The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c4.s5: The Atomic Theory of the Jainas
The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c4.s5
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The Atomic Theory of the Jainas
c4.s5.1
Of the nine categories of the Jainas, that of Ajíva (the not-soul or non-Ego) consists of five entities, four of which are immaterial (अमूर्त), viz. merit, demerit, space and time, and the fifth, material (मूर्त, possessing figure). The last is called Pudgala (Matter), and this alone is the vehicle of Energy, which is essentially kinetic, *i.e.* of the nature of motion. Everything in the world of not-soul (the non-Ego) is either an entity (द्रव्य) or a change of state in an entity (पर्याय). Pudgala (Matter) and its changes of state (पर्याय), whether of the nature of subtile motion (परिस्पन्द) or of evolution (परिणाम), must furnish the *physical* as opposed to the *metaphysical* basis of all our explanations of Nature. Pudgala (Matter) exists in two forms—Anu (atom) and Skandha (aggregate). The Jainas begin with an absolutely homogeneous mass of Pudgalas, which by differentiation (भेद) breaks up into several kinds of atoms qualitatively determined, and by differentiation, integration, and differentiation in the integrated (संघातात, भेदात्, संघातभेदात्—Umásvátí, Chap. V., Sutra 26), forms aggregates (Skandhas). An Anu has no parts, no beginning, middle, or end. An Anu is not only infinitesimal, but also eternal and ultimate. A Skandha may vary from a binary aggregate (द्व्यणुक) to an infinitum (अनन्ताणुक). A binary Skandha is an aggregate of two Anus (atoms), a tertiary Skandha is formed by the addition of an atom (Anu) to the binary (त्र्यणुक), and so on *ad infinitum*. The ascending grades are (1) what can be numbered (संख्येय), (2) indefinitely large (असंख्येय), (3) infinity of the first order (अनन्त), (4) infinity of the second order (अनन्तानन्त), and so on.
c4.s5.2
*General Properties of Matter.*—The specific characters of the Pudgalas (Matter) are of two kinds, (1) those which are found in atoms as well as in aggregates, and (2) those which are found only in aggregates. Qualities of touch, taste, smell, and colour come under the first head. The original Pudgalas being homogeneous and indeterminate, all sensible qualities, including the infra-sensible qualities of atoms, are the result of evolution (परिणाम). Every atom thus evolved possesses an infra-sensible (or potential) taste, smell, and colour (one kind of each), and two infra-sensible tactile qualities, *e.g.* a certain degree of roughness or smoothness (or dryness and moistness?) and of heat or cold. Earth-atoms, Ap-atoms, etc., are but differentiations of the originally homogeneous Pudgalas. The tactile qualities (खर, स्निग्ध, उष्ण, शीत) appear first, but qualities of taste, smell, and colour are involved in the possession of tactile qualities. An aggregate (Skandha), whether binary, tertiary, or of a higher order, possesses (in addition to touch, taste, smell, and colour) the following physical characters : (1) sound, (2) atomic linking, or mutual attraction and repulsion of atoms, (3) dimension, small or great, (4) figure, (5) divisibility, (6) opacity and casting of shadows, and (7) radiant heat-and-light.
c4.s5.3
*Sensible Qualities.*—Tactile qualities are of the following kinds: hardness or softness, heaviness or lightness (degrees of pressure), heat or cold, and roughness or smoothness (or dryness and viscosity ?). Of these the atoms (*Anus*) possess only temperature and degrees of roughness or smoothness, but all the four kinds of tactile qualities in different degrees and combinations characterise aggregates of matter from the binary molecule upwards. The Jainas appear to have thought that gravity was developed in molecules as the result of atomic linking. Simple tastes are of five kinds—bitter, pungent, astringent, acid, and sweet. Salt is supposed by some to be resolvable into sweet, while others consider it as a compound taste. Smells are either pleasant or unpleasant. Mallishena notes some elementary varieties of unpleasant smell, *e.g.* the smell of asafœtida, ordure, etc. The simple colours are five—black, blue, red, yellow, and white. Sounds may be classed as loud or faint, bass (thick) or treble (hollow), clang, or articulate speech.
c4.s5.4
The most remarkable contribution of the Jainas to the atomic theory relates to their analysis of atomic linking, or the mutual attraction (or repulsion) of atoms in the formation of molecules. The question is raised in Umásváti's Jaina Sútras (*circa* a.d. 40?)—what constitutes atomic linking? Is mere contact (or juxtaposition) of atoms sufficient to cause linking? No distinction is here made between the forces that bind together atoms of the same Bhúta and the chemical affinity of one Bhúta to another. The Jainas hold that the different classes of elementary substances (Bhútas) are all evolved from the same primordial atoms. The intra-atomic forces which lead to the formation of chemical compounds do not therefore differ in kind from those that explain the original linking of atoms to form molecules.
c4.s5.5
Mere juxtaposition (संयोग) is insufficient; *linking* of atoms or molecules must follow before a compound can be produced. The linking takes place under different conditions. Ordinarily speaking, one particle of matter (पुद्गल) must be negative and the other positive (विषमगुणयुक्त); the two particles must have two peculiar opposite qualities, roughness and smoothness (रूक्षत्व and स्निग्धत्व, or dryness and viscosity?), to make the linking possible. But no linking takes place where the qualities, though opposed, are very defective or feeble (जघन्यगुण). We have seen that, ordinarily speaking, two homogeneous particles, *i.e.* both positive or both negative, do not unite. This is the case where the opposed qualities are equal in intensity. But if the strength or intensity of the one is twice as great as that of the other, or exceeds that proportion, then even similar particles may be attracted towards each other. In every case change of state in both the particles is supposed to be the result of this linking, and the physical characters of the aggregate depend on the nature of this linking. When particles of equal intensity (negative and positive) modify each other there is mutual action; in cases of unequal intensity the higher intensity transforms the lower, it being apparently thought that an influence proceeds from the higher to the lower. All changes in the qualities of atoms depend on this linking. A crude theory, this, of chemical combination, very crude but immensely suggestive, and possibly based on the observed electrification of smooth and rough surfaces as the result of rubbing. The interpretation of रूक्ष and स्निग्ध as dry and viscous must be rejected in this connection as untenable. The Tattvárthádhigama of Umásvátí, which expounds the theory, most probably dates back to the first half of the first century A.D.
c4.s5.6
*Cf.* Umásvátí-Tattvárthádhigama, Chap. V.:—
अजीवकाया धर्म्माधर्म्माकाशपुद्गलाः। द्रव्याणि जीवाश्च। नित्यावस्थितानि अरूपाणि। रूपिणः पुद्गलाः। आकाशादेकद्रव्याणि। निष्क्रियाणि च। पुद्गलजीवास्तु क्रियावन्तः। (क्रियेति गतिकर्म्मोह)। सर्व्वेषां प्रदेशाः सन्ति अन्यत्र परमाणोः। संख्येयासंख्येयाश्च पुद्गलानां। नान्योः। स्पर्शरसगन्धवर्णवन्तः पुद्गलाः। तत्र स्पर्शोऽष्टविधः कठिनो मृदुर्गुरुर्लघुः शीत उष्णः स्निग्धः रूक्ष इति। रसः पञ्चविधस्तिक्तः कटुः कषायोऽम्लोमधुर इति। गन्धो द्विविधः सुरभिरसुरभिश्च। वर्णः पञ्चविधः कृष्णो नीलो लोहितः पीतः शुक्ल इति।
शब्दस्कन्धसौक्ष्म्यस्थौल्यसंस्थानभेदतमश्छायातपोद्योतवन्तश्च। तत्र शब्दः षड्विधः ततो विततो घनः शुशिरो घर्षो भाषइति। अणवः स्कन्धाश्च। उक्तं च। कारणमेव तदन्त्यं सूक्ष्मो नित्यश्च भवति परमाणुः। एकरसगन्धवर्णो द्विस्पर्शः कार्य्यलिङ्गश्च। तत्राणवोऽबह्वाः स्कन्धास्तु बह्वा एव। स्कन्धास्तावत् संघाताद्भेदेभ्यउत्पद्यन्ते। संघाताद्भेदात् संघातभेदादिति। द्वयोः परमाण्वोः संघाताद्द्द्विप्रदेशः। द्विप्रदेशस्याणोश्च संघातात् त्रिप्रदेशः। एवं संख्येयानामसंख्येयानामनन्तानामनन्तानन्तानां च प्रदेशानां संघातात् प्रदेशाः। भेदादणुः। भेदादेव परमाणुरुत्पद्यते न संघातादिति। अत्राह। किं संयोगमात्रादेव संघातौ भवति। आहोस्विदस्ति कश्चिद्विशेष इति। अत्रोच्यते। सति संयोगे बद्धस्य संघातौ भवतीति। स्निग्ध-
c4.s5.7
रुक्षत्वाइन्धः । न जघन्यगुणानाम् । स्निग्धरुक्षयोः पुद्गल्योः सृष्टयोर्बन्धो भवतीति । जघन्यगुणस्निग्धानां जघन्यगुणरुक्षाणां च परस्परेण बन्धो न भवतीति । उक्तं भवता जघन्यगुणवर्ज्जितानां स्निग्धानां रुक्षेण रुक्षाणां च स्निग्धेन सह बन्धो भवतीति । अथ तुल्यगुणयोः किमत्यन्तप्रतिषेध इति । अनोच्यते । न। गुणसाम्ये सदृशानां । गुणसाम्ये सति सदृशानां बन्धो न भवति । तद्यथा । तुल्यगुणस्निग्धस्य तुल्यगुणस्निग्धेन तुल्यगुणरुक्षस्य तुल्यगुणरुक्षेण इति । अत्राह सदृशग्रहणं किमपेक्षते इति । अत्राच्यते । गुणवैषम्ये सदृशानां बन्धो भवति इति । अत्राह किमविशेषेण गुणवैषम्ये सदृशानां बन्धो भवतीति । अनोच्यते । द्व्यधिकादिगुणानां तु द्यधिकादिगुणानां सदृशानां बन्धो भवति। द्विगुणाद्यधिकस्निग्धेन। द्विगुणाद्यधिकस्निग्धस्य स्निग्धेन । रुक्षस्यापि द्विगुणाद्यधिकरुक्षस्य रुक्षेण । एकादिगुणाधिकयोस्तु सदृशयोर्बन्धो न भवति । अत्राह परमाणुषु स्कन्धेषु च ये स्पर्शादयो गुणास्ते किं व्यवस्थिताः तेषु आहोखिदव्यवस्थिता इति । अनोच्यते । अव्यवस्थितायुतः। परिणामात्। अत्राह द्वयोरपि बध्यमानयोर्गुणवत्त्वे सति कथं परिणामो भवति इति । उच्यते । बन्धे समाधिकौ पारिणामिकौ । बन्धे सति समगुणस्य समगुणः परिणामको भवति । अधिकगुणो हीनस्येति ।