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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v2.c14: II. A Summary of the Mānasāra

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v2.c14

Language
English

Contents

II. A Summary of the Mānasāra

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¹ This summary has developed out of a Dissertation, which was accepted by the University of Leiden for the Ph D degree.

Chapter I: The Table of Contents (Saṁgraha)

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The first verse is an invocation to Brahmā, the Creator of the Universe. In the second verse it is stated that the science of architecture (Vāstu-śāstra) had come down from Śiva, Brahmā and Vishṇu, through Indra, Bṛihaspati, Nārada and all other sages, to the seer (ṛishi) Mānasāra who systematised it.

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After this genesis titles of the chapters are given in order. The colophon of the last chapter (named *Nayanonmīlana*) in all the complete manuscripts gives the number of the chapter as seventy-one. The manuscript called I, the *codex archetypus* of my text, has made up the number seventy-one by repeating the chapter *Strīmāna-madhyama-daśatāla*; in one place it is numbered 66 and in the second 67. The only explanation of this number 71 for the last chapter is to suppose that the copyists of all complete and independent manuscripts were equally careless in numbering the chapters. This supposition is corroborated by the fact that the contents of the work do not show that any chapter is missing.

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The last verse of the first chapter states the reason why the book is named *Mānasāra*, and explains the importance and authority of the work. It is called *Mānasāra* after a sage of that name. And as an authoritative work on art and complete in all respects, it has been accepted by the best among the leading artists.

Chapter II: The System of Measurement (Mānopakaraṇa-vidhāna)

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The first part of this chapter gives a mythical genealogy of the artists. From the four faces of Brahmā, the Creator of the Universe, originated in order the heavenly architect Viśvakarman, Maya, Tvashtar and Manu. Their four sons are called respectively Sthapati, Sūtragrāhin, Vardhaki and Takshaka. These four evidently represent the progenitors of the four classes of terrestrial artists.

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The *sthapati* is highest in rank; he is the master-builder. The *sūtragrāhin* is the *guru* of *vardhaki* and *takshaka*; while the *vardhaki* is the instructor of the *takshaka*.

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The *sthapati* must be well-versed in all sciences (*śāstras*). He must know the Vedas. He must have the qualifications of a supreme director (*āchārya*).

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The *sūtragrāhin* also should know the Vedas and the Śāstras. He must be an expert draftsman (*rekhājña*).

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The *vardhaki* too should have a general knowledge of the Vedas. But the object of his special study is painting (*chitra-karman*).

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The *takshaka* must be an expert in his own work, i.e., carpentry.

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The second part of this chapter deals with the system of measurement:

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The *paramāṇu* or atom is the smallest unit of measurement.

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8 *paramāṇus* = 1 *rathadhūli* (*lit.* car-dust).
8 *rathadhūlis* = 1 *bālāgra* (*lit.* hair's end).
8 *bālāgras* = 1 *likshā* (*lit.* a nit).
8 *likshās* = 1 *yūkā* (*lit.* a louse).
8 *yūkās* = 1 *yava* (*lit.* a barley corn).
8 *yavas* = 1 *aṅgula* (*lit.* finger's breadth).

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Three kinds of *aṅgulas* are distinguished, the largest of which is made of 8 *yavas*, the intermediate one of 7 *yavas*, and the smallest one of 6 *yavas*.

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12 *aṅgulas* = 1 *vitasti* (span).
.2 vitastis or / 24 angulas = 1 *kishku-hasta* (small cubit).
25 *aṅgulas* = 1 *prājāpatya-hasta*.
26 ,, = 1 *dhanurmushti-hasta*.
27 ,, = 1 *dhanurgraha-hasta*.
4 *hastas* = 1 *dhanus* (bow) or *daṇḍa* (rod).
8 *daṇḍas* = 1 *rajju* (string).

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Directions are given with regard to the use of the four different kinds of cubits (*hasta*) enumerated above. Conveyances (*yāna*) and couches (*śayana*) are said to measured in the cubit of 24 *aṅgulas*, *vimāna* in the cubit of 25 *aṅgulas*, buildings (*vāstu*) in general in the cubit of 26 *aṅgulas*, and villages, etc., in the cubit of 27 *aṅgulas*. The cubit of 24 *aṅgulas* may, however, also be used in measuring all these objects.

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In the concluding portion of this chapter directions are given for the preparation of the yard-stick (*hasta*), the rod (*daṇḍa*), and the measuring-string (*rajju*). The former two objects should be made of the wood of certain trees, which are enumerated. In the same manner certain fibres are to be used as materials for the rope. The presiding deity of the yard-stick and the rod is Vishṇu, and that of the measuring rope Vāsuki, the king of serpents.

Chapters III, IV, V: The Classification of Vāstu (Vāstu-prakaraṇa), Examination of Soil (Bhū-parīkṣhā) and Selection of Site (Bhūmi-saṁgraha)

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The classification of vāstu (*Vāstu-prakaraṇa*)

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The first part of the third chapter defines *vāstu* (dwelling or habitation) and divides it into four classes. The place where men and gods reside is called *vāstu*. This includes the ground (*dharā*), the building (*harmya*), the conveyance (*yāna*), and the couch (*paryanka*). Of these, the ground is the principal one, for nothing can be built without the ground as a support. The building (*harmya*) includes *prāsāda*, *maṇḍapa*, *sabhā*, *śālā*, *prapā* and *(a)raṅga*. The conveyance (*yāna*) includes *ādika*, *syandana*, *śibikā* and *ratha*. The couch (*paryaṅka*) includes *pañjara*, *mañchalī*, *mañcha*, *kākāshta*, *phalakāsana* and *bāla-paryanka*.

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The second part of the third chapter as well as the fourth and fifth chapters deal with the same subject, namely, the site, on which a village, town, fort, palace, temple, or house, is to be built. The soil is examined with regard to its contour, colour, odour, features (*rūpa*), taste and touch. The level of the ground as well as the characteristic vegetation of the site are also minutely examined.

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If a plot of land is found to be satisfactory on all or most of these points, it should be selected for a village, town, fort or house, as the case may be. But even after this selection it would be wise to test the ground in some other ways. A square hole of one cubit deep should be dug on the selected site and be filled with water. After twenty-four hours the chief architect should mark the condition of the water in the hole. If all the water be dried up by this time, the earth must be very bad. But if, on the other hand, there remains some water in the hole, the selected plot of land would be fit for any building purposes.

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Another final test is this: a similar hole is dug on the plot and filled up with the earth taken out of it. If this earth fills up the hole exactly, the land is fair; if this earth be not quite enough to fill up the hole the ground must be very bad, but if this earth overfills the hole, the soil must be very good for any building purposes. The import of both tests seems to be that in the former case porous soil is avoided, while in the latter case loose soil is said to be unfit for the construction of a building.

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After this final selection the ground should be ploughed over. The concluding part of the fifth chapter gives a minute description of the oxen and the plough to be used in ploughing the selected site.

Chapter VI: The Gnomon (Śaṅku-sthāpana-vidhāna)

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The object of this chapter is to lay down rules on the principles of dialling and for ascertaining the cardinal points by means of a gnomon.

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The gnomon is made of the wood of certain trees. It may be 24, 18, or 12 *aṅgulas* in length, and the width at the base should be respectively 6, 5, and 4 *aṅgulas*. It tapers from the bottom towards the top.

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For the purpose of ascertaining the cardinal points, a gnomon of 12, 18, or 24 *aṅgulas* is erected from the centre of a watered place (*salila-sthala*) and a circle is described with the bottom of the gnomon as its centre and with a radius twice its length. Two points are marked where the shadow (of the gnomon) after and before noon meets the circumference of the circle. The line joining these two points is the east-west line. From each of these east and west points a circle is drawn with their distance as radius The two intersecting points, which are called the head and tail of the fish (*timi*), are the north and the south points. The intermediate regions are found in the same way through the fish formed between the points of the determined quarters.

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As regards the principles of dialling, each of the twelve months is divided into three parts of ten days each and the increase and decrease of shadow (*avachchhāya*)¹ are calculated for these several parts of the different months.

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¹ Cf. Vitruvius, Book IX. Chap. VIII, “....the principles of dialling and the increase and decrease of the *days* in the different months” (translated by Gwilt).

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Why the subject of the present chapter is important for architecture is evident from the rules regarding the orientation of buildings. Here it is said that a building should preferably face the east or the north-east, but that it should never be made to face the south-east, as this is considered inauspicious.

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The chapter closes with a passing reference to the *khāta-śaṅku* which appears to denote wooden stakes posted in different parts of the foundations made for constructing buildings thereon.

Chapter VII: The Ground-Plan (Pada-vinyāsa)

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When a site is selected for constructing a village, town or building thereon the ground is divided into different numbers of squares Thirty-two kinds of such schemes are distinguished by as many different names according to the number of squares into which the whole area is partitioned out. The whole scheme has been arranged in such a manner that in each case the number of partitions represents the square of the serial number. The eighth plot, for instance, which is called Chaṇḍita, comprises a division into sixty-four squares, while by the ninth plot, which bears the technical name of Paramaśādhika, the ground is divided into eighty-one squares.

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Each of these squares is assigned to its presiding deity. Some deities, however, are lords of more than one square. The lord of the central square is always Brahmā. Charagī, Vidārikā, Pūtanā and Rākshasī are the presiding deities of the four corners. A detailed description of all the squares of the eighth and the ninth plans is given in the text. Then the forty-four deities, who are enumerated in connection with the Paramaśādhika scheme, are described in the form of as many *dhyānas*. This portion is of some iconographical interest.

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Finally, the presiding deity of the site (*vāstu-purusha*), who is described as hump-backed and of crooked-shape, is said to occupy the habitated area (*vāstu*) in such a manner that his limbs cover the several squares or groups of squares which, as set forth in the former part of the chapter, are assigned to and named after various deities. As he is supposed to lie down with his face turned downward, his head being in the central square on the east side (assigned to Sūrya), his right and left hands must be in the partitions of Agni (S. E.) and Īsāna (N. E ) respectively, and his right and left feet in those of Nairṛit (S. W.) and Vāyu (N. W.) respectively. The middle part of his body occupies the central portion of the plot, which, as we saw, is assigned to Brahmā.

Chapter VIII: The Offerings (Balikarma-vidhāna)

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Different kinds of offerings (*bali*) are prescribed for the various deities enumerated in the preceding chapter, who are supposed to preside over the different partitions of the Paramaśādhika or Maṇḍūka ground-plan. These offerings consist of milk in its various forms, butter, rice and sesame, parched grain (*lāja*), honey and sweetmeat (*modaka*, offered to Sugrīva), incense and lamps, flowers and fruit. Blood is offered to Asura, dried meat to Mṛiga, dried fish to Roga (Disease), and sea-fish to Bhṛiṅgarāja. The four demonesses, namely, Rākshasī, Pūtanā, Vidārī and Charagī, also receive their share, the first-mentioned evil spirit in the shape of meat of goats mixed with blood.

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In the bringing of these offerings the master-builder (*sthapati*) takes a leading part.

Chapter IX: The Village (Grāmalakshana-vidhāna)

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According to the *Mānasāra*, there is not much difference between a village, a town, and a fort. All are fortified places intended for the residence of people. A town is the extension of a village. A fort is in many cases nothing more than a fortified town, with this difference that a fort is principally meant for purposes of defence, while a village or a town is mainly intended for habitation.

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A detailed description of the plan of villages, towns, and forts, and the arrangement of the various buildings which they contain is given in the text.

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Villages are divided according to their shapes into eight classes, called *daṇḍaka*, *sarvato-bhadra*, *nandyāvarta*, *padmaka*, *svastika*, *prastara*, *kārmuka* and *chatur-mukha*.

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Each village is surrounded by a wall made of brick or stone; beyond this wall there is a ditch broad and deep enough to cause serious obstruction in the event of an attack on the village. There are generally four main gates at the middle of the four sides, and as many at the four corners. Inside the wall there is a large street running all round the village. Besides, there are two other large streets, each of which connects two opposite main gates. They intersect each other at the centre of the village, where a temple or a hall is generally built for the meeting of the villagers. The village is thus divided into four main blocks, each of which is again subdivided into many blocks by streets which are always straight and run from one end to the other of a main block. The two main streets crossing at the centre have houses and foot-paths on one side of the street. The ground-floor of these houses on the main streets consists of shops. The street, which runs round the village, has also houses and foot-paths only on one side. These houses are mainly public buildings, such as schools, libraries, guest-houses, etc. All other streets generally have residential buildings on both sides. The houses high or low are always uniform in make. Drains (*jala-dvāra*, lit. water-passage) follow the slope of the ground. Tanks and ponds are dug in all the inhabited parts, and located where they can conveniently be reached by a large number of inhabitants. The temples of public worship, as well as the public commons, gardens and parks are similarly located. People of the same caste or profession are generally housed in the same quarter.

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The partition of the quarters among the various sects cannot be said to be quite impartial. The best quarters are generally reserved for the Brahmins and the architects. Such partiality to the artists is not met elsewhere in Sanskrit literature. The quarters of the Buddhists and the Jains are described in a few lines. The habitations of the Chaṇḍālas, as well as the places for cremation are located outside the village-wall, in the north-west in particular. The temples of fearful deities, such as Chāmuṇḍā, are also placed outside the wall.

Chapter X: Towns [and Forts] (Nagara-vidhāna)

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As stated above, a town is a large village. According to the *Mānasāra*, it appears that the dimensions of the smallest town-unit are 100 × 200 *daṇḍas*; the largest town-unit is 7,200 × 14,400 *daṇḍas*. A town may be situated from east to west or from north to south according to the position it occupies. There should be one to twelve large streets in a town. It should be built near a river or a mountain and should have facilities for trade and commerce with the foreigner (*dvīpāntara-vartin*). Like a village, it should have walls, ditches and gates drains, parks, commons, shops, exchanges, temples, guest-houses, colleges, etc. For purposes of military defence, the towns are generally well fortified.

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Towns are divided into eight classes : *rājadhānī*, *nagara*, *pura*, *nagarī*, *kheṭa*, *kharvaṭa*, *kubjaka*, and *pattana*. The distinction between them is slight, the general description given above being applicable to all. But it may be noted that the city called *pattana* is a big commercial port. It is situated on the banks of the sea or a river, and is always engaged in exchange and commerce with foreigners who deal specially in jewels, silk clothes and perfumes, etc., imported from other countries (*dvīpāntara*).

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Forts are first divided into eight classes, called *śibira*, *vāhinī-mukha*, *sthānīya*, *droṇaka*, *saṁviddha* or *vardhaka*, *kolaka*, *nigama*, and *skandhāvāra*. There is a further division of these forts according to their position. They are known as mountain fort (*giri-durga*), forest fort (*vana-durga*), water-fort (*jala-durga*) chariot fort (*ratha-durga*), gods’ fort (*deva-durga*), marsh fort (*paṅka-durga*) and mixed fort (*miśra-durga*).

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The mountain fort is subdivided into three classes, according as it is built on the top of the mountain, in the valley, or on the mountain-slope.

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All these forts are surrounded with strong walls and ditches. The wall is made of brick, stone and similar materials. It is at least 12 cubits in height and its thickness at the base is at least 6 cubits. It is provided with watch-towers.

Chapter XI: The Dimensions of Buildings of Various Storeys (Bhūmilamba-vidhāna)

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The name of this chapter is ‘Bhūmilamba,’ which literally means the height of the storey. The *Kāmikagāma* (paṭala 50, verse 1) defines this name, Bhūmilamba, thus: “*Chatur-amśādi-samsthānam bhūmi-lambam iti smṛitum.*” The chapters on the subject, in both the works, *Mānasāra* and *Kāmikāagma*, deal with the measurement of length, breadth, and height of buildings of one to twelve storeys.

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The various shapes of buildings are mentioned in the opening lines of the chapter. They may be square, rectangular, round, octagonal, or oval. Buildings of all kinds, such as the *vimāna* or temple, the *harmya* or palace, the *gopura* or gate-house, the *śālā* or hall, the *maṇḍapa* or pavilion, and the *veśman* (residential houses generally) should have one of these five shapes.

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Buildings are again divided into four classes—*jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa* or *saṁkalpa*, and *ābhāsa*—which are frequently referred to in the subsequent chapters. These four classes seem to have different characteristics in different cases.

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The proportion between height and width is expressed by five technical names, *śāntika*, *paushṭika*, *pārshṇika* (sometimes called *jayada*), *adbhuta*, and *sarvakāmika*. When the height of a building or idol is 2¼ times of its width, it is called *śāntika*, the *paushṭika* height is twice the width, the *pārshṇika* or *jayada* height is 1¾ of the width, the *adbhuta* height is 1½ of the width, and the *sarvakāmika* height is 1¼ of the width. This proportion of height and width is not, however, strictly followed all through. There is a slight variation in some cases. But the proportions given above are the most common. The measurement of length, breadth and height is invariably divided into three types: large, intermediate, and small. The *śāntika* and the *paushṭika* heights are prescribed for the large type of measurement, the *pārshṇika* or *jayada* for the intermediate type, and the *adbhuta* and the *sarvakāmika* for the small type.

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Five series of length and five series of breadth are prescribed here for each of the several classes of buildings of one to twelve storeys. But in some subsequent chapters as many as nine alternatives of length or breadth are prescribed for one and the same object.

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The five series of breadth in the small type of one-storeyed buildings are 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 cubits, and the five series of length are 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 cubits. In the intermediate type the five series of breadth are 5, 7, 9, 11 and 13 cubits, and the five series of length 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 cubits. In the large type, the five series of breadth are 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 cubits, and the five lengths are 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 cubits.

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All the classes of buildings of one to twelve storeys are in this way measured separately. The dimensions of the twelve-storeyed building in its three types are given briefly.¹ In the small type they are 35, 37, 39, 41, 43 cubits, in the intermediate type 36, 38, 40, 42, 44 cubits, and in the large type, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45 cubits. These are the fifteen kinds of *Vipula*, and the height should be as before.

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¹ The description of these dimensions is much clearer in the *Kāmikāgama* (*paṭala* 50). According to this work, the width of a twelve-storeyed building is 70 cubits and the height 100 cubits. It expressly states (*śloka* 33) that it is never desirable that buildings should be larger than 77 cubits in height and 70 cubits in width.

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These are the measurements in the *jāti* class of buildings. Three-fourths, half and one-fourth of these are prescribed for the *chhanda*, the *vikalpa* and the *ābhāsa* classes respectively.

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The concluding part of this chapter prescribes the number of storeys allowed in edifices according to the social status of their occupants. In the first instance reference is made to the various classes of kings², of whom the one highest in rank, namely, the *chakravartin* or universal monarch, is said to inhabit a palace of five to twelve storeys. The residence of the heir-apparent (*yuvarāja*), as well as those belonging to the chief feudatories (*sāmanta-pramukhya*), should have one to three storeys.

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² Cf. below, chapter XLI. In the present passage only six out of the nine classes are mentioned, the *maṇḍaleśa*, *paṭṭadhara* and *pārshṇika* having been omitted.

Chapter XII: The Foundation (Garbhanyāsa-vidhāna)

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The foundation is classified under three heads, namely, for buildings, for villages, etc., and for tanks, etc. The last named foundation is meant for a cistern, well or tank (*vāpī-kūpa-taṭāka*), etc.

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The depth of the excavation (*garbha-bhājana*) in case of a village, a town or a fort (*grāma*, *nagara*, *pura*, *pattana*, *kharvaṭa*, *koshṭha*, *kola*, etc.) is stated to be of five kinds, and varies in accordance with the size of the construction. Similarly for a building or a well suitable depth of the excavation is prescribed.

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The foundation of buildings is further divided into two classes as it may belong to temples or to human dwellings. Of temples, those of Vishṇu and Brahmā are dealt with, and the others are said to be like these.

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For human dwellings there are four classes of foundations according to the caste of the occupier, Brāhmaṇa, Kshatriya, Vaiśya or Śūdra. In the laying of a foundation ritualistic prescriptions play a prominent part, the actual process apparently being the same in all cases.

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The depth of the excavation is equal to the height of the basement. The four corners and sides, built of brick or stone, are equal. The cavity is filled with water, and ten kinds of earth, such as earth taken from an anthill, from a crab-cave, etc., are placed at the bottom.

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Portions of certain plants are then deposited on the four sides: the root of the blue lotus (*utpala-kāṇḍa*) to the east, the root of the white lotus (*kumuda-kāṇḍa*) to the south, *saugandhi* (a kind of fragrant grass) to the north, and some other plant to the west. Above these are to be placed grains of ten kinds of cereals, to wit, *śāli* (rice) to the north-east, *vrīhi* (rice) to the east, *kodrava* (paspalum scrobiculatum) to the south-east, *kaṅgu* (panicum italicum) to the south, *mudga* (phaseolus mungo) to the south-west, *māsha* (phaseolus radiatus) to the west, *kulattha* (dolichos uniflorus) to the north-west and *tila* (sesamum indicum) to the north.

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The twelve kinds of breadth and length of the excavation to suit buildings of one to twelve storeys are respectively 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 *aṅgulas*; and 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26 *aṅgulas*. And its height should be equal to the breadth. or less by ⅙ or ⅕ of the breadth.

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The concluding lines of this chapter deal with the measurement of bricks, with which buildings of one to twelve storeys are preferably built, and also with the ceremonies in connection with the laying of the foundation-stone (lit. first brick, *prathameshṭaka*). The breadth of a brick may be from 7 to 29 or 30 *aṅgulas*. The length is greater than the breadth by ¼, ½, or ¾; or is twice of the breadth. The thickness should be half of the breadth.

Chapter XIII: The Pedestal (Upapīṭha-vidhāna)

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The opening lines of the chapter describe the height of the pedestal as compared with the base. This height is said to be of nine kinds, which are worked out by nine proportions. Five of them are those expressed by the technical terms *śāntika*, *paushṭika*, *jayada*, *adbhuta* and *sarvakāmikā* (⅓, ¼, ⅕, ⅙, and 1/7). Rām Rāz on the authority of a Tamil manuscript says that the height of the pedestal is to be reckoned from one-quarter to six times of the height of the base.

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The next topic of this chapter refers to the measurement of the projections (*nirgama*) of pedestals. The height of the pedestal is divided into 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 or 15 equal parts; of these 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 are given to the projection. The nine kinds of projection are 1 1¼, 1½, 1¾, 2, 2¼, 2½, 2¾ and 3 *hastas*. The projections may be 1, 1½, 2, 2½, 3, 3½, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 *daṇḍas*.

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After this, the pedestals are divided into three classes known as *vedi-bhadra*, *prati-bhadra*, and *mañcha-bhadra*. Each of these is subdivided into four types. The measures of the mouldings of each of these twelve kinds of pedestals are given in detail.

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The remaining portion of the chapter contains the names and measurement of the various mouldings which are to be employed in each of the twelve kinds of pedestal.

Chapter XIV: The Base (Adhishṭhāna-vidhāna)

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The heights of the bases are of twelve kinds, beginning at 30 *aṅgulas* and ending at 4 *hastas*, the increment being by 6 *aṅgulas*. These twelve heights are used respectively in twelve different storeys one above the other. The heights of the bases are said to be 4 *hastas* in the houses of the Brāhmaṇas, 3 *hastas* in those of the Kshatriyas, 2 *hastas* in those of the Vaiśyas and 1 *hasta* in the houses of the Śūdras.

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Some sixty-four bases are described under nineteen different types called *pāda-bandha*, *uraga-bandha*, *pratikrama*, *kumuda-bandha*, *padma-kesara*, *pushpa-pushkala*, *śrī-bandha*, *mañcha-bandha*, *śreṇi-bandha*, *padma-bandha*, *kumbha-bandha* (or *kalaśa-bandha*), *vapra-bandha*, *vajra-bandha*, *śrī-bhoga*, *ratna-bandha*, *paṭṭa-bandha*, *kukshi-bandha*, *kampa-bandha*, and *śrīkānta*. Of each of the bases the mouldings and ornaments are described in detail.

Chapter XV: The Pillar (Stambha-lakshaṇa-vidhāna)

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The opening lines divide the subject matter into five heads, namely, the measurement of pillars, their shapes, their ornaments and mouldings, the collection of wood for the purpose of making pillars, which may, however, be made of stone, and the ceremonial and process of erecting pillars.

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The height of a pillar is measured from above the base to below the *uttara*, or above the pedestal from the *janman* to the *uttara*. The height of a pillar, in other words, is measured from the plinth up to the lowest member of the entablature, so as to include the capital. In an important passage in the Kāśyapa, quoted by Rām Rāz, it is stated that the measurement may also be taken from the cimbia of the shaft, exclusive of the base.

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The height of a pillar is twice, one-and-a-half times or one-and-a-quarter times that of its base, or the height of the pillar begins at 2½ *hastas* and ends at 8 *hastas*, the increment being by 6 *aṅgulas* or ¼ *hasta*. But according to Kāśyapa, the height of the pillar may be 3 times that of the base ; or 6 or 8 times that of the pedestal. The width (diameter) of a pillar may be ⅙, 1/7, ⅛, 1/9 or 1/10 of its height, or ⅓, ¼ or ⅙ of the height if it be a pilaster (*kudya-stambha*). The width of the pilaster, according to the *Mānasāra*, is 3, 4, 5 or 6 *mātras* (*aṅgulas*), and twice, thrice or four times of these should be the width of the *kampa*. The height of a pillar being divided into 12, 11, 10, 9 or 8 parts, the one of these parts may be the breadth of the pillar, and at the top it is diminished by one-fourth.

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The column admits of different shapes. A square pillar is called *brahma-kānta*. An octagonal one is called *vishṇu-kānta*. A sixteen-sided or circular one is known as *rudra-kānta*. A pentagonal one is called *śivakānta*, and the hexagonal one *skanda-kānta*. These shapes are stated to be uniform from bottom to top. But the base may be quadrangular.

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With respect to dimensions and ornaments the five kinds of columns—*brahma-kānta*, *vishṇu-kānta*, *rudra-kānta*, *śiva-kānta*, and *skanda-kānta*—are called *chitra-karṇa*, *padma-kānta*, *chitra-kumbha*, *pālikā-stambha*, and *kumbha-stambha*. A sixth one, *koshṭha-stambha*, in the latter division, is stated to be two-sided, and is the same as the *kudya-stambha* or pilaster.

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It should be noticed that the former set of five names refers to the shapes of the shafts, whilst the latter set of five names is based on the shapes of the capitals, but in the detailed description both the capital and shaft are included.

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Some special kinds of pillars are also described, such as *Chitra-karṇa*, *Padma-kānta*, *Chitra-kumbha*, *Vīra-kaṇṭha*, *Pālikā-stambha*, *Kumbha-stambha* and *Koshṭha-stambha*. Then follow the description and measurement of the mouldings of the pillars.

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Columns, when in rows, must be in a straight line. "The intercolumnation may be two, three, four or five diameters ; it is measured in three ways, 1st, from the inner extremity of the base of one pillar to that of another ; 2nd, from the centre of the two pillars ; and 3rd, from the outer extremities of the pillars including the two bases." There seems to be no fixed intercolumnation. This has been left to the discretion of architects who are, however, required to be particularly careful with regard to beauty and utility.

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Minor pillars should be proportionate to the main pillar. A main pillar with one minor pillar (*upapāda*) is called *eka-kānta*, with two minor pillars *dvikānta*, and with three minor pillars *tri-kānta*. A main pillar with four minor pillars is called *brahma-kānta*, with five *śiva-kānta*, with six *skanda-kānta*, and with eight minor pillars, it is called *vishṇu-kānta*.

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There is a long description of the collection of wood for purposes of pillars. The details seem to indicate that at the time when the *Mānasāra* was composed, wood was frequently used for making columns; stone pillars are also mentioned, but pillars made of brick alone are not particularly dealt with. It is, however, stated that stone, brick and wood were used for making different parts of a column. The square *ādhāra* or base of a stone pillar, it is stated, should be made of stone, and that of the wooden pillar of wood. But at the end of the next chapter, it is added that all the parts of a column should be made of stone (*śilā*), wood (*dāru*) or brick (*ishṭakā*). In the middle of the same chapter the use of these three materials is elaborately discussed. The pillars, etc., are called *śuddha* (pure) when made of one material, *miśra* (mixed) when made of two materials, and *saṁkīrṇa* (amalgamated) when made of all the three (or more) materials.

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The concluding part of this chapter deals with ceremonies in connection with erecting columns. They are essentially ritualistic. It is directed that the column should be posted (*veśayet*) at the side of a *maṇḍapa* or pavilion.

Chapter XVI: The Entablature (Prastara-vidhāna)

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The height of the entablature (*prastara*), as compared with that of the base (*adhishṭhāna*), is of six kinds. The height of the former may be equal to that of the latter, or less by ¼, or greater by ¼, ½ or ¾; or it may be twice; or, in cubit (*hasta*) measurement these six kinds of height of the entablature begin at 7 cubits and end at 4½ cubits, the decrement being by ½ cubit. These six kinds of entablatures are respectively used in the houses of the gods, the Brahmins, the kings (or Kshatriyas), the crown-princes (*yuvarāja*), the Vaiśyas and the Śūdras.

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The height of the entablature is said to be ¼ or ¾ of, or equal to, that of the pillar (*pāda*), or greater by ¼, ½ or ¾. Yet another set of six heights is described. The height of the pillar being divided into eight parts, seven, six, five, four, three or two parts may be assigned to that of the entablature.

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The greater portion of the chapter is devoted to an enumeration of the various mouldings and the measurement of each of the eight different kinds of entablatures.

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In this chapter the roofing (*prachchhādana*) of buildings is described. It is stated that a brick-built building may be furnished with a wooden roof, and that the roofs of stone buildings should also be built of stone.

Chapter XVII: Wood-Joinery (Sandhikarma-vidhāna)

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The definition of the name (*sandhikarman*) of the chapter is given in the opening lines. The joining of pieces of wood for buildings is called *sandhi-karman*. Several kinds of wood-joining are described in detail. It would be impossible to give here a resumé. But it may be noted that wood was very largely used in constructing houses of various kinds; some parts of pillars too were made of wood, as has already been pointed out. Doors were mostly made of wood. The same was the case with couches, cars, chairs, etc.

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The wood-joining is of various kinds and forms. Pieces of wood are said to be joined in such a way as to make the *nandyāvarta*, *svastika*, *sarvato-bhadra* and such other shapes. Some kinds of wood are strictly forbidden to be joined with some others. Fresh timber, it is stated, should under no circumstances be joined with seasoned wood.

Chapter XVIII: The General Description of Buildings (Vimāna-vidhāna)

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The contents of the chapter are divided into the following headings: the classification of the *vimānas* of one to twelve storeys; the three styles of architecture; the characteristic features of the *stūpikā* or pinnacle, the *stūpi-kīla* or pinnacle staff, the *lupā*, and the *mukha-bhadra*; and the ceremonies of fixing the pinnacle staff.

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The description begins with the making of the foundation; but this subject has already been dealt with in the 12th chapter.

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The classification of *vimānas* of one to twelve storeys is elaborately described here, their absolute dimensions having already been given in the 11th chapter called *Bhūmilamba-vidhāna*. Each of the twelve classes is subdivided into three types, according to their size—large, intermediate and small. Whilst the width of the small type of one-storeyed building is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 parts, it should be 5, 6, or 7 parts in the intermediate type, and 6, 7, or 8 parts in the large type. These 'parts' appear to be the partitions of the façade bordered by two pilasters (*pāda*).

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The three styles of architecture are called *nāgara*, *drāviḍa* and *vesara* which are apparently geographical names. The distinguishing feature seems to be the general shape of the *śikhara*.

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In the third place the measurement and mouldings of the pinnacle (*stūpi* or *stūpikā*) are given in detail. The height of the *stūpi* is one cubit (*hasta*) in the houses of the Śūdras, two cubits in those of the Vaisyas, two cubits and a half in the houses of the crown-princes (*yuvarāja*), three cubits in the houses of the kings (*kshatriya*), three cubits and a half in the houses of the Brāhmaṇas, and four cubits in the houses of the gods, that is, in temples.

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Building materials are then discussed. Four kinds of material are distinctly mentioned: stone, brick, wood, and iron (*lauha*).

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Buildings are made of one, two, three or all four of these materials, but preference is given to the use of one material alone. With regard to materials, buildings are divided into three classes, namely, *śuddha* (pure) made of one material alone, *miśra* (mixed) made of two materials and *saṁkīrṇa* (amalgamated) made of three or more materials.

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The term *stūpi-kīla* literally means the nail or pin of the *stūpi*. Its form is described clearly. It is quadrangular at the base, octagonal at the middle, circular at the top, and tapering gradually from bottom to top. The width at the top is one *aṅgula*.

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Then two more architectural members are described, namely, the *lupā* and the *mukha-bhadra*. The former is explained by Rām Rāz¹ as "a sloping and a projecting member of the entablature, representing a continued pent roof. It is made below the cupola [*śikhara*], and its ends are placed as if it were suspended from the architrave, and reaching the stalk of the lotus below."

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¹ Rām Rāz, *Essay*, p. 52, footnote 2.

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The *mukha-bhadra*, or front tabernacle according to the same author,² indicates an ornamental nichè, which occupies a central position in the façade of the building.

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² *Ibidem*, pp. 51 f.

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The chapter concludes with a description of the ceremonies in connection with fixing the *stūpi-kīla*.

Chapter XIX: The One-Storeyed Building (Ekabhūmi-vidhāna)

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³ Cf. *ibidem* pp. 49-53; plate XXI.

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The chapter opens with various classifications of buildings. They are first divided into four classes called *jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa*, and *ābhāsa*. Here they are considered with regard to their measurement. The *jāti* class is said to be measured in the *pūrva-hasta*, the first kind of cubit, i.e., the cubit of 24 *aṅgulas*. The *chhanda* is measured in ¾ cubit, the *vikalpa* in ½ of this (?), and the *ābhāsa* in ½ cubit or span.

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A further classification is into *sthānaka*, *āsana* and *śayana*, which are also called respectively, *saṁchita*, *asaṁchita* and *apasaṁchita*. This classification also refers to measurement. In the *sthānaka* class the measurement of the height is considered, in the *āsana* the breadth is taken into consideration, and in the *śayana* the width is measured. It should be noted that these three classes, namely, *sthānaka*, *āsana*, and *śayana*, have a further signification with regard to the object of worship. In the *sthānaka* buildings the idol is in an erect posture, in the *āsana* buildings in a sitting posture, and in the *śayana* buildings in a recumbent posture.

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A third classification refers to the shape. Buildings are classed as masculine (*purusha*) when they are equiangular or circular, and as feminine when they are rectangular. Male deities are installed in masculine temples, and female deities in feminine temples. It is added, however, that the images of the latter may be placed in masculine temples too.

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After this introduction comes the description of one-storeyed buildings. The absolute measurement is referred to in the chapter called *Bhūmi-lamba* (dimensions of storeys). The comparative measurement and plan are described here at great length. The whole height of the building is divided into a certain number of equal parts which are distributed in a happy proportion amongst the different members, namely, the base, the pillar, the entablature, the neck, the dome and the pinnacle. Similarly the length of the entire temple is divided into a certain number of equal parts which are also distributed amongst various rooms and halls, namely, the *garbha-gṛiha* or shrine, the *antarāla* or anteroom and the *maṇḍapa* or pavilion. These component parts of the building are described in detail in subsequent chapters, as also the gate-houses (*gopura*), courts (*prākāra*) and such other architectural members as doors, windows, arches, and so forth. In the present chapter a detailed account is given of the water-channel (*nāla*), which is meant to be an outlet for the water.

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The eight kinds of one-storeyed buildings are known as *jayantika*, *bhoga*, *śrīviśāla*, *svasti-bandhana*, *śrīkara*, *hasti-pṛishṭha*, *skandhatāra*, and *keśara*.

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The concluding portion of this chapter as well as of the next eleven chapters are devoted to an enumeration of the various deities with whose images the doors and walls of buildings should be decorated.

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The Buddhist and Jain temples, dealt with in only two lines, are directed to be similarly built, with this difference that in these temples the images of the Buddhist and Jain gods should be installed instead of the images of the Brāhmaṇas.

Chapters XX–XXX: Buildings of Two to Twelve Storeys

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¹ Rām Rāz, *Essay*, pp. 53-57, see plates XXII–XXXIV.

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The contents of these eleven chapters of the *Mānasāra* may be conveniently summarised together. They deal respectively with two-storeyed (*dvi-tala*), three-storeyed (*tri-tala*), four-storeyed (*chatus-tala*), five-storeyed (*pañcha-tala*), six-storeyed (*shaṭ-tala*), seven-storeyed (*sapta-tala*), eight-storeyed (*ashṭa-tala*), nine-storeyed (*nava-tala*), ten-storeyed (*daśa-tala*), eleven-storeyed (*ekādaśa-tala*), and twelve-storeyed (*dvādaśa-tala*) buildings. In each of these chapters we find a classification of the peculiar kind of edifice under discussion followed by an account of certain details, in particular the location of the divine images with which the walls are decorated. Thus the buildings of two storeys are divided into eight classes which are called *śrīkara*, *vijaya*, *siddha*, *paushṭika*, *kāntika*, *adbhuta* (also *prabhūtaka*), *svastika*, and *pushkala*. Those of three storeys are likewise divided into eight classes, called *śrīkānta*, *āsana*, *sukhālaya*, *keśara*, *kamalāṅga*, *brahma-kānta*, *meru-kānta*, and *kailāśa*. The same eight-fold division is found in connection with the four-storeyed buildings; here the names are *vishṇu-kānta*, *chatur-mukha*, *sadā-śiva*, *rudra-kānta*, *īśvara-kānta*, *mañcha-kānta*, *vedi-kānta*, and *indra-kānta*. The eight classes of the five-storeyed buildings are called *airāvata*, *bhūta-kānta*, *viśva-kānta*, *mūrti-kānta*, *yama-kānta*, *gṛiha-kānta*, *yajña-kānta* and *brahma-kānta*. In the case of the buildings of six storeys there are no less than thirteen classes, the technical names of which are *padma-kānta*, *kāntāra*, *sundara* *upakānta*, *kamala*, *ratna-kānta*, *vipulāṅka*, *jyotish-kāntu*, *sarorūha*, *vipulākṛiti*, *svasti-kānta* *nandyāvarta*, and *ikshu-kānta*. The seven-storeyed buildings are divided into eight kinds—*puṇḍarīka* *śrīkānta*, *śrībhoga*, *dhāraṇa*, *pañjara*, *āśramāgāra*, *harmya-kānta*, and *hima-kānta*, The eight classes of eight storeyed buildings are called *bhū-kānta*, *bhūpa-kānta*, *svarga-kānta*, *mahākānta* *jana-kānta*, *tapas-kānta*, *satya-kānta*, and *deva-kānta*. Those of nine storeys are divided into seven kinds—*saura-kānta*, *raurava*, *chaṇḍita*, *bhūshaṇa*, *vivṛita*, *supratikānta*, and *viśva-kānta*, of which the first four represent the small type of nine-storeyed buildings, the next two the intermediate type, and the last one the large type. The ten-storeyed buildings are divided into six classes which are named *bhū kānta*, *chandra-kānta*, *bhavana-kānta*, *antarīksha-kānta*, *megha-kānta*, and *abja-kānta*. Buildings of eleven storeys admit of six varieties—*śambhu-kānta*, *īśu-kānta*, *chakra-kānta*, *yama-kānta*, *vajra-kānta*, and *akra-kānta*. Finally, buildings of twelve storeys are divided into ten kinds—*pāñchāla*, *drāviḍa*, *madhya-kānta*, *kāliṅga-kānta*, *virāṭa*, *kerala*, *vaṁśa-kānta*, *māgadha-kānta*, *janaka-kānta* and *gurjara* (*sphūrjaka*). It deserves notice that in this instance the terms by which the classes are designated are apparently geographical names.

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In chapter XXX we find, moreover, an elaborate account of staircases (*sopāna*).

Chapter XXXI: The Courts (Prākāra-vidhāna)

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The chapter begins with the announcement that five kinds of *prākāra* buildings will be described in connection with *bali* (offerings), *parivāra* (attendant deities), *śobhā* (beauty), and *rakshaṇa* (defence).

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But the main object of the chapter is evidently to describe the various courts into which the whole compound is divided. The description of five such courts is given. The first or innermost court is called the *antar-maṇḍala*. The second is known as *anta-nīhāra* and the third as *madhyama-hāra* The fourth court is technically named *prākāra*. The fifth and last one is known as the *mahāmaryādā* or 'the extreme boundary.' As the title of the chapter indicates, the greater part of it describes only the fourth court. Here it may be briefly observed that this *prākāra* is also divided into the *jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa*, *ābhāsa* and *kāmya* classes. Under each class a number of buildings (*śālā*) is exhaustively described. A further classification (*saṅkīrṇa*, etc.) is made with regard to the materials of which the *prākāra* buildings are made. These materials are the same as in other cases, namely, stone, brick and timber.

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The shrines of the attendant deities (*parivāra-vimāna*) and the gate-houses (*gopuras*) are very briefly described in conclusion, the next two chapters being entirely devoted to a special treatment of these two subjects.

Chapter XXXII: The Attendant Deities (Parivāra-vidhāna)

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The temples of these deities are directed to be built round the *prākāra*. At the eight cardinal points of the innermost or the first court, the temples of a group of eight deities are built. Groups of sixteen and thirty-two deities are located in the second and the third courts respectively. Between the third and the fifth courts is said to be a special pavilion. After an elaborate description of the location of temples for each of the deities of the three groups, the attendant deities of Vishṇu are described in detail.

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With regard to the family of Vishṇu, it may be pointed out that it also includes the same three groups of eight, sixteen and thirty-two deities. The second group relating to Vishṇu includes Buddha too. The well known ten incarnations of Vishṇu, except the *Matsya* (fish) and the *Kūrma* (tortoise) are included in the third group.

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The temples of the Bauddhas and Jainas, it is expressly stated, should be constructed according to the rules of their own *Śāstras*.

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It should be noticed that the description of the temples intended for so many deities does not contain any measurements, etc. The text is solely occupied with the location of these temples or deities in the compound. But a considerable portion of the chapter is devoted to the description of *maṇḍapas* for such purposes as bathing, sleeping, assemblies, performances of musicians and dancing girls, and stabling of cows and horses.

Chapter XXXIII: The Gate-House (Gopura-vidhāna)

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¹ Rām Rāz, *Essay*, pp. 58—61; plates XXXVI—XLII. This term in Prākrit form (*duārasohā*) occurs in the *Mṛichchhakatika* (ed. STENZLER), p. 72, l, 13, in the description of Vasantasenā's palace (Act V) which is divided into seven courts.

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Gate-houses (*gopura*) are built in front of each of the five courts into which the whole compound is divided. The *gopura* belonging to the first court (*antar-maṇḍala*) is technically called the *dvāra-śobhā* or 'the beauty of the gate'²; that belonging to the second court is known as *dvāra-śālā* or gate-house. The gate-house of the third court is called *dvāra-prāsāda*, and that of the fourth court (*prākāra*) has the name of *dvāra-harmya*. The gate-house of the fifth or outermost court (*mahāmaryādā*) is known as *mahāgopura* or the great gate house.

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Each of these five classes of gate-houses is subdivided again into three kinds—the small, the intermediate, and the large. Gate-houses are exhaustively described under these fifteen kinds. They are further divided into ten classes with regard to the number of architectural members designated as *śikhara* (domes), *stūpikā* (pinnacle), *gala-kūṭa* (neck-peak), and *kshudra-nāsī* (vestibule). A *gopura* is thus technically called *śrībhoga* when its *śikhā* is like a *śālā*, and it has a circular surrounding *stūpikā*, and is furnished with a *gala-kūṭa*, four *kshudra-nāsīs*, and eight *mahānāsīs*. The remaining nine classes are called respectively *śriviśāla*, *vishṇukānta*, *indra-kānta*, *brahma-kānta*, *skanda-kānta*, *śikhara* and *saumya-kānta*. The names of two of these ten classes are evidently missing.

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The fifteen kinds of gate-houses referred to above may have one to sixteen or seventeen storeys. But the details of those of one to five storeys only are given, others being left to the discretion of the artists and stated to be built in the same way as those described so minutely.

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The measurements, both absolute and comparative, of length, breadth and height of each storey belonging to each of the fifteen kinds of gate-houses are described at great length. The ornaments and mouldings of each storey are also given in detail. The *garbha-griha* (cella or sanctum) as well as all other rooms together with their different parts, such as pillars, entablatures, walls, roofs, floors, doors, windows, etc., are exhaustively discussed.

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The measurements, etc., of the gate-houses are discussed in comparison with those of the main buildings also. Then follows a lengthy description of their solid (*ghana*) and hollow (*aghana*) parts. The description of some interior members is also included in this section.

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The chapter closes with an interesting description of windows, not only for gate-houses, but also for other kinds of buildings, both religious and residential. The general plan of windows seems to be this: a post or pillar is fixed in the middle to which are attached two perforated screens (*jālaka* and *phalakā*). These admit of various patterns represented by the following names, by which they are classed with regard to their shapes, *nāga-bandha*, *valli*, *gavāksha* (cow's eye), *kuñ-jarāksha* (elephant's eye), *svastika*, *sarvato-bhadra*, *nandyāvarta*, and *pushpa-bandha* (bouquet or bunch of flowers). They are decorated with floral and foliated ornaments, as well as with decorative devices in imitation of jewels. The measurement of length, breadth and thickness is entirely left to the discretion of the artist. But it is stated in conclusion that according to some authorities the width of the windows for gate-houses varies from 1½ to 5 cubits (*hasta*), the increment being by six *aṅgulas*.

Chapter XXXIV: The Maṇḍapa (Maṇḍapa-vidhāna)

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The term *maṇḍapa* generally means a temple, pavilion, bower, shed or open hall. But the word has been used in three technical senses in this chapter. It is used to imply a house in the country, etc., or built on the sea-shore or the bank of a river, tank, or lake; secondly, it is used to imply all the detached buildings in a compound which is generally divided into five courts. But in the most general sense, it implies various sorts of rooms in a temple or residential building; for the greater part of this long chapter is devoted to a description of these rooms.

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After an account of the architectural members indicated by the technical terms *bhitti*, *alinda* and *prapā*, follows the lengthy description of *maṇḍapas*. Seven *maṇḍapas* are said to be built in front of the *prāsāda* or the main edifice They are technically called *himaja*, *nishādaja*, *vijaya*, *mālyaja*, *pāriyātra*, *gandha-mādana* and *hema-kūṭa* respectively. The first is said to be used for the purpose of a bath-room, the second for a study, library or school (*adhyayana*), and so forth. Various parts of these buildings, such as walls, roofs, floors, verandas, court-yards, doors, windows, columns, etc., are described in detail. Besides these seven, various other classes of *maṇḍapas* are also described exhaustively. Their technical names together with the main purposes for which they are built may be given here.

v2.c14.s22.4

The *meruja maṇḍapa* is used as a library-room, the *vijaya* for marriage ceremonies, the *padmaka* as a temple-kitchen, the *śikha* as an ordinary kitchen, the *padma* for collecting flowers, the *bhadra* for a water-reservoir, store-house, etc the *śiva* for unhusking corn, the *veda* for an assembly-hall, the *kula-dhāraṇa* for storing perfumes, the *sukhāṅga* for a guest-house, the *dārua* for an elephant's stable, and the *kausika* for a horse-stable, the *saukhyaka* and others built on the banks of the sea, river, lake, etc., are meant for purposes of pilgrimage, and the *jayāta* and others for summer residence. The plan, ornaments, etc. of each of these various classes are described in detail

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