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The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c4.s3: The Vedántic View

The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c4.s3

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The Vedántic View

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The Vedántists believe Máyá to be the "material cause" (उपादानकारण) of the world. The power of Máyá is the power to realise the unreal—to impart practical Reality or mediate existence to that which does not and cannot possess absolute Reality or self-existence. Máyá is at once real and unreal, while the Brahma (Self) is absolute Reality, absolute Intelligence, and absolute Bliss. The world evolves out of Máyá (मायापरिणाम), so that Máyá in the Vedánta replaces the Prakriti of the Sánkhya. But Máyá, and by implication the world, originate out of Brahma, not by a process of evolution (परिणाम), but of Vivarta (self-alienation). The self-alienation of the Absolute, acting through Máyá, produces in the beginning Ákása—one, infinite, ubiquitous, imponderable, inert, and allpervasive. The world thus begun goes on evolving, in increasing complexity. The other Súkshma Bhútas, classes of subtile matter, evolve from Ákása in an ascending linear order—Ákása giving off Váyu, Váyu giving off Tejas, Tejas giving off Ap, and Ap giving off Earth. Ákása (one, infinite, all-pervasive) has the capacity of sound. Váyu (subtile gaseous matter) emanates from the universal Ákása, and is instinct with the potential of mechanical energy (impact, pressure) (ईरण, प्रगामित्त्व, वहन, व्यूहन,—वायोश्च सर्व्वचेष्टाहेतुत्वेन सङ्गोविनाभूतत्वात्—Vidvanmanorañjiní). Tejas (subtile radiant matter) emanates from Váyu, and contains *in potentia* the energy of light and heat. Ap (subtile viscous matter) is the transformation of Tejas, and is instinct with the energy that stimulates the nerve of taste, and lastly, Earth (subtile hard matter), which is the transformation of Ap, possesses the latent energy of smell.

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But the subtile rudiments of matter must be compounded in various ways to give rise to the gross constituent matter of the world. These forms of gross matter are called Mahábhútas. There are five kinds of Mahábhúta (gross matter) corresponding to the five Súkshma Bhútas (subtile matter), and the process by which a Mahábhúta is produced from the Súkshma Bhútas is called Pañchíkaraṇa (quintuplication). All the five Súkshma Bhútas are present as ingredients, though in different proportions, in each Mahábhúta.

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The Mahábhúta Earth, gross Earth-matter, is composed of four parts of subtile Earth-matter and one part each of the other forms of subtile matter. The Mahábhúta Váyu is composed of four parts of subtile gaseous matter and one part each of the other forms of subtile matter. And similarly with other Mahábhútas.

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Hence if ak, v, t, ap, e, represent the five forms of subtile matter (Ákása, Váyu, Tejas, Ap, and Earth), and AK, V, T, AP, E, stand for the corresponding Mahábhútas, we may represent the constitution of the Mahábhútas as follows :—

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AK = ak₄ (v₁. t₁. ap₁. e₁), ak₄ being the radicle.
V = v₄ (ak₁. t₁. ap₁. e₁), v₄ being the radicle.
T = t₄ (ak₁. v₁. ap₁. e₁), t₄ being the radicle.
AP = ap₄ (ak₁. v₁. t₁. e₁), ap₄ being the radicle.
E = e₄ (ak₁. v₁. t₁. ap₁), e₄ being the radicle.

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In forms of gross or compounded matter the potential energies (or qualities) become actualised. The Mahábhúta Ákása manifests sound; Váyu, sound and mechanical energy; Tejas, sound, mechanical energy, and heat-light; Ap, the energy of the taste-stimulus in addition; and finally, Earth, the energy of the smell-stimulus added to the foregoing.

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The Pañchadasí characterises the different Mahábhútas by their typical sounds: *e.g.*, Ákása by the echo (hollow booming sound); Váyu (air) by a sibilant sound, hissing, susurration (imitative symbol, Visi); Tejas (fire) by a puffing (or roaring) sound (imitative symbol, Bhugubhugu); Ap (water) by a liquid sound (imitative symbol, Culu-culu, gurgle, plash-plash, glut-glut); and finally, Earth by a splitting or rattling sound, a crack or a thud (symbol, Kad-kada). (Chap. II. Bhútaviveka, Śloka 3, Pañchadasí. *Cf.* also Jayanta, Mañjari.)

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Others hold that Ákása (ether) never enters as a component part, and is always one and indivisible. In this view the four Mahábhútas—Váyu, Tejas, Ap, and Earth—alone are supposed to be compounded, and by a process which may be called quaternion (*cf.* the Neo-Platonist quaternion):—

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V = v~3~ (t~1~. ap~1~. e~1~).
T = t~3~ (v~1~. ap~1~. e~1~).
AP = ap~3~ (v~1~. t~1~. e~1~).
E = e~3~ (v~1~. t~1~. ap~1~).

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These compound forms, as before, are supposed to exercise their specific energies actively. Others again hold that the Mahábhútas Tejas, Ap, and Earth alone are compounded by a process named Trivrit-karana (triplication). Thus T = t~2~ (ap~1~. e~1~), AP = ap~2~ (t~1~. e~1~), E = e~2~ (t~1~. ap~1~).

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The Súkshma Bhútas are forms of homogeneous and continuous matter, without any atomicity of structure; the Mahábhútas are composite; but even these are regarded as continuous, and without any atomic structure. The Vedánta speaks of *Anu* (Paramánu) not as an ultimate indivisible discrete constituent of matter, but as the smallest conceivable quantum or measure of matter. In the Sánkhya doctrine the atomic structure is ordinarily accepted. The *Gunas* are supposed to be परिच्छिन्न and अणु, bounded and indefinitely small in size (except the *Gunas* giving rise to Ákása and Manas, which are unlimited अपरिच्छिन्न); and hence the Tanmátras and Paramánus must be conceived to have a discrete structure.

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As I have already noted in my account of the genesis of Tanmátras and Paramánus, various schools of Vedántists (*e.g.* the Rámánujists and the followers of Nimbárka) combined, in the orthodox fashion of the Smritis and the Puránas, the Vedántic theosophy with the Sánkhya cosmology, especially as regards Prakriti and the order of creation and dissolution. For example, the Vedánta-kaustubhaprabhá, fortifying itself with texts from the Vishnu Purána and the Subala and Gopála Upanishads, contends that, at the cosmic dissolution (Pralaya), each Mahábhúta merges into the one that preceded it in the order of creation by first disintegrating into its own proper Tanmátric form (तन्मात्रद्वारा), and that the Mahábhúta Ákása merges into the original Tanmátras, which then lapse into Bhútádi, the super-subtile rudiment-matter, proto-matter (Chap. II., Pada III., Sutra 14).

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*Parináma*—*Evolutionary Process.*—When the Mahábhútas are once formed, the different kinds of substance are derived from them by the evolutionary process called Parináma (परिणाम, transformation). Matter is constantly undergoing change of state. The effect is only the cause in a new collocation (कारणस्यैव संस्थानमात्रं कार्यम्). Change is of two kind:—

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(1) Change by a spontaneous process, without external influence, including isomeric change (स्वाभाविक परिणाम). The Vedántists believe in spontaneous disintegration and reintegration. Action from without, impressed force *ab extra*, is not, *pace* the Naiyáyikas, always a condition of change of state (whether of rest or of motion); nor is it necessary that more than one substance should combine to generate another substance or variety of substance (*e.g.* the formation of curds from milk, of ice from water, etc.). All this is directed against the Nyáya doctrine (Árambhaváda).

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(2) Change due to combination with other substances (द्रव्यान्तरसंयोग). Such combination may produce (*a*) a compound substance possessing like qualities with the constituents (समानजातीयोत्पत्ति), or (*b*) unlike compounds with new qualities, “heteropathic effects” (विजातीयोत्पत्ति). Any new quality thus evolved through (chemical) combination is called Samhata-bhúta-dharma (संहतभूतधर्म), *e.g.* the intoxicating power of the fermented rice and molasses, which does not exist in the ingredients taken separately (मद्यबीजानां प्रत्येकं अवर्तमानापि समुदायशक्त्या मदशक्तिः दृश्यते). This Sambhúyakriyá (सम्भूयक्रिया, समुत्थान) corresponds to chemical combination, and the Vedántists, like the Sánkhyas, explain this only as the evolution of the latent Energy (शक्ति, अनुद्भूतशक्ति) in a new collocation (संस्थान, अवयव-सन्निवेश). But, unlike the mediæval Sánkhya, the Vedánta freely recognises the combination of heterogeneous Bhútas. Thus Earth, Ap, Tejas, and Váyu freely combine in different proportions and groupings to produce the variety of substances in the world. For example, the animal organism is a compound of all the five Bhútas (पाञ्चभौतिक). It is not merely the concomitant or efficient causes that may be heterogeneous to the material cause, as the Naiyáyikas contend, but several heterogeneous substances (or Bhútas) may unite as “material causes” to produce a new substance.

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The Vedántists resolve all activity—physical, vital, as well as psychical—into modes of motion, subtile cosmic motion (परिस्पन्द, सर्व्वलोकपरिस्पन्द—Śaṅkara; वायोः परिस्पन्दात्मकत्वात्,—प्राणस्य परिस्पन्दात्मकत्वादेव—यद्द्वैतं स्थूलं सूक्ष्मं च तत्सर्व्वं मनःस्पन्दितमात्रम्—Śaṅkara); but they give a separate substantive existence to the agents, the vital principle (प्राण), and the mind (मनः), though these are also evolutionary transformations of the Súkshma Bhútas (forms of subtile matter). What is common to the Nyáya, the Vedánta, and the Sáṅkhya is that Consciousness or Intelligence (चैतन्य) transcends Matter; but the Naiyáyikas, as pluralists, hold that vital and psychical activities are also immaterial and cannot be resolved into motion (परिस्पन्द). The Vedántists resolve these activities into subtile motion, but ascribe them to a substantive quasi-material Life Principle and Mind, the all-mirroring Intelligence (चैतन्य) alone being immaterial and transcendent; and the Sáṅkhyas accept the substantive existence of the Mind Principle (मनः) as derived co-ordinately with the Súkshma Bhútas or Tanmátras from individualised Prakriti (Ahaṅkára), but resolve Life into a mere resultant activity of the bodily organs, viz. the organs of sense and movement and the psychic principle (मनः).

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पञ्चीकरण :— द्विधा विधाय चैकैकं चतुर्द्धा प्रथमं पुनः । स्वस्वेतरद्वितीयांशैर्योजनात् पञ्च पञ्च ते ।

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यथा त्रिसर्गश्रुतौ सृष्टानां भूतानां स्फुटतरव्यवहारनामरूपस्य करणोपायतया त्रिवृत्करणं श्रुतं तद्वत् भूतपञ्चकसर्गश्रुतौ अपि तथा । तदानीं पञ्चीकरणानन्तरं आकाशे शब्दोऽभिव्यज्यते स्फुटतयेति सर्व्वत्र योजनीयं (विद्वन्मनोरञ्जिनी)—अस्ति हि शरीरे सर्व्वेषामपि भूतानां कार्य्यसंप्रतिपत्तिः अवकाशव्यूहनपचनक्लेदनकाठिन्यानां सर्व्वजनानुभवसिद्धत्वात् । अतस्तत्कारणतया पञ्चानि भूतानि एकस्मिन् देहे सन्तीति स्थिते तन्तुपटयोरिव अवयवावयवित्वमेव पञ्चभूतदेह-

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योर्युक्तं। न च स्पर्शशून्यत्वात् एकद्रव्यत्वात् च आकाशस्य चारम्भकत्वानुपपत्तिरिति वाच्यं । चारम्भवादस्य अनङ्गीकारात् । एकस्यापि दुग्धावयविनो दध्यारम्भकत्वदर्शनात् । वस्तुतस्तु पञ्चानां भूतानां पञ्चात्मकत्वस्य दर्शितत्वात् चारम्भवादस्य निराकृतत्वात् च । तस्मात् सिद्धं शरीरं पाञ्चभौतिकमिति ।

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—Vidvanmanorañjiní.

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न तावत् समानजातीयमेव आरभते न भिन्नजातीयमिति नियमो वास्ति । समवायिकारणे एव समानजातीयत्वाभ्युपगमः न कारणास्तरविषय इति तदपि अनैकान्तिकम् । नापि अनेकमेव चारभते नैकमिति नियमोऽस्ति । अणुमनसोराद्यकर्म्मोरम्भाभ्युपगमात् । एकैको हि परमाणुराद्यं सकर्म्मारभते न द्रव्यान्तरं संहत्य इत्यभ्युपगम्यते । द्रव्यारम्भे एव अनेकचारम्भकत्वनियम इति चेत् न परिणामाभ्युपगमात् । तदेव तु द्रव्यं विशेषवदवस्थान्तरं आपद्यमानं कार्य्यं नामाभ्युपगम्यते । तच्च क्वचित् अनेकं परिणमते मृद्वीजाङ्कुरादिभावेन । क्वचिदेकं परिणमते क्षीरादि-दध्यादिभावेन । नेश्वरशासनं अस्ति अनेकं एव कारणं कार्य्यं जनयति इति।

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—Śaṅkara, Śáríraka-Bháshya, Sutra 7, Pada III., Adhyáya 2.

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