consciousness of plants is a sort of stupefied (darkened or comatose) consciousness (वृक्षासु चेतनावन्तोऽपि तमसाच्छन्नज्ञानतया शास्त्रोपदेशविषया एव)."²

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² Dr. Seal, Positive Science, p. 175.

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11. Sexuality.—The idea of sexuality in plants as entertained by the ancients in India is highly quaint but vague and inaccurate, being the result not of scientific observation but of pure poetic speculation from start to finish. The general idea of the division of the plant kingdom into male and female based on human analogy was formed. Thus Hārīta Saṃhitā ¹ records possibly the earliest fanciful division :—

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¹ Śārīrasthāna, Chap. I, p. 344. Śakābda 1807.

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“ Hārīta asks :

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‘ Why, O sage, is there no conception without the union ? Or, why are there no flowers and fruits produced without the union (of the sexes) ? Why is the same kind of fruition not to be perceived in women as in the plants ?’

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Âtreya said :

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‘ The seed, O son, is produced by the co-operation of different sexes and in the case of the fixed plants, its quality is similar to the sperm (धातु).

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“ No two opinions exist, my son, among the fixed plants, endowed with śiva and śakti.”

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हारीत उवाच—संयोगेन विना प्राज्ञ : संयोगेन विना पुष्प' : वृक्षवन्न कथं स्त्रीणां आत्रेय उवाच—विरुद्धानाञ्च वल्ली तत्र धातुसमं बी- न भिन्नदृष्टिसं स्थावराणाञ्च स निस्यलोऽपि हि तच स्त्रीपुरु- षास्यपुष्प' फ the female procreative energies, know this. That which has static (निष्कलऽपि) property is to be known as śiva, the male, and that which has dynamic property (व्यामिश्रशक्ति) is to be known, O the great-souled one, as śakti, the female. The functions of the male and the female arise from their combination. The male flowers, fruits and stones (embryo within) likewise are endowed with śukra, the generating power.”

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Charaka¹ is more clear, though not at all more scientific than Hārīta on this point. In course of the description of properties, etc., of Vatsaka (Holarrhena antidysenterica) Charaka says: “Those of the Vatsaka which bears white flowers and fruits, and tender (स्निग्धः) leaves, belong to the category of males ; and those which bear red and yellow flowers and fruits, and are not bulk and whose colour is different, belong to the category of females.

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¹ See the Bengali Edition of D. N. Mukherji, p. 109. नपुंसः पुमान्, श्यामारुष्पातु- English Translation— स्त्रीपु'नपु'सकत्वेन वैविध्य'

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The depth of Hindu knowledge in this direction is carried still further, as we get in the same text a classification of plants into male, female and neuter based on the physical characteristics as slenderness or bulk.

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