Transformation of Karma
Translation of ལས་ཀྱ་རྣམ་པར་འགྱར་བ་ཞས་བྱ་བའ་ཆས་ཀྱ་གཞང (ལས་ཀྱི་རྣམ་པར་འགྱུར་བ་ཞེས་བྱ་བའི་ཆོས་ཀྱི་གཞུང)
- Language
- English
- Translator
- Bruno Galasek-Hul
- Extent
- 373 passages, 29,339 words
- Text
- complete digital text
- Source
- 84000 · Translated by Bruno Galasek-Hul with Lama Kunga Thartse Rinpocheunder the patronage and supervision of 84000:… · CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 (84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha). Shown whole and unaltered, with its notes, on a…
Contents
Text
84000's introduction
intro.1
In Transformation of Karma the Buddha is staying in Prince Jeta’s Grove in Śrāvastī, where he is visited by the brahmin youth Śuka, who asks the Blessed One to explain the reason why living beings appear so diversely. The Buddha answers Śuka’s question with a discourse on various categories of actions as well as rebirth and the actions leading to it. The discourse presents fifty-one categories of actions, followed by explanations of the negative consequences of transgressing the five precepts observed by all Buddhists, the advantages gained through caitya worship, and the meritorious results of specific acts of generosity.
intro.2
Content
intro.3
The Dharma Scripture “Transformation of Karma” (short title: Transformation of Karma), which is presented here for the first time in an English translation, takes places in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, where the Buddha is staying with a large following of 1,250 monks. The Buddha is visited by a brahmin youth named Śuka, who requests the Buddha to explain how karmic ripening can lead to such a great diversity of beings. In response, the Buddha explains that individual karmic results are the reason for the diversity of beings, and he teaches in detail fifty-one categories of negative and positive consequences together with the specific actions that function as their causes. Next, the Buddha lists ten negative consequences for transgressing each of the five precepts: abstaining from taking life, abstaining from stealing, abstaining from sexual misconduct (here transgressing the vow of celibacy), abstaining from lying, and abstaining from consuming intoxicants. Lastly, the Buddha explains the karmic advantages that result from building and worshiping a caitya of the Tathāgata. Also enumerated are the advantages gained through making offerings and leading a religious life, living a secluded life, becoming a Buddhist mendicant, and developing confidence.
intro.4
Textual Classification
intro.5
Transformation of Karma belongs to a group of Buddhist scriptures that scholars of Buddhism have called the Karmavibhaṅga or Śukasūtra class.¹ The texts in this group deal extensively with the topic of karma and rebirth according to individuals’ actions. Characteristic of the treatment of karma and rebirth in these texts is their detailed, catalog-like listing of specific karmic consequences and their causative actions. It is clear, however, that this is not meant to be understood as determinism. For example, in several places the presence or absence of intention and remorse are mentioned as factors that can determine whether a particular karmic result will be experienced, whether its outcome can be influenced, and whether it can be avoided altogether.
intro.6
In the Tibetan canon, Transformation of Karma is classified as a sūtra belonging to the Śrāvakayāna, and in the Degé edition of the Kangyur it is listed in the sūtra section under “various sūtras belonging to the Hīnayāna.”² The Japanese scholar Kudo Noriyuki and others proposed that the related Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338)³ belonged to the canon of the early Buddhist ordination lineage of the Sāṃmitīyas (or Sammatīyas). The Sāṃmitīyas were a branch of the Vātsīputrīya sect, whose adherents were also known as the “Personalists” (Skt. Pudgalavādin) because they posited the existence of the individual or person (Skt. pudgala) that transmigrates from one existence to the next and is neither identical with nor different from the five aggregates. Whether Transformation of Karma, too, can be considered to have belonged to the canon of the Sāṃmitīyas, however, is difficult to say with certainty without further research.⁴ However, the text contains some clues that may point in that direction. The first indication is a curious statement found in , which lists as one of the karmic causes that lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras “conceiving of nonexistence with regard to the self (Skt. ātman).” If our translation of this difficult passage is correct, the view expressed therein may betray the doctrinal position of the Pudgalavādins.⁵ A second clue is found in , which contains the following statement: “one will not become lost in the intermediate state between death and rebirth.” We know that not all the early Buddhist sects accepted the concept of an intermediate state between death and rebirth. Those that did, according to André Bareau, included the Sarvāstivādins (Vaibhāṣikas), the Sammatīyas, the Pūrvaśailas, the later Mahīśāsakas, and the Dārṣṭāntikas.⁶
intro.7
The Karmavibhaṅga group of texts appears to have been particularly popular in Central Asia and in China, where the continued interest in it is shown by the existence in the Chinese Tripitaka of no fewer than six different translations spanning a period of eight centuries from the late third or early fourth century ce to the eleventh.⁷ Four of these are listed in the Tōhoku catalog of the Tibetan canon of the Degé edition as corresponding to the text translated here (particularly the Fen bie shan e bao ying jing 分別善惡報應經, Taishō no. 81). However, none of them seems to be an exact match.⁸
intro.8
The Title
intro.9
Sanskrit versions of the titles of translations of Indic texts in the Kangyur and Tengyur are traditionally given in transliteration at the beginning of the texts—but for Toh 339, the Sanskrit title differs from its Tibetan title. The Tibetan phrase rnam par ’gyur ba would suggest an original Sanskrit vikāraḥ, vikṛtiḥ, vikriyā, or vipariṇata, etc.,⁹ all of which belong to the English semantic field of change. The text’s transliterated Sanskrit title, on the other hand, is given as Karmavibhaṅganāmadharmagrantha, for which in Tibetan one would rather expect something like rnam par ’byed pa.¹⁰ The word vibhaṅga occurs in Buddhist literature as the title of certain works, for instance, as part of the title of one of the three major parts of the Pāli Vinaya (Suttavibhaṅga); as the title of the second, and oldest, book of the Pāli Abhidhamma (Vibhaṅga); as the Division of the Expositions (Vibhaṅgavagga), which is a section of the Majjhima Nikāya of the Pāli Canon that contains the Pāli “relatives” of the Karmavibhaṅga-group of texts (the Cūḷa- and Mahākammavibhaṅga-suttas, MN 135, 136); or as part of the title of a short work on the twelve links of dependent origination (Skt. pratītyasamutpāda) composed in Sanskrit (the Pratītyasamutpādavibhaṅganirdeśasūtra) that was found at the site of the great Indian university Nālandā, inscribed on bricks. In those contexts, Sanskrit vibhaṅga means “explanation,” in the sense of offering a more detailed explanation or elucidation—occasionally illustrated by examples, stories, or word-for-word explanations—of individual items in a list, such as the list of Vinaya rules or, in this case, a list of categories of karmically relevant actions and results. The derived meanings “exposition” and “commentary” can be regarded as generic terms applied to texts exhibiting certain stylistic features like the ones mentioned.
intro.10
The final part of the Tibetan title, chos kyi gzhung (Skt. Dharmagrantha), seems to be very rare as part of the title of canonical works. A search for the expression chos kyi gzhung in the online database Resources for Kanjur and Tenjur Studies of the Tibetan Manuscripts Project of the University of Vienna yielded only the text translated here.¹¹ Instead of translating the Tibetan rnam par ’gyur ba literally as “transformation,” “change,” or “ripening,” we have accepted the transliterated Sanskrit given in the text itself as the original title of the work, and have translated it consistent with the common Buddhist usage of the Sanskrit word vibhaṅga when applied to texts that exhibit certain characteristics.¹² This choice furthermore highlights its kinship with the longer Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338).¹³
intro.11
Mention must be made here, however, of the fact that the Kangyur editions not belonging to the Tshalpa (tshal pa) line preserve variant titles: the versions in the Stok Palace manuscript, the Shey Palace manuscript, and the Shelkar manuscript Kangyurs¹⁴—all belonging to the Thempangma (them spangs ma) line—give the Sanskrit name of the text as Karmavibhaṅganāmadharmaparyāya.¹⁵
intro.12
Furthermore, the Shelkar Kangyur records as the Tibetan title las kyis rnam par ’gyur ba zhes bya ba’i chos kyi gzhung: “The Dharma Scripture Called Transformation through Karma.” If this is not simply a scribal error (the Stok and Shey Kangyurs read las kyi rnam par ’gyur ba), this title may support Sanskrit pariṇāma (“transformation,” “change,” “ripening”) as part of a possible original Sanskrit title of the work.
intro.13
Yet another variant of the title should be noted. The Denkarma (Tib. ldan/lhan dkar ma), one of the three imperial catalogs of Tibetan translations made during the early transmission of the Dharma in Tibet during the eighth to ninth centuries, gives the title as las kyi rnam par ’gyur ba bstan pa’i gzhung.¹⁶
intro.14
On Karma
intro.15
Apart from its occurrence in the title of the sūtra, we have largely avoided the lexicalized English word karma as a rendition of the Tibetan las. Instead, we translate las as “action(s).” We feel that contemporary common usage of the loanword karma is often fuzzy or unclear in that it seemingly blends together the senses “the totality of a person’s actions and conduct during successive incarnations,” a resultant state as “fate or destiny,” which is perceived to be causally influenced by the totality of a person’s actions, the “law or principle through which such influence is believed to operate,” and the woolly but popular sense of “a distinctive aura, atmosphere, or feeling.”¹⁷ We do, however, use the lexicalized adjective karmic (as, for example, in karmic result, or karmic cause and effect) in the sense of “relating to one’s action(s)” in the translation. We have furthermore used the expression karma and rebirth in this introduction knowing full well that these terms are equally difficult to define abstractly, but with the understanding that in Indic and Buddhist contexts the terms karma and rebirth are amalgamated in the term saṃsāra.
intro.16
As for the “mechanics” of karmic cause and effect, the Buddha explains it in Transformation of Karma, :
intro.17
“Therefore, again, the multiple varieties of sentient beings, due to their being bad, good, or middling, are karmically connected with many kinds of actions, many kinds of sufferings, and many kinds of views, in accordance with what I have taught as the black and white fruits of karmic ripening. Young brahmin, it is like this: Through carrying out black actions, sentient beings are reborn in the unfortunate rebirth destinies; they are reborn as hell beings, animals, ghosts (that is, those who have gone to the afterlife), and asuras. Through carrying out white actions, beings are reborn as devas or as humans.”
intro.18
Two things are noteworthy in this passage regarding Buddhist doctrine. First is the work’s assumption of six realms of rebirth (Skt. gati). Some early Buddhist schools accepted only five realms, including the asuras in the god realm. By contrast, here the unfortunate realms or destinations of rebirth (Skt. durgati) are constituted by hell beings, animals, ghosts, and asuras; the fortunate realms or destinations of rebirth (Skt. sugati) include the devas and humans, omitting the asuras.
intro.19
The second observation concerns the classification of actions into “black” and “white.” One frequently encounters this classification in Abhidharma-style works where, in an extension of the basic color metaphor, karmically efficacious action is divided into four kinds: (1) wholesome (Skt. kuśala, i.e., morally or ethically good), (2) unwholesome (Skt. akuśala, i.e., morally or ethically bad), (3) mixed (i.e., actions and results possessing both morally or ethically good and bad aspects and corresponding resultant experiences), and (4) neutral (Skt. avyākṛta or āniñjya, “undetermined” or “immovable, immobile,” e.g., the actions of an enlightened being, an arhat, etc.). For example, the Saṅgītisutta of the Dīgha Nikāya (DN 33) explains as follows: “Four kinds of kamma: There is (a) black kamma with black result, (b) bright [white] kamma with bright result, (c) black-and-bright kamma with black-and-bright result, (d) kamma that is neither black nor bright, with neither black nor bright result, leading to the destruction of kamma.”¹⁸
intro.20
The same explanation, but much more technical and elaborate in its interpretive details, is found in Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośabhāṣya: “Action is of four types, white, black, etc. The sūtra teaches that action is of four types: black, of black retribution; white, of white retribution; black-white, of black-white retribution; neither black nor white, without black or white retribution; and that which destroys the other actions.”¹⁹
intro.21
The third type, of black-white action, is further explained: “Good action of the sphere of Kāmadhātu, being mixed with the bad, is black-white; its retribution is mixed, so it is thus black-white. This definition is to be understood as applying not to the nature of the action itself, but to the ‘series’ or the person; in one and the same mental series, good action is mixed with bad action. There is no action which is black-white, nor any retribution which is black-white, which would be a contradiction.”²⁰
intro.22
The third kind of action as black-white is not specifically mentioned in Transformation of Karma’s explanations of karmic categories, but the possibility seems to be implied. For instance, when a person first experiences happiness, which later changes to the experience of unhappiness due to certain black-white actions as causes (–). Actions of the fourth kind, which are actions after enlightenment and which have no effect in saṃsāra, are more difficult to identify with certainty in Transformation of Karma. The explanations in , , and seem to state that arhats are still subject to karmic punishment and reward. But they do not make any statement about the karmic efficacy (or inefficacy) of acts carried out by arhats, which was a point of contention between, for instance, the Sarvāstivādins and the Theravādins.
intro.23
Tibetan and Sanskrit Versions
intro.24
Three different recensions or versions of the Karmavibhaṅga are preserved in different Kangyur editions, which Kudo calls “Tib-1” (Toh 338),²¹ “Tib-2” (Toh 339, the text translated here), and “Tib-3,” respectively.²² The content of the third version not included in the Degé Kangyur (“Tib-3”) but found in other mixed-lineage Kangyurs and in the Themphangma Kangyurs has been explored by Walter Simon.²³ Tib-3 is distinguished by the inclusion, among other things, of an introductory story that is found only in one Sanskrit manuscript, and not in Toh 338 or Toh 339. This introduction to the discourse proper tells the story of the conversion of Śuka, the son of the brahmin Taudeya, who after his death was reborn as a dog in his son’s house; he is identified by the Buddha on one of his visits to Śuka’s house during his rounds to collect alms. Śuka does not believe the Buddha’s assertion that the dog is his deceased father and at first becomes angry; but he is later convinced by the Buddha’s demonstration of the identity of the dog as his late father. After being the addressee of the Buddha’s teachings on karmic cause and effect on several occasions, Śuka eventually becomes a lay follower.
intro.25
Walter Simon noted three distinguishing features of Tib-3 in comparison to Toh 338 and 339: (1) “the preservation … of the ‘introductory tale,’ ” (2) the absence of the “illustrative stories,” and (3) “the inclusion of … a table of contents.” These features, he wrote, “point to an earlier Sanskrit original.”²⁴ Transformation of Karma, too, contains a a table of contents, and it lacks stories illustrating the various karmic categories. But, more importantly, it also lacks the introductory tale characteristic of the (Mahā-)Karmavibhaṅga (Lévi 1932, 21–29) and its Tibetan version in the manuscript Kangyur of the British Museum.
intro.26
Like the Tib-3 version of the Karmavibhaṅga, the summary of the fifty-one karmic categories at the beginning of Transformation of Karma (–) does not include the items contained in – (a list of ten negative consequences each of the actions of killing, stealing, lying, unchastity, and drinking alcohol) or – (the advantages gained by making various offerings at caityas). The Tib-3 version contains the advantages of venerating and making offerings at caityas, but it does not contain the list of five negative actions and their consequences included in – of Transformation of Karma. It is reasonable to argue, therefore, that – of Transformation of Karma, and perhaps a portion of –, are later additions to the text.
intro.27
As we have already mentioned, no complete Sanskrit version of Transformation of Karma is extant. In his study of the Khotanese fragments of the Karmavibhaṅga, Mauro Maggi remarks that Transformation of Karma “corresponds” to “S2” (that is, a manuscript fragment of the Śukasūtra from Eastern Turkestan, in the British Library, Oriental and India Office Collections, London, which was edited by A. F. R. Hoernle in 1916 and reproduced in Lévi 1932, 235–36).²⁵ However, Sylvain Lévi had already observed that although the two texts—the Central Asian Sanskrit fragment and the Tibetan text of Transformation of Karma Toh 339 (i.e., Lévi’s “T2”)—exhibit a family likeness, they are different.²⁶ A careful comparison of Lévi’s edition of the extant Sanskrit portions of the Śukasūtra fragment from Central Asia (paragraphs VIII–XII) with the corresponding paragraphs in the Tibetan text of Transformation of Karma confirms Lévi’s observation.
intro.28
To sum up, no exactly corresponding Sanskrit source text of the Tibetan translation of Transformation of Karma seems to be extant. Nevertheless, due to their similarity, the Sanskrit fragment of the Central Asian recension allowed us to throw some light on certain obscure terms in the Tibetan text.
intro.29
Regrettably, we possess no information about who translated the text or when. The Tibetan text in the Degé edition (as well as in the other editions) has no colophon, which usually provides this information, and according to the Tōhoku catalog, the identity of the translator(s) is unknown.²⁷ It is not possible at this point to establish the relationship between these different extant versions of the text, and Transformation of Karma thus seems to be the sole textual witness of yet another recension or a different version in the Karmavibhaṅga or Śukasūtra group.
intro.30
Nevertheless, we have frequently consulted (in a rather unsystematic way and as indicated in the footnotes) the extant Sanskrit witnesses: the two Sanskrit manuscripts in the National Archives of Nepal, Kathmandu, published by Lévi in 1932 and Kudo in 2004; the two-folio fragment of a different recension, published by Fukita in 1990 and Kudo in 2004; a Kuchean Sanskrit fragment of the Śukasūtra, published by Lévi in 1932; and the Pāli (MN 135, 136), Tibetan (Toh 338), and Khotanese (in English translation by Maggi in 1995) versions of the related (Mahā-)Karmavibhaṅga (Lévi 1932) to aid our understanding of this often obscure Tibetan text.
intro.31
The Tibetan Translation
intro.32
The Tibetan text of Toh 339 is notable for its idiosyncrasies. It contains several nonstandard expressions and names of Buddhist concepts that are worthy of mention, such as ngan pa, ring du ’khyams pa, and mya ngan bsring(s).²⁸ Furthermore, it contains an idiosyncratic rendering of the four formless meditative absorptions (Skt. ārūpyasamāpatti) or, as they are called in Transformation of Karma, “the four states of imperturbability.” These observations lead us to believe that the translation of Transformation of Karma predates the third Tibetan language revision or language reform of 814 ce, as it was codified in the Mahāvyutpatti and the sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa. On the other hand, a more detailed analysis of the wording describing the four states of imperturbability, as well as the frequent use of an epithet for the Buddha of yang dag par gshegs pa,²⁹ instead of the more standard de bzhin gshegs pa, has led us to also consider the possibility that Toh 339 may have been translated from the Chinese.³⁰ A comparison with several of the Chinese versions of our text by Mr. Yi Ding, however, could not confirm this hypothesis.³¹
intro.33
What we can safely say, though, is that Transformation of Karma represents a translation that does not strictly adhere to the reformed, standardized language that was prescribed by decree for the translations from Indic originals in the ninth-century Tibetan manuals for translators, the Mahāvyutpatti and the sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa.
intro.34
It is generally assumed that the Tibetan translation activity of the first dissemination of the Dharma began around the middle of the eighth century ce ³² and continued until the demise of the Tibetan empire, that is, by 840 ce. Since the identity of Transformation of Karma with the las kyi rnam par ’gyur ba bstan pa’i gzhung (no. [282]) in the Denkarma (Tib. lhan kar ma) catalog seems unambiguous, these two dates (i.e., 763 ce and 840 ce) are likely the earliest and latest dates, respectively, of the translation of Transformation of Karma into Tibetan.³³ If we additionally consider the fact that Toh 339 contains pre-reform terms and expressions, we may be able to push the date for the latest date closer to the beginning of the ninth century. In the absence of a colophon or other pertinent information about the text, however, it is impossible to be more precise.³⁴
intro.35
The English Translation
intro.36
This translation into English was made directly from the Tibetan text of the Degé edition with the help of its parallel versions. However, mention must be made of the pioneering French translation by Léon Feer in 1883. This French Sanskritist and Orientalist, who was the first to translate Kangyur materials into a European language, gave us the first translation of Transformation of Karma in a European language in his Fragments: Extraits du Kandjour.³⁵ However, Feer did not have at his disposal the wealth of material on the Karmavibhaṅga group of texts that we have today, and he was thus unable to consult similar or related versions of the text to assist him in his efforts to make sense of obscure and difficult passages in the Tibetan text. Our translation refers frequently to Feer’s translation in the notes, especially where Feer’s interpretation of the Tibetan deviates from ours.³⁶ However, our translation should not be considered definitive or final. Rather, it is an attempt to improve upon Feer’s where possible.
intro.37
Since the text itself is not very long, and the Tibetan text in the Kangyur does not have any chapter subdivisions, we have likewise refrained from inserting any such divisions. We have, however, referenced Feer’s sensible general outline of the text in the notes to the translation. Feer divided the text into three main parts, each with subdivisions and individually numbered paragraphs, and in the notes to our translation we have noted his general division of the text.
intro.38
In producing the translation, we have used the Degé edition (siglum D) as the basis. We have also perused the Comparative Edition of the Kangyur (Tib. dpe bsdur ma) (A), together with its list of variant readings. Where the Degé text seemed ambiguous or was not readily comprehensible, we have directly consulted two versions of the text belonging to the Thempangma line, namely, the Stok Palace manuscript Kangyur (S) and the Shey Palace manuscript Kangyur from Ladakh (Z). For variant readings that affect the meaning of a passage, we have done our best to provide an alternative English translation in the notes. Where we were unable to provide an alternative translation for a variant (e.g., because we didn’t understand it) that nevertheless seemed significant enough to be recorded, the variant is followed by a question mark. Except for the two witnesses (S and Z) belonging to the Thempangma line, all other variant readings (of the Yongle, Lithang, Kangxi, Choné, Narthang, Urga, and Lhasa editions of the Kangyur; see Abbreviations for their sigla) are taken from list of variants in the Comparative Edition edition.
2
Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time:³⁷ The Bhagavān was staying in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park, together with a large assembly of twelve hundred fifty monks.³⁸
On that occasion the brahmin youth Śuka,³⁹ the son of Taudeya, went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Upon his arrival, he exchanged many courteous and amiable pleasantries with the Bhagavān and remained standing to one side.⁴⁰ The brahmin youth Śuka, the son of Taudeya, then addressed the Bhagavān with the following question: “Gautama, if I ask you a small question, will you kindly give an answer?”⁴¹
The Bhagavān replied, “Young brahmin, ask whatever you like! I will answer.”
Then the brahmin youth Śuka, the son of Taudeya, asked the Bhagavān the following question: “Sir⁴² Gautama, there are many types of sentient beings, such as beings who have a short lifespan or a long lifespan, have many illnesses or few illnesses, are ugly or beautiful, have little power or are powerful, are highborn or lowborn, are poor or rich, are ignorant of the Dharma,⁴³ or possess knowledge of the Dharma to a lesser or greater degree, have good or bad fortune, and so forth. How does karmic ripening lead to this diversity of beings?”⁴⁴
The Bhagavān replied, “Young brahmin, listen⁴⁵ and pay careful attention to what I shall explain.⁴⁶ Young brahmin, sentient beings are the owners of their actions committed in former lives;⁴⁷ sentient beings have actions as their heritage, actions as their origin, actions as their individual causes; sentient beings develop through actions, young brahmin.⁴⁸
3
“Therefore, again, the multiple varieties of sentient beings, due to their being bad, good, or middling, are karmically connected with many kinds of actions, many kinds of sufferings, and many kinds of views, in accordance with what I have taught as the black and white fruits of karmic ripening.⁴⁹ Young brahmin, it is like this: Through carrying out black actions, sentient beings are reborn in the unfortunate rebirth destinies;⁵⁰ they are reborn as hell beings, animals, ghosts (that is, those who have gone to the afterlife⁵¹), and asuras.⁵² Through carrying out white actions, beings are reborn as devas or as humans.
“Therefore, young brahmin, as a result of one’s actions,⁵³ one’s life is short or long, one has many or few illnesses, one is ugly or beautiful, one is insignificant or influential, one is lowborn⁵⁴ or highborn, one is poor or rich, one is ignorant of the Dharma,⁵⁵ or one has extensive knowledge of the Dharma;⁵⁶ as a result of one’s actions, one is reborn as a hell being, an animal, a ghost, an asura, a human, a deva possessing a physical body,⁵⁷ or a deva without a physical body; as a result of one’s actions, one’s rebirth is determinate in accordance with the action,⁵⁸ one’s rebirth is indeterminate,⁵⁹ there is rebirth in a foreign country, there is rebirth through carrying out an action without intent,⁶⁰ there is rebirth when one has intended an action but not carried it out, there is rebirth when one has intended an action and carried it out,
4
and there is rebirth when one has neither intended an action nor carried it out. There are also actions that, when accumulated,⁶¹ lead to rebirth into a new existence only after the lifespan in hell has been completed; furthermore, there are actions that, when accumulated, lead to rebirth into a new existence after only half the lifespan in hell is exhausted, as well as actions that lead to rebirth immediately upon arriving in hell.⁶² There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to future unhappiness following upon past happiness.⁶³ There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to to future happiness following upon past unhappiness.⁶⁴ There are actions that, when accumulated by people and sentient beings,⁶⁵ lead to future happiness following upon past happiness. There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to miserliness, to being poor and generous, to being wealthy and generous, and to being poor and miserly. There are individuals whose lifespans are exhausted but not their actions,⁶⁶ there are individuals whose actions are exhausted but not their lifespans, and there are individuals whose lifespans and actions are simultaneously exhausted. There are individuals who will eliminate their sufferings although neither their lifespans nor their actions are exhausted. There are individuals who will become unwell in their minds while their bodies are well.⁶⁷ There are actions that lead an individual to be well in their mind while their body is unwell,⁶⁸ or to be well in mind and body,⁶⁹ or to be unwell in both mind and body.⁷⁰ There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to having a body that is graceful,⁷¹ beautiful looking, and pretty, with a nice and glossy complexion, a feast for the eyes, although an individual is reborn in an inferior form of existence.⁷² There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to having an inferior physique,
5
a crude body and an unpleasant and unsightly appearance for an individual reborn in an inferior form of existence. Furthermore, young brahmin, it is like this: through carrying out the ten nonvirtuous courses of action, conditions in one’s environment will deteriorate.⁷³
“Now, in what way does action lead to a short⁷⁴ lifespan?⁷⁵ Due to ten factors,⁷⁶ one’s lifespan will be shortened. What are the ten?⁷⁷ (1) Taking life,⁷⁸ (2) encouraging others to take life,⁷⁹ (3) speaking praise of killing, (4) resolving to⁸⁰ kill, (5) aborting a fetus, (6) encouraging abortion, (7) wishing one’s enemy to be killed, (8) feeling joy at the death of one’s foe,⁸¹ (9) preparing the ground for slaughtering animals and killing them there, and (10) watching a battle and delighting in it.⁸² Through these ten factors, one’s lifespan will be shortened, and one will suffer many illnesses.
“How can one achieve a long life through carrying out good actions? Ten factors lead to a long life. What are the ten? (1) Abstaining from killing; (2) preventing others from killing; (3) speaking praise of abstaining from killing; (4) resolving to abstain from killing; (5) freeing sentient beings who have been captured in order to be slaughtered; (6) freeing imprisoned humans who are to be executed; (7) giving refuge to sentient beings⁸³ who are frightened and terrified; (8) having a compassionate attitude toward those who are without protection; (9) embracing with one’s love those who are ill; and (10) giving clothing, food, and drink to the destitute. Through these ten factors, one will have a long life and be free from illness.
“In what way does action lead to having many illnesses? Ten factors lead to having many illnesses. What are the ten? (1) Beating somebody with a stick, with the hand,⁸⁴ or with something else; (2) encouraging someone to beat somebody with a stick, with the hand, or with something else; (3) praising the action of beating somebody with a stick, with the hand, or with something else; (4) resolving to beat somebody with a stick, with the hand, or with something else; (5) distressing one’s parents; (6) distressing monks and nuns;⁸⁵ (7) feeling joy about one’s enemies falling ill;
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(8) feeling joy when one’s enemies do not recover from an illness; (9) giving them the wrong medicine; and (10) eating indigestible food.⁸⁶ These are the ten. Through these ten factors, one will have many illnesses.
“How will one have few illnesses through carrying out good actions? Ten factors lead to having few illnesses. What are the ten? (1) Not beating somebody with a stick, with one’s hand, or with something else; (2) preventing others⁸⁷ from beating somebody with a stick, with their hands, or with something else; (3) not speaking praise of beating somebody with a stick, with a hand, or with something else; (4) resolving not to beat⁸⁸ somebody with a stick, with one’s hand, or with something else; (5) serving⁸⁹ one’s ill parents; (6) serving monks and nuns when they are ill; (7) being unhappy when one’s enemies have fallen ill; (8) feeling joy when one’s enemies recover from an illness; (9) giving medicine to the sick; and (10) eating digestible food.⁹⁰ These are the ten. Through these ten factors, one will have few illnesses.
“In what way does action lead to ugliness?⁹¹ Ten factors lead to ugliness. What are the ten? (1) Anger; (2) inflicting harm;⁹² (3) holding a grudge,⁹³ even for a trifle; (4) rage; (5) reviling one’s parents;⁹⁴ (6) reviling monks and nuns;⁹⁵ (7) corrupting the dwelling of monks and nuns;⁹⁶ (8) extinguishing the offering lamps at a caitya ⁹⁷ of the Tathāgata;⁹⁸ ⁹⁹ (9) treating ugly persons with contempt;¹⁰⁰ and (10) being uncleanly.¹⁰¹ These are the ten factors.¹⁰²
“In what way does action lead to being beautiful?¹⁰³ Ten factors lead to being beautiful. What are the ten? (1) Non-hatred; (2) donating clothing; (3) sweeping often at a caitya of the Tathāgata; (4) sweeping clean the shrine hall; (5) speaking pleasingly to one’s parents; (6) speaking pleasingly to monks and nuns;¹⁰⁴ (7) not treating ugly persons with contempt;¹⁰⁵ and (8) being very cleanly.¹⁰⁶ These are the ten factors.¹⁰⁷
“In what way does action lead to having little power?¹⁰⁸ Ten factors lead to having little power. What are the ten? (1) Envying others’ achievements;¹⁰⁹ (2) being happy when others fail; (3) being unhappy about others’ attainments; (4) being happy about others’ unhappiness,
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dishonor, bad reputation, obscurity, and criticism;¹¹⁰ (5) being unhappy about others’ happiness, glory, good reputation, and renown; (6) not venerating¹¹¹ one’s parents and one’s virtuous spiritual teacher; (7) not serving monks and nuns;¹¹² (8) generating the roots of unwholesome states with regard to those who have little power;¹¹³ (9) cutting off the roots of wholesome states with regard to those who are powerful;¹¹⁴ and (10) praising those who act wickedly. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to possessing power? Ten factors lead to being powerful. What are the ten? (1) Not envying others’ achievements; (2) rejoicing in others’ achievements; (3) not rejoicing in others’ failures; (4) not rejoicing in others’ unhappiness, disgrace, bad reputation, obscurity, or criticism; (5) rejoicing in others’ happiness, glory, good reputation, and renown; (6) arousing the mind of enlightenment; (7) erecting a stūpa and (8) a caitya for the Tathāgata;¹¹⁵ (9) cutting off the roots of unwholesome states with regard to those who are powerless;¹¹⁶ and (10) generating the roots of wholesome states with regard to those who are powerful. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to being lowborn? Ten factors lead to being lowborn. What are the ten? (1) Not honoring one’s parents;¹¹⁷ (2) not honoring¹¹⁸ ascetics;¹¹⁹ (3) not honoring brahmins; (4) not esteeming those of noble birth;¹²⁰ (5) not serving, not respecting,¹²¹ or not regaling¹²² one’s monastic preceptor,¹²³ one’s teacher, or those who have entered the path of liberation;¹²⁴ (6) not revering one’s parents; (7) showing contempt for and not venerating one’s monastic preceptor, one’s teacher, or those who have entered the path of liberation; (8) shunning those coming from powerful families; and (9) commending people who do bad deeds. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to being highborn? Ten factors lead to being highborn. What are the ten? (1) Commemorating one’s parents; (2) honoring those who have entered the path of liberation; (3) honoring brahmins; (4) esteeming those who are of noble birth;¹²⁵
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(5) arising from one’s seat and preparing it,¹²⁶ bowing respectfully, and then offering one’s seat and so forth to one’s monastic preceptor, one’s teacher, those who have entered the path of liberation, and those others who apply themselves to the path [of liberation];¹²⁷ ¹²⁸ (6) venerating one’s parents; (7) venerating one’s preceptors, teachers, those who have entered the path of liberation, and others;¹²⁹ (8) making no distinction between one who is of high social status and one who is of low social status, and equating them; (9) planting the life tree inside a stūpa of the Tathāgata; and (10) hanging floral wreaths and raising parasols. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to poverty? Ten factors lead to becoming poor. What are the ten? (1) Stealing;¹³⁰ (2) encouraging others to commit theft; (3) commending theft; (4) resolving to steal; (5) depriving one’s parents of their sustenance; (6) depriving one’s preceptors, teachers, or those who have entered the path of liberation of their temples,¹³¹ living quarters, offerings, or service;¹³² (7) being unhappy about others’ gains;¹³³ (8) rejoicing in others’ losses;¹³⁴ (9) hindering others from obtainment; and (10) wishing¹³⁵ for a famine to occur. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to wealth? Ten factors lead to becoming rich. What are the ten? (1) Abstaining from stealing; (2) encouraging others to give up stealing; (3) rejoicing when others give up stealing; (4) providing one’s parents with sustenance;¹³⁶ (5) providing one’s monastic preceptor,¹³⁷ one’s teacher, and the other members of the monastic saṅgha¹³⁸ with a temple, living quarters, service,¹³⁹ robes, a bed,¹⁴⁰ medicine¹⁴¹ to cure illness, a servant,¹⁴² or sustenance; (6) having joyful thoughts about others’ gains; (7) making an effort so that others can acquire [wealth];¹⁴³ (8) not rejoicing in others’ losses; (9) praying for a good harvest everywhere;¹⁴⁴ and (10) rejoicing in the actions of those who practice generosity and so forth liberally. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to being ignorant of the Dharma?¹⁴⁵ Ten factors lead to being ignorant of the Dharma. What are the ten? (1) Not valuing inquiry of a qualified person,¹⁴⁶ (2) fostering all that is not the true Dharma, (3) abandoning the true Dharma, (4) not honoring and venerating those who teach the true Dharma, (5) praising well those who speak inconsequentially,¹⁴⁷ ¹⁴⁸ (6) attending to and serving those who are ignorant of the Dharma, (7) abandoning those who are truly learned in the Dharma,¹⁴⁹ (8) regarding wrong views as authoritative and praising them,
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(9) abandoning correct views, and (10) abandoning those who are knowledgeable. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to possessing extensive knowledge of the Dharma?¹⁵⁰ Ten factors lead to possessing extensive knowledge of the Dharma. What are the ten? (1) Valuing inquiries of anyone using a progression of questions;¹⁵¹ (2) not attending to, not serving, not honoring, and not venerating unlearned ascetics, brahmins, and persons who are ignorant of the Dharma; (3) attending to, serving, honoring, and venerating learned persons; (4) giving up all that is not the true Dharma; (5) fostering the true Dharma; (6) cultivating fearlessness toward persons who are worthy receptacles of the Dharma;¹⁵² (7) praising by saying, ‘Well done!’ those who speak pleasing words that are true; (8) not praising by saying, ‘Well done!’ those who speak ill of others;¹⁵³ (9) not lauding wrong view; and (10) praising right view. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a hell being? Ten factors lead to hell. What are the ten? (1) Engaging a grave¹⁵⁴ evil deed with the body, (2) engaging in a grave evil deed with the speech, (3) engaging in a grave evil deed with the mind, (4) holding the wrong view of annihilation, (5) holding the wrong view of eternalism, (6) holding the wrong view that actions are without consequences,¹⁵⁵ (7) destroying others’ welfare, (8) speaking ill of monks and nuns,¹⁵⁶ and (9) instigating them to transgress their vows of celibacy.¹⁵⁷ These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as an animal? Ten factors lead to rebirth as an animal. What are the ten? (1) Engaging in a middling bad deed with one’s body; (2) engaging in a middling bad deed with one’s speech; (3) engaging in a middling bad deed with one’s mind;¹⁵⁸ (4) carrying out actions motivated by different kinds of desire;¹⁵⁹ (5) carrying out actions motivated by different kinds of anger; (6) carrying out actions motivated by different kinds of confusion; (7) giving inappropriate gifts; (8) being aggressive toward those who have been reborn as animals; (9) being reborn as a lion through the power of aspiration of the bodhisattva;¹⁶⁰ and (10) being reborn as a monkey, like a certain brahmin,¹⁶¹ which was due to making a foulmouthed remark. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth in the realm of ghosts?¹⁶² Ten factors lead to rebirth in the realm of ghosts: (1) engaging in a minor bad deed with one’s body,
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(2) engaging in a minor bad deed with one’s speech, (3) engaging in a minor bad deed with one’s mind, (4) having a desire for base things,¹⁶³ (5) having very strong desire,¹⁶⁴ (6) pursuing a wrong way of making a living, (7) being stingy and tightfisted, (8) obstructing others in making offerings, (9) having died while under the influence of sexual desire, and (10) having died while being hungry and thirsty. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras? Ten factors lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras. What are the ten? (1) Frequently committing minor bad deeds with one’s body, (2) frequently committing minor bad deeds with one’s speech, (3) frequently committing minor bad deeds with one’s mind, (4) conceit,¹⁶⁵ (5) conceiving of oneself as having no equal, (6) conceiving of oneself as being greater than one’s equals,¹⁶⁶ (7) conceiving of oneself as being greater than those who are superior, (8) conceiving of oneself as being superior to those who are supreme, (9) conceiving of nonexistence with regard to the self,¹⁶⁷ ¹⁶⁸ and (10) dedicating one’s roots of wholesome states to false aspirations.¹⁶⁹ These are the ten. These ten factors will lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth in the human realm? Ten factors lead to rebirth in the human realm. What are the ten? By not violating and not corrupting the ten virtuous courses of action, one will be reborn in the human realm.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a deva in one of the six heavens of sensuous pleasure?¹⁷⁰ Ten factors lead to rebirth as a deva in one of the six heavens of sensuous pleasure. By not violating, and remaining diligently committed¹⁷¹ to, the ten virtuous courses of action, one will be reborn as a deva in one of the six heavens of sensuous pleasure.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a deva possessing a physical body? Ten factors lead to rebirth as a deva possessing a physical body. What are the ten? While one is devoted to the ten virtuous courses of action, one brings the six perfections and the four boundless states to perfection—this will lead to rebirth as a deva possessing a physical body.¹⁷²
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a deva without a physical body?¹⁷³ Practicing the ten virtuous factors and the four states of imperturbability¹⁷⁴ leads to rebirth as a deva without a physical body. As for the four states of imperturbability:¹⁷⁵
1. “One transcends all materiality by contemplating the infinity of space, so that, when all names designating physical objects¹⁷⁶ have become inexpressible and void,¹⁷⁷ one goes beyond labeling and imagining the manifold phenomena,
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but one does not grasp¹⁷⁸ at the stillness¹⁷⁹ that is produced by¹⁸⁰ the sphere of infinite space.
2. “Having completely transcended the entire sphere of infinite space, one contemplates the infinity of consciousness, but one does not grasp at the stillness that is produced by the sphere of infinite consciousness.
3. “Having completely transcended the entire sphere of infinite consciousness, one contemplates that nothing at all exists, but one does not grasp at the stillness that is produced by the sphere of nothingness.
4. “Having completely transcended the entire sphere of nothingness, one contemplates that neither mind nor no-mind exists, but one does not grasp at the stillness that is produced by the sphere of neither mind nor no-mind.
“It is through these four factors¹⁸¹ that one will be reborn as a deva in the formless realm.
“How does action lead to a predetermined rebirth?¹⁸² Having carried out actions based on the roots of wholesome states, one dedicates them to whichever rebirth location one has aspired to;¹⁸³ or one commits the evil actions that bring immediate karmic retribution. In these ways, one’s rebirth will have the nature of being predetermined.
“How can rebirth be changed through action?¹⁸⁴ A person carries out a virtuous action and makes an aspiration prayer—by virtue of this action, that person’s rebirth destiny can be changed.¹⁸⁵
“How does action cause a person to be reborn in another country? After one has contemplated with strong faith either the Buddha, the Dharma, the Saṅgha, or any person who possesses moral discipline, one makes an offering and prays to be reborn in another country.¹⁸⁶ According to whatever [other] actions one has committed, their good or bad¹⁸⁷ [karmic results] are exemplified in the story of the merchant: his actions ripened after he had traveled to a foreign country.¹⁸⁸
“What kind of action is considered to be carried out without intent?¹⁸⁹ Having carried out an action, one feels remorse, is conscience stricken, thinks that one has made a mistake and that it was wrong, and confesses; one does not give up effacing it, one does not engage in it again, and one vows not to do it again in the future. This kind of action
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is considered to be carried out without intent.
“What kind of action¹⁹⁰ is considered to be intended but not carried out? An action was not physically carried out¹⁹¹ if, when the thought welled up¹⁹² and at that moment one said, ‘I will do this,’ one did not carry it out. This kind of action is considered to be intended but not carried out.
“What kind of action is considered to be intended and carried out?¹⁹³ Whatever action one has carried out, one does not feel remorse, is not conscience stricken, does not think that it was a mistake, does not confess, does not try to efface it, engages in it again, and does not vow to not do it again in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person who has been born in a hell realm to be reborn¹⁹⁴ again as a hell being after completion of the full lifespan of the hell realm?¹⁹⁵ Suppose one has carried out an intentional action that leads to rebirth in hell, and one does not feel remorse, is not conscience stricken, does not consider one’s action a mistake, does not consider it inappropriate, does not confess, does not try to efface it, engages again in this evil action, even vows to commit this action again in the future, rejoices in this action, and admires such action. A person who has accumulated such an action will be reborn in the hell realm, and after completion of the full lifespan of the hell realm, will again be reborn in hell.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person who has been born in a hell realm to be reborn again as a hell being after only half of the lifespan in that hell has elapsed? Suppose one has carried out an action that leads to rebirth in hell, but one feels remorse, is conscience stricken, and thinks that one has made a mistake and that it was wrong; and one confesses, does not give up effacing it, does not engage in this evil action again, and vows not to commit this action again in the future. While one who has accumulated this kind of action will be reborn as a hell being, one will subsequently take rebirth after only half the lifespan in that hell has elapsed.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person who has been born in a hell realm to be reborn immediately upon rebirth in the hells? Suppose one has carried out an intentional action that leads to rebirth in hell, but one feels remorse, is conscience stricken, thinks that one has made a mistake and that it was wrong;
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and one confesses, does not give up effacing it, does not engage in this evil action again, and vows not to commit it again in the future; and later, one is unhappy about having carried out such an action, dispenses with, shuns, and renounces this action, and arouses an intense sense of renunciation.¹⁹⁶ The person who has accumulated such an action will take rebirth immediately upon being born into the hell realm, as did King Ajātaśatru, for example.¹⁹⁷
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be happy at first, and become unhappy later? Suppose one makes a donation but does not give joyfully.¹⁹⁸ By failing to make one’s mind happy and joyful, one feels regret after having given. Then, when one is reborn as a human, one will be born into a wealthy family, richly endowed with wealth and possessions. Having become an important person of high rank, one will have many ministers,
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assistants, relatives, and clan members;¹⁹⁹ one will have many possessions; and one’s treasury and granary will always be well filled. One will be happy and possess many mounts and carriages.²⁰⁰ Throughout, one is enjoying happiness, but later it diminishes and is exhausted. Having thus arrived at unhappiness, the person who has accumulated such an action consequently is powerful, wealthy, and happy at first; but later, weakened by hunger, becomes unhappy.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be unhappy at first, and happy in the future as a karmic result?²⁰¹ Suppose one makes an offering without faith at first, but later one’s mind grows faithful and one feels elated.²⁰² If one is reborn as a human, one will be born into a poor family. Food and possessions will be scarce. From a state of being distressed and without food and clothing, one will later become powerful, wealthy, and happy, and everything will increase. A person who has thus come to lack nothing²⁰³ is unhappy at first but becomes happy in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be happy at first, and happy in the future? Suppose that one makes a lavish offering and gives it joyfully, and that because of giving, one’s own mind becomes happy, and one does not have regrets later. The karmic fruit for one such as this, if reborn as human, is that one will be born into a wealthy family and enjoy abundant wealth. After becoming an important person of high rank, one will have many ministers, assistants, relatives, and clan members; one will have plentiful possessions, and the granary will always be full. One will be profoundly happy and possess many mounts and carriages. Born in such a family, happiness of that kind will arise and increase.²⁰⁴ Therefore, a person, by accumulating such an action, will be happy at first, and in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be unhappy at first, and unhappy in the future as a karmic result?²⁰⁵ Suppose one has abandoned one’s virtuous friend, no one at all has encouraged one to engage in generosity, and one also has not made any offerings to others on one’s own accord. If one such as this is reborn as a human, one will be poor and famished, lacking food and drink, lacking clothing, and therefore living in distress, or one will live without food, drink, or clothing. Also, in the future, due to those conditions one will not become happy or enjoy an increase in resources. One who has accumulated such an action will not be happy at first and will also be unhappy in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be stingy although being wealthy as a karmic result? Suppose one is not at all magnanimous toward worthy recipients of offerings and offers only a small amount; through being parsimonious when giving, while nonetheless making it a habit, one will be born in a wealthy family. Although one will have at one’s disposal extensive wealth and many possessions, one will be stingy. A person who has accumulated such an action will, although wealthy, be very stingy.
“What kind of action leads a person to be wealthy and generous as a karmic result?²⁰⁶ Suppose one offers lavishly and has developed the habit of making very a large offering to a worthy recipient of offerings. If one is reborn as a human, one will be reborn into a wealthy family; one can lead a life of abundance in food and possessions,²⁰⁷ and one will be a generous person. The accumulation of such an action leads to being wealthy and generous.
“What kind of action leads a person to be poor and generous as a karmic result? Suppose one offers lavishly and has made it a habit to make a large offering to those who are not worthy recipients of offerings. If one is reborn as a human, one will be reborn into a poor family,
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