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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v2.c16: IV. The Mānasāra and Vitruvius

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v2.c16

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English

IV. The Mānasāra and Vitruvius

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As has already been pointed out in the Preface, the name Mānasāra is of ambiguous significance. It is, however, clear from the preceding chapters that the text bearing the title *Mānasāra* is a standard treatise on Indian Architecture. It is divided into seventy chapters each bearing a distinct title. In 1834 in his Essay on the architecture of the Hindus, Rām Rāz referred to the first few chapters of the *Mānasāra* from a single fragmentary manuscript to which he had access. Since then several manuscripts have been discovered; but owing to some serious difficulties stated in the Preface nobody had made any attemp to deal with this huge text in any way for a period of 80 years till the present writer undertook in 1914 to edit it for the first time. This, the first, edition is based on all the eleven available manuscripts which are written in five different scripts in a language branded as "barbarous Sanskrit." Figures, sketches, or illustrations of any kind are absolutely wanting in all these manuscripts.

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Vitruvius is the name of Roman architect. His treatise, on which in a sense European architecture is bassed, seems to have been composed twenty-five years before the Christian era. "The materals for a life of Vitruvius are only to be found in his own treatise. Among the ancient authors he is merely mentioned by Pliny as one of those writers from whom he compiled; and by Frontinus, in his treatise on Aqueducts, as the first who introduced the Quinarain measure."

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The title of Vitruvius's treatise is lost, if it originally had one. The editio princeps, printed at Rome, in or about 1486, bears no title. The unique position of this treatise is, however, sufficiently clear from the fact that since its first appearance in the fifteenth century there have been till 1807 forty-two editions of the work, practically in all the Eurepean languages. There are seventeen editions in Latin, eleven in Italian, two in Spanish, six in French, four in German, and two in English¹. It is divided into ten books, which too do not bear any titles. Each book contains a number of chapters varying from seven to twenty-two. The chapters also have not any proper titles. The treatise deals with both civil

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¹ See Gwilt, XV—XXV, for fuller details of the following:— Latin editions— 1486—Editio princeps printed at Rome by George Herolt begins without title—'Sulpitius lectori salutem.' Polenus says "there are but few errors in this edition." 1567—With Barbaro's commentary. 1584—Similar to the preceding edition. 1629—Very similar to the preceding edition. 1641—Little differing from the preceding. 1758—In Napoli, accompanied with the Latin text. 1790—Another edition by Galiani, similar to the preceding, but without the Latin text. Spanish editions— 1602—Without plates. 1787—Large folio with plates. French editions— 1547—First version in French, Jan Martin, Paris. 1572—A reprint of the preceding, Cavellat, Paris. 1618—Printed from the two preceding editions by Jean de Tournes at Geneva. 1673—Translated by Perrault. Figures are numerous and well executed. 1684—With plates, best of Perrault's editions. 1816—With plates. Bruxelles. German editions— 1548—With plates on wood-blocks cut by Erard Schoæn. 1575—A repetition of the preceding. Basil. 1614—Another repetition with a little different title. 1796—With a life of Vitruvius in the first volume. This edition contains many illustrations of the author. English editions— 1771—Translated from the original Latin by Newton, London. 1791.—Second volume with many plates. It exhibits defective knowledge of Latin, but the notes are good Latterly a portion was translated by Wilkins After Joseph Gwilt's translation there have been several others in English.

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1496—Printed at Florence. According to Fabricus the orthography of this edition is more correct than in the preceding one.

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1497—The name of the editor does not appear. With a few slight variations this is little more than a reprint of the Florence edition. In this the chapters of the first book are differently divided from those of the two former editions.

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1511—This is the first illustrated edition. It contains many wood blocks and figures. Jocundus (the editor) altered the text of the two former editions in many places.

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1513—The figures in this edition are the same as in the preceding, but considerably reduced and more imperfectly kept.

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1522—This is a reprint of the preceding edition with the same blocks for the figures.

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1523—This was probably edited by Will. Hayon of Lyons. This is a counterpart of the Giunta edition. Some of its figures are taken from the first Italian edition of 1521 which is noticed herein after.

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1543—The text is nearly the same as that of Jocundus. The figures of the wood-blocks are partly borrowed from the Giunta edition and partly from the Italian edition of 1521.

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1550—The text is the same as that of the 1543 edition. But it contains notes of Philander which were first published at Rome in 1544.

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1552—‘Philander himself superintended this edition, chiefly following the Giunta text, which he collated with several Mss. The wood-blocks are better than in any preceding edition.’'

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1567—Barbaro in this seems to have mostly followed Philander’s edition of 1552.

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1586—Harwood says that “the editor of this edition was Jo Tornaesious junior, and that it is more correct, though less elegant than that produced by the father in 1552.”

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1649—With commentary of Meibomius on those chapters relating to musical notation. This was the best edition of the author produced at that time. “De Laet professes to follow the text of Philander’s edition; but neither was this accurately done, nor were the notes of Philander, nor the Lexicon of Baldus given entire, as the title would import.”

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1758—By Marchese Berardo Galiani at Naples with an Italian version noticed under the Italian editions. Harwood says that this is “a fair and valuable edition.”

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1800—The text of this edition is of little value. Nor its plates well executed. It has no notes appended but it contains the glossary in five languages.

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1807—It contains notes.

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1807—In the same year another edition was published. The second and third volumes are devoted to commentaries on the text. In contains, however, no plates. “This is the best edition of the author which has appeared.”

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Italian editions—

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1521--This is one of the earliest and rare version of Vitruvius. It was translated with the assistance of Benedict Jovius by Cæsar Cæsarianus who was one of the architects of the Cathedral of Milan. One of the plates contains a plan and two sections of this Cathedral.

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1524—This is a repetition of the preceding edition but without the notes of Cæsar Cæsarianus.

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1535—This is copied from the preceding edition, but the Index is not quite so copious.

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1536—A translation of the first five Books. Perugia.

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1556—With Barbaro’s commentary.

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and military architecture. The rules respecting military engines, "now incomprehensible, but doubtless in his time sufficiently clear," are laid down in the last book. The treatment of civil architecture includes both temples and residential buildings. "That he should have met with opposition from his brethren is quite consonant with later experience, for the rabble of ignorant builders, and artisans, and draftsmen are of the same class as those that flourished subsequently to Vitruvius." From this remark of Gwilt it appears that Vitruvius was induced to "write his treatise with a view to assisting the uneducated professional architects" who, like those of India, depended solely on the knowledge handed down to them from their equally uneducated forefathers.

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'Certain points of similarity between the *Mānasāra* and the treatise of Vitruvius are so striking that they raise a presumption that the two works are in some way dependent on each other.' This thesis¹ is proposed to be illustrated in this section.

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¹ Submitted as such to Leiden University by the present writer.

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Practically seven-tenths of both the works is avowedly architectural.

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Out of the seventy chapters of the *Mānasāra* the first fifty deal with architecture proper, and out of the ten books of Vitruvius the first seven deal with the same subjects.

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The remaining twenty chapters of the former are devoted to sculpture, and the remaining three books of the latter deal mostly with war instruments, machines, and engines. Of the similar seven-tenths in both the works, the names of many chapters, and the contents too in most instances, are the same.

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The *Mānasāra* opens, following the usual custom, with a prayer to the Creator Brahmā and touches upon the origin and development of the science of architecture, from Śiva, Brahmā, and Vishṇu, through Indra, Bṛihaspati, and Nārada, to the class of Ṛishis called Mānasāra, and concludes the introduction with a list of the chapters.

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Vitruvius too opens with a prayer to his patron, Cæsar, and acknowledging his obligations to Cæsar's father and sister, concludes with a proposal to give an account of the magnificent edifices Cæsar had built, and to develop all the principles of the art.

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The next chapter (II) in the *Mānasāra* deals with two distinct subjects, the system of measurement (*mānopakaraṇa*) and the requisite qualifications of an architect (*Śilpi-lakshaṇa*).

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The corresponding chapter is marked I instead of II by Vitruvius, because the preceding chapter goes without any numbering, as it is called Introduction. This, the present, chapter deals exactly like the corresponding chapter in the *Mānasāra* with two distinct subjects under the heads, 'what architecture is' and 'of the education of an architect.' The former of these two subjects has again been treated in the following chapter, namely, III, of the *Mānasāra*, and is noticed below. The striking similarity in the training demanded of the architect by the two authorities may be noticed here.

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According to Vitruvius "an architect should be ingenious, and apt in the acquisition of knowledge. He should be a good writer, a skilful draftsman, versed in geometry and optics, expert at figures, acquainted with history, informed on the principles of natural and moral philosophy, somewhat of a musician, not ignorant of the sciences both of law and physic, nor of the motions, laws and relations to each other, of the heavenly bodies." The absolute necessity for these qualifications has been very satisfactorily elaborated by Vitruvius.

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In the *Mānasāra*, artists are first divided into four classes. Together they form the guild of architects, each an expert in his own department but possesing a general knowledge of the science of architecture as a whole. They consist of the chief architect (*Sthapati*), the draftsman or the designer (*Sūtra-grāhin*), the painter (*Vardhaki*), and the joiner (*Sūtra-dhāra*).

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According to the *Mānasāra* the chief architect is expected to be well versed in all the sciences. He must possess a knowledge of all the Vedas and all the Śāstras. He must be proficient in law, mathematics, history, geography, painting, draftsmanship, mechanics, and deep "in the ocean of the science of architecture." He must be very learned, meritorious, patient, and dexterous, a champion, of large experience, of industrious habits, and of noble descent, full of resource and capable of application to all kinds of work. He must possess a wide outlook, bold temperament, and self-control. He must be above committing errors. He must have a good name and be faithful to his employers (lit., friends). He must be endowed with all the qualifications of a supreme managing director. He must not be deformed or have any disease or disability; he must also be free from the seven vices, namely, hunting, gambling, day-dreaming, blackmailing, addiction to women, etc.

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A similar set of qualifications is also demanded of each of the other three artists; but the *Sūtragrāhin* is expected to possess an expert knowledge of draftsmanship, the *Vardhaki* of painting, and the *Sūtradhāra* of carpentry.

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The utility or the possibility of so many attainments in a single person has not been expressly discussed in the *Mānasāra*. But Vitruvius has submitted an interesting explanation.

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It is familiar to every body that for success in any profession in life one must be clever, industrious, honest and generous. It is also easily understood that an architect, who has got to do both manual and brain work must not be deformed and must be free from any disease or disability.

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According to Vitruvius he is required to be a good writer also, because an architect is to commit to writing his observations and experience, in order to assist his memory. Drawing is employed in representing the forms of his designs. Geometry, which forms a part of mathematics, affords much aid to the architect; to it he owes the use of the right line and circle, the level and the square, whereby his delineations of buildings on plane surfaces are greatly facilitated. Arithmetic estimates the cost, and aids in the measurement of the works; this, assisted by the laws of geometry, determines those abstruse questions wherein the different proportions of some parts to others are involved. The science of optics enables him to introduce with judgement the requisite quantity of light according to the aspect. Unless acquainted with history, he will be unable to account for the use of many ornaments, which he may have occasion to inroduce. For history the expression *purāṇa* is used in Indian literature and it implies mythology or mythological stories which are as a rule depicted in the buildings of a nation. There are, however, other uses of history for an architect.

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“Moral philosophy,” says Vitruvius, “will teach the architect to be above meanness in his dealings and to avoid arrogance, and will make him just, compliant and faithful to his employer; and what is of the highest importance, it will prevent avarice gaining an ascendancy over him; for he should not be occupied with the thoughts of filling his coffers, nor with the desire of grasping everything in the shape of gain, but by the gravity of his manners and a good character, should be careful to preserve his dignity.” These precepts of moral philosophy are prescribed by our Indian authorities almost in the same terms. We have seen above that the architect is required to be of noble descent, pious and compassionate. He must not be malicious or spiteful. He must be content and free from greed He must be truthful and possess self-control. He must be above the seven vices. He must be faithful to his employer. He must not have excessive desire for gain. He must be of good behaviour and generous enough to forgive his rivals.

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“The doctrine of physic is necessary to him in the solution of various problems, as for instance, in the conduct of water, whose natural force, in its meandering and expansion over flat countries, is often such as to require restraints, which none know to apply but those who are acquainted with the laws of nature.” This matter too has been more exhaustively discussed in various chapters of the *Mānasāra*.

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“Music assists him in the use of harmonic and mathematical proportion.” In these matters, the *Mānasāra* is rather too elaborate; in most individual cases, nine proportions have been suggested and the selection of the right proportion and harmony has been made dependent on the application of the six formulas which are treated in a very technical manner based on mathematics. According to Vitruvius, music is moreover absolutely necessary in adjusting the force of the balistae, catapultae, and scorpions, in whose frames are holes for the passage of the homotona, which are strained by gut-ropes attached to windlasses worked by hand-spikes. Unless these ropes are equally extended, which only a nice ear can discover by their sound when struck, the bent arms of the engine do not give an equal impetus when disengaged, and the strings, therefore, not being in equal states of tension, prevent the direct flight of the weapon. A knowledge of music is especially useful to the architect in building theatres, lecture rooms, and such other halls where the spread of sound is taken into particular consideration. Both Vitruvius and the *Mānasāra* are equally enthusiastic in speaking about it. The former, further, says that the architect “would, moreover, be at a loss in constructing hydraulic and other engines if ignorant of music.” “Skill in physic enables him to ascertain the salubrity of different tracts of country, and to determine the variation of climates, for the air and water of different situations being matters of highest importance no building will be healthy without attention to those points.”

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A very elaborate account of the selection of sites and the examination of soil is given in the *Mānasāra* and other architectural treatises¹. The salubrity of the tracts is minutely ascertained with reference to the site where a village, town, fort, palace, temple or dwelling house is to be built. The soil is examined with regard to its contour, colour, odour, features, taste, and touch. The level of the ground as well as the characteristic vegetation of the site, as pointed out above, are also minutely examined.

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¹ *Brihat-saṁhitā*, Gārga, Viśvak, Kāśyapa, Vāstu-ratnāvali, Vasishṭha-saṁhitā, Vāstu-pradīpa, Nārada, Griha-kārikā, Bhrigu, Śilpa-dīpaka, Bhavishya-Purāṇa. See quotations from these works under *Bhū-parīkshā* in the writer’s Dictionary.

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“Law should be an object of his study, especially those parts of it which relate to party-walls, to the free course and discharge of the eaves’ waters, to the regulations of cesspools and sewage, and to window lights. The laws of sewage require his particular attention, so that he may prevent his employers from being involved in law-suits when the building is finished. Contracts, also, for the execution of the works, should be drawn up with care and precision, because, when without legal flaws, neither party will be able to take advantage of the other.”

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Law, as explained by Vitruvius, is not mentioned in so many words in the list of accomplishments given in the Vāstu-śāstras quoted above. But most elaborate instructions are given in the Arthaśāstra and other treatises on party-walls, the sewage system, and on windows and other openings.²

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² See the writer’s Dictionary under *Jaladvāra* and *Vātāyana*.

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“Astronomy instructs him in the points of the heavens, the laws of the celestial bodies, the equinoxes, solstices, and courses of the stars; all of which should be well understood in the construction and proportions of clocks.” In the Vāstu-śāstras dialling is an important subject; but astronomy, which is always mixed up with astrology, has been drawn upon particularly with regard to the auspicious moment invariably observed in almost all matters.

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Vitruvius has added an explanatory note on the expression ‘all sciences’ of which the architect is required to have sufficient knowledge. This explanation will indeed throw a clear light upon a similar expression, *sarva-śāstra*, used by the Indian authorities. But for the following note of Vitruvius, we might have taken the term *sarva-śāstra* as an exaggeration, which is very often found in Sanskrit literature to imply nothing more than a general knowledge.

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“Perhaps, to the uninformed mind,” begins Vitruvius, “it may appear unaccountable that a man should be able to retain in his memory such a variety of learning; but the close alliance with each other, of the different branches of science, will explain the difficulty. For as a body is composed of various concordant members, so does the whole circle of learning consist in one harmonious system.”

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‘On this account, Pythius, the architect of the noble temple of Minerva at Priene says, in his commentaries, that an architect should have that perfect knowledge of each art and science, which is not even acquired by the professors of any one in particular.’ This seemed rather too much to Vitruvius, so he asks “how can it be expected that an architect should equal Aristarchus as a grammarian, yet should he not (*sic*) be ignorant of grammar. In music, though it be evident he need not equal Aristoxenus, yet he should know something of it. Though he need not exceed, as Apelles, in painting, nor as Myron or Polycletus, in sculpture, yet he should have attained some proficiency in these arts.”

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“Thus also, in the other sciences,” concludes Vitruvius, “it is not important that pre-eminence in each be gained; but he must not, however, be ignorant of the general principles of each. For in such a variety of matters, it cannot be supposed that the same person can arrive at excellence in each, since to be aware of their several niceties and bearings, cannot fall within his power . . . . . . . Wherefore Pythius seems to have been in error, forgetting that art consists in practice and theory. Theory is common to, and may be known by all, but the result of practice occurs to the artist in his own art only. The physician and musician are each obliged to have some regard to the beating of the pulse, and the motion of the feet, but who would apply to the latter to heal a wound or cure a malady? So, without the aid of the former, the musician affects the ears of his audience by modulations upon his instrument. The astronomer and musician delight in similar proportions, for the positions of the stars, which are quartile and trine, answer to a fourth and fifth in harmony. . . . . Throughout the whole range of art, there are many incidents common to all. Practice alone can lead to excellence in any one. That architect, therefore, is sufficiently educated, whose general knowledge enables him to give his opinion on any branch when required to do so. Those unto whom nature has been so bountiful that they are at once geometricians, astronomers, musicians, and skilled in many other arts go beyond what is required of the architect.”

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Further observations are perhaps unnecessary with a view to reiterating the striking similarities between the *Mānasāra* and Vitruvius on this point. This series of similarities between the injunctions of the two standard works on such an important matter as the training of the architect, the very soul of architecture, seem to have been due to something more than mere coincidence.

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The next chapter (III) in the *Mānasāra*, called *Vāstu-prakaraṇa*, defines *vāstu* or habitation and divides it into four classes, ground, building, conveyance, and couch (*dharā*, *harma*, *yāna*, and *paryaṅka*).

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Chapter (IV), called *Bhū-parīkshā* or examination of soil, deals with the site where a village, town, fort, palace, temple, or dwelling is to be built, and examines the soil thereof with regard to contour, colour, odour, features, taste, touch; the elevation of the ground; and the luxuriance of certain plants, trees, and grasses.

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Chapter (V), called *Bhūmi-saṃgraha* or selection of site, deals further with the soil before it is finally selected for a building site.

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The next chapter (VI) considers the orientation of buildings, and recommends that a building should preferably face the east or north-east, and never the south-east. Reasons have not been discussed fully, beyond stating that this is auspicious or that is inauspicious. Incidentally, the principles, mechanics, and details of dialling have been exhaustively discussed.

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The following chapter (VII) discusses the design or division of the site selected for a village, town, or house, into a number of plots. Thirty-two schemes are distinguished, each of which is divided into squares of various numbers.

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Following the usual custom, this introductory section concludes with a chapter (VIII) on offerings to various deities. In this matter too the chief architect takes a leading part.

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The corresponding chapter (II) of Vitruvius is called, “Of those things on which architecture depends.” It deals with the fitness (ordinatio) and arrangement (dispositio), also proportion, uniformity, consistency and economy, and is divisible into three heads, ichnography, orthography and scenography, which considered together constitute design.

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The next chapter (III) is called, “Of the different branches (building, dialling, and mechanics) of architecture,” and the chapter following (IV) is named, “Of the choice of healthy situation,” which deals with the climatic conditions and elevation of the building site as well as with its aspects or orientation. Unlike in the *Mānasāra* the consideration of fogs, rains, heat and cold, which are peculiarities of the European countries, has been given prominence here. The explanations of aspects recommended are satisfactory. “A city on the sea-side,” it is stated, “exposed to the south or west will be insalubrious; for in summer mornings, a city thus placed would be hot, at noon it would be scorched. A city also with a western aspect would even at sunrise be warm, at noon hot, and in the evening of a burning temperature. Hence the constitution of the inhabitants of such places, from such continual and excessive changes of the air, would be much vitiated.” After citing opinions of physicians and others and supporting by illustrations, it is further stated “When, therefore, a city is built in a marshy situation near the sea coast, with a northern, north-eastern, or eastern aspect, on a marsh whose level is higher than the shore of the sea, the site is not altogether improper; for by means of sewers the waters may be discharged into the sea; and at those times, when violently agitated by storms, the sea swells and runs up the sewers, it mixes with the water of the marsh and prevents the generation of marshy insects; it also soon destroys such as are passing from the higher level, by the saltness of its water to which they are unaccustomed." The frequent mention of the sea-side, it is needless to point out, is due to the situation of the prominent Italian cities on the sea-shore, and of Rome, in particular, which was the object of special study to Vitruvius.

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Vitruvius has also elaborately treated the subject of dialling in as many as four chapters (Book IX, chapters, I, II, VIII, IX)

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In this matter of dialling, as in many others, Vitruvius of course differs in certain details from the *Mānasāra*. For instance, regarding the principles of dialling each of the twelve months is, in the *Mānasāra* (VII), divided into three parts of ten days each and the increase and decrease of shadow are calculated in these several parts of the different months. Vitruvius (Book IX, chapter VIII) on the other hand discusses " the principles of dialling and the increase and decrease of the *days*," not the *shadow* thereof, in the different months.

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In both these works, therefore, this introductory section comprises exactly eight chapters, which bear similar titles and deal with the same subjects practically in the same way.

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Town-planning is the next topic treated in both the works, and it covers exactly two chapters both in Vitruvius (Book I, chapters VI, VII), as well as in the *Mānasāra* (chapters IX, X).

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The *Mānasāra* describes the subject under two heads, *Grāma-lakshaṇa* and *Nagara-vidhāna*, and three categories, village, town and fort. Villages are divided into eight classes, called *daṇḍaka*, *sarvatobhadra*, *nandyāvarta*, *padmaka*, *svastika*, *prastara*, *kārmuka*, and *chaturmukha*; each of these, as the names indicate, represents a particular design and lay-out. Towns are also divided into eight classes: *rājadhānī*, *nagara*, *pura*, *nagarī*, *kheṭa*, *kharvaṭa*, *kubjaka* and *pattana*. These refer more to the situation and distribution of buildings than to their shapes or designs.

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Forts are first divided into eight classes: *śibira*, *vāhinīmukha*, *sthānīya*, *droṇaka*, *saṁviddha* or *vardhaka*, *kolaka*, *nigama*, and *skandhāvāra* According to their situation, they are further classified into mountain fort (*vana-durga*), water fort (*jala-durga*), chariot fort (*ratha-durga*), gods' fort (*deva-durga*), clay fort (*paṅka-durga*), and mixed fort (*miśra-durga*). The mountain fort is sub-divided into three classes, according as it is built on the top of the mountain, in the valley, or on the mountain slope.

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According to the *Mānasāra* there is, however, not much difference between a village, a town and a fort. The town is the extension of a village. And the fort is in many cases nothing more than a fortified town. There seems to be only this difference that a fort is chiefly meant for purposes of defence, while a village or town is mainly intended for habitation and commerce. But the village scheme seems, all the same, to have originated from the plan of the military camp.

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Each village is surrounded by a wall made of brick or stone. It is supported by ramparts. Beyond this wall there is a ditch, broad and deep enough to cause serious obstruction in the event of an attack on the village. There are generally four main gates at the middle of the four sides, and as many at the four corners. Inside the wall there is a large street running all round the village. Besides, there are two other large streets, each of which connects two opposite main gates. They intersect at the centre of the village, where a public temple or hall is generally built in which the villagers may meet. The village is thus divided into four main blocks, each of which is again subdivided into many blocks by streets which are always straight, and which run from one end to the other of a main block. The two main streets crossing at the centre have houses only on one side facing the street. The ground flour of these houses on the main streets consists of shops. The street which runs round the village also has houses only on one side. These houses are mainly public buildings, such as schools, colleges, libraries, guest-houses, liquor saloons. All other streets generally have residential buildings on both sides. The houses, high or low, are always uniform in make. The drains and sewers are made towards the slope of the village. Tanks and ponds are dug in all the inhabited parts and located in such quarters as can conveniently be reached by a large number of inhabitants. The temples of public worship, as well as the public commons, gardens, and parks are similarly located. People of the same caste or profession are generally housed in the same quarter. The habitation of the dead body burners (*chaṇḍālas*) as well as the places for cremation are located outside the village wall to the north-west in particular. The temples of fearful deities, such as Chāmuṇḍā, are also located outside the wall.

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A town may be situated from east to west or from north to south according to the position it occupies. There should be one to twelve large streets in a town. It should be built near a river or a mountain, and should have facilities for trade and commerce with foreigners. It should be furnished with walls, moats, ditches, gates, drains, parks, commons shops, exchanges, temples, guest-houses, colleges, etc. The king and his court usually reside in a town, and traders and forum are essential element in its population.

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Forts are also surrounded with strong walls and large and deep ditches. The wall is made of brick, stone, and similar lasting materials. It is at least eighteen feet in height and its thickness at the base is at least nine feet. The wall is provided with watch-towers.

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Fortified cities are specially honoured with the residences of the king, the princes, priests, ministers, and military officers. There are also humbler dwellings as well as courts of justice, arsenals, traders' booths, shops, work-houses for artisans, various assembly halls, dancing halls, liquor saloons, and gambling halls.

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According to Vitruvius (Book I, chapter V)—

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"When we are satisfied with the spot fixed on for the site of the city, as well as in respect of the goodness of the air, as of the abundant supply of provisions for the support of the population, the communications by good roads, and river or sea navigation for the transport of merchandise,¹ we should take into consideration the method of constructing the walls and the towers of the city. From the exterior face of the wall, towers must be projected from which an approaching enemy may be annoyed by weapons; from the ambrasures of those towns, right and left, an easy approach to the wall must be provided against; indeed they should be surrounded by uneven ground, and the roads leading to the gates should be winding and turned to the left from the gates. By this arrangement the right sides of the attacking troops, which are not covered by their shields, will be open to the weapons of the besieged."

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¹ Compare (Chāṇakya's saying)—**धनिकः श्रोत्रियो राजा नदी वैद्यश्च पञ्चमः।** **पञ्च यत्र न विद्यन्ते तत्र वासं न कारयेत् ॥**

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"The thickness of the walls should be sufficient for two armed men to pass each other with ease. The walls ought to be tied, from front to rear, with many pieces of charred olive wood; by which means the two faces, thus connected, will endure for ages . . . . ."

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"The distance between each tower should exceed an arrows's flight . . . . The walls will be intercepted by the lower parts of the towers where they occur, leaving an interval equal to the width of the tower, which space the tower will consequently occupy. The towers should be made either round or polygonal. A square tower is a bad form on account of its being easily fractured at the quoins by the battering ram; whereas the circular tower has this advantage, that when battered, the pieces of masonry whereof it is composed being cuneiform, cannot be driven in towards their centre without displacing the whole mass. Nothing tends more to the security of walls and towers, than backing them with walls or terraces; it counteracts the effects of rams as well as of undermining . . . . ."

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"In the construction of ramparts, very wide and deep trenches are to be first excavated, the bottom of which must be still further dug out for receiving the foundation of the wall. This must be of sufficient thickness to resist the pressure of the earth against it. Then, according to the space requisite for drawing up the cohorts in military order on the ramparts, another wall is to be built within the former, towards the city. The outer and inner walls are then to be connected by cross walls, disposed on the plan after the manner of the teeth of a comb or a saw, so as to divide the pressure of the filling-in earth into many and less forces, and thus prevent the walls from being thrust out.” The materials are stated to be “what are found on the spot, such as square stones, flint, rubble stones, burnt or unburnt bricks.” (Book I, chapter V).

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“The plan of the city should not be square, nor formed with acute angles, but polygonal, so that the motions of the enemy may be open to observation.” (Book I, chapter V).

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“The lanes and streets (of which no details are given) of the city should be set out, the choice of sites for the convenience and use of the state remains to be decided on; for sacred edifices, for the forum, and for other public buildings. If the place adjoin the sea, the forum should be seated close to the harbour; if inland, it should be in the centre of the town. The temples of the gods, protectors of the city, as those of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, should be on some eminence which commands a view of the greater part of the city. The temple of Mercury should be either in the forum or, as also the temple of Isis and Serapis, in the great public square: those of Apollo and Father Bacchus near the theatre. If there be neither amphitheatre nor gymnasium, the temple of Hercules should be near the circus The temple of Mars should be out of the city, in the neighbouring country, that of Venus near to the gate. According to the revelations of the Hetrurian Haruspices, the temples of Venus, Vulcan and Mars should be so placed that those of the first be not in the way of contaminating the matrons and youth with the influence of lust; that those of Vulcan be away from the city, which would consequently be freed from the danger of fire, the divinity presiding over that element being drawn away by the rites and sacrifices performing in his temple. The temple of Mars should be also out of the city, that no armed frays may disturb the peace of the citizens, and that this divinity may, moreover, be ready to preserve them from their enemies and the perils of war. The temple of Ceres shall be in a solitary spot out of the city, to which the public are not necessarily led but for the purpose of sacrificing to her This spot is to be reverenced, with religious awe and solemnity of demeanour, by those whose affairs lead them to visit it.” (Book I, chapter VII).

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It should be observed that in the *Mānasāra* eight distinctive plans of villages, and some twenty-five varieties of commercial cities and military forts have been described with all details. In town-planning, the Indian authority has recommended almost all the suitable designs, square, rectangular, and polygonal.

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But Vitruvius recommends only the polygonal. In the matter of the disposition of temples within the city wall and outside, the two authorities very strikingly correspond. In both the treatises the fear-inspiring deities are similarly located outside the city wall.

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The following seven chapters (XI—XVII) in the *Mānasāra* serve the purpose of a preamble to the subsequent chapters dealing with buildings.¹

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¹ Of these seven preliminary chapters the twelfth, on foundation (ga[r]bha-nyāsa), should have been in the place of the eleventh which treats of dimensions of buildings (*bhūmi-lamba*), as in Vitruvius's treatise.

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The first of these (XI) is named, Bhūmi-lamba or height of storey, in the *Mānasāra*. It is defined in the *Kāmikāgama* as the dimensions of the four sides. The contents of the chapter in the *Mānasāra* describe in detail the measurement of length, breadth and height of buildings of one to twelve storeys, assigned to persons of different ranks. The five forms, namely, square, rectangular, round, octagonal and oval, are prescribed for buildings of different classes, *jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa* and *ābhāsa*. These shapes are equally applicable to religious, military and residential buildings. A palace of five to twelve storeys is stated to suit the emperor or the universal monarch, highest in rank among the nine classes of kings. Residences of one to three storeys are assigned to the heir apparent and the chief feudatories, and so on.

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The title of the corresponding chapter of Vitruvius (Book VI, chapter VIII) is more significant. It is called, "Forms of houses suited to different ranks of persons." As in the *Mānasāra* buildings are divided exactly into five classes, though the criteria of classification are different. It is stated (Book III, chapter II) that "there are five species of temples, whose names are, Pycnostylos, that is, thick set with columns; Systylos, in which the columns are not so close; Diastylos, where they are still wider apart; Aræostylos, when placed more distant from each other......; Eustylos, when the intercolumnation......is of the best proportion." "The conditions of temples are distinguished," it is further stated (Book III, chapter I), "by their different forms. First, that known by the appellation In Antis, then the Prostylos, Peripteros, Pseudodipteros, Dipteros and Hypaethros." "Circular temples are constructed, of which some are Monopteral,......others are called Peripteral." (Book IV, chapter VIII).

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As regards the distribution of buildings it is stated (Book IV, chapter III) that "temples of the Doric order are erected to Minerva, Mars and Hercules; on account of whose valour, their temple should be of masculine proportions, and without delicate ornament. The character of the Corinthian order seems more appropriate to Venus, Flora, Proserpine, and Nymphs of Fountains: because its slenderness, elegance and richness, and its ornamental leaves surmounted by volutes seem to bear an analogy to their dispositions. A medium between these two is chosen for temples to Juno, Diana, Bacchus, and other similar deities, which should be of the Ionic order, tempered between the severity of the Doric and the slenderness and delicacy of the Corinthian order." (Book I, chapter II). As regards secular buildings, it is laid down that "the houses of bankers and receivers of the revenue may be more commodious and elegant than those of persons of middling condition in life. For advocates and men of literature, houses ought to be still handsomer and more spacious, to suit the reception of persons on consultations. But for nobles, who in bearing honours, and discharging the duties of the magistracy, must have much intercourse with the citizens, princely vestibules must be provided, lofty atria, and spacious peristylia, groves, and extensive walks, finished in a magnificent style...... ..If, therefore, houses are erected, thus adapted to the different classes of society .....there will be nothing to reprehend, for they will be suitable to their destination."....."I have thus described," concludes Vitruvius, "the proportions of town residences as I promised. I shall now proceed to those of houses in the country." (Book VI, chapter VIII).

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It is needless to point out that the subject matter of this chapter is virtually the same in both the authorities. The small differences are due to the local conditions and requirements of the two different countries.

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The next chapter (XII), called *Garbha-nyāsa* in the *Mānasāra*, deals with the foundations whereupon buildings, villages and tanks are built. The foundation is excavated in the ground best suited for a structure to the depth of a man's height with uplifted arms. It is laid down that the bottom of the pit thus excavated must be rocky or watery, in other words, it must reach rock or water. It implies that the best soil for receiving foundation, when it is not erected on water, is rock, gravel or closely pressed sandy earth.

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The depth of the foundation-cave is equal to the height of the basement. The four corners and sides, built of brick or stone, are equal. This cave is filled with water and ten kinds of earth; thus the earth from an ant-hill, a crab-hole, etc., is placed at the bottom, and closely pressed and hardened by means of wooden hammers shaped like the elephant's foot. Portions of certain plants are then deposited on the four sides, the root of the blue-lotus to the east, the root of the white-lotus to the south, and so on. Upon these are placed grains of ten kinds of cereals such as *phaseolus mungo*, *phaseolus radiatus*, *dolichos uniflorus*. *seasamum indicum*, and so on. The vault is built thereon, the details of which need hardly be repeated here. Upon such 'strong' foundations, the strength whereof varies according to the weights of the buildings above, various structures are constructed.

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“When we are satisfied,” says Vitruvius (Book I, chapter V), “with the spot fixed on for the site of the city……their foundations should be carried down to a solid bottom, if such can be found, and should be built thereon of such thickness as may be necessary for the proper support of that part of the wall which stands above the natural level of the ground. They should be of the soundest workmanship and materials, and of greater thickness than the walls above.” Importance of solid ground is emphasised and it is again stated (Book III, chapter III) “if solid ground can be come to, the foundations should go down to it and into it, according to the magnitude of the work, and the substruction be built up as solid as possible. Above the ground of the foundation, the wall should be one-half thicker than the column it is to receive, so that the lower parts which carry the greatest weight, may be stronger than the upper part……Nor must the mouldings of the bases of the columns project beyond the solid. Thus, also, should be regulated the thickness of all walls above ground. The intervals between the foundations brought up under the columns, should be either rammed down hard, or arched, so as to prevent the foundation piers from swerving. If solid ground cannot be come to, and the ground be loose or marshy, the place must be excavated, cleared, and either elder olive, or oak piles, previously charred, must be driven with a machine, as close to each other as possible, and the intervals between the piles, filled with charcoal. The heaviest foundations may be laid on such a base”

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These details are also strikingly similar in both the authorities; and this similarity seems to be due to some thing more than mere coincidence.

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The next four chapters (XIII—XVI) in the *Mānasāra* deal with the column and its different parts, the pedestal, base, shaft and entablature, and their various mouldings. Vitruvius also treats the subject in exactly four chapters (Book III, chapter III, Book IV, chapters I—III). But the titles of the chapters are a little different; they are named in the *Manasara*, *upapīṭha* or pedestal (XIII), *adhishṭhāna* or base (XIV), *stambha* or shaft (XV), and *prastara* or entablature (XVI); and Vitruvius calls them, ‘columns and their ornaments’ (Book III, chapter III), ‘origin of the three sorts of columns and the Corinthian capital’ (Book IV, chapter I), ‘ornaments of columns’ (ibid, chapter II), and ‘Doric proportions’ (ibid, chapter III).

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‘Vitruvius, in the Doric, Corinthian, and Tuscan orders, makes no mention of pedestals, and in the Ionic order he seems to consider them rather as a necessary part in the construction of a temple than as belonging to the order itself’ (cf. Book V, chapter VII). In the *Mānasāra* twelve kinds of pedestals are described with detailed measurements of the various mouldings of each pedestal. A comparison of these with similar details of pedestals, quoted in full in the writer's Dictionary from European authorities other than Vitruvius, makes it clear that the Indian pedestals surpass the Græco-Roman pedestals in variety, beauty of proportion and the richness of ornaments.

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As regards the base also there is in the *Mānasāra* a larger variety of types, sixty-four in number, described in detail with their mouldings and ornaments. A comparison of the details gathered together in the writer's Dictionary will show that the Indian bases and pedestals are made more systematically and afford a greater variety of proportions than those of the Græco-Roman orders. In European orders the forms and dimensions of both base and pedestal are fixed by invariable rules with respect to the orders in which they are employed, while in the Indian orders the choice is left to the option of the architects.

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There are, however, more similarities between the Indian and the Græco-Roman entablatures, consisting of four parts, the capital, architrave, frieze and cornice. "But the massiveness of the Indian entablature offers a striking contrast to the lightness of the Grecian." This is shewn by a comparison of details, given in the writer's Dictionary, of eight kinds of Indian and some five kinds of Græco-Roman entablatures.

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But the point to be clear about is whether or not there is some fundamental resemblance between the Indian and the Græco-Roman column as a whole. This is a crucial point; because the column in a building is stated by authorities to be the regulator of the whole composition; and it is the one feature of the ancient architecture, which 'illustrates its rise and progress as well as its perfection and weakness.'

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Like the five Græco-Roman orders, called Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite, columns in ancient India were also divided into five classes or orders.

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In the *Mānasāra* they are called *Brahma-kānta*, *Vishṇu-kānta*, *Rudra-kānta*, *Śiva-kānta*, and *Skanda-kānta*. These divisions are based on the general shapes. With respect to dimensions and ornaments they are called *Chitra-karṇa*, *Padma-kānta*, *Chitra-skambha*, *Pālikā-stambha*, and *Kumbha-stambha*.

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In the *Matsya-Purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, and the *Kiraṇa-tantra* they are called *Ruchaka*, *Vajra*, *Dvi-vajra*, *Pralīnaka*, and *Vṛitta*. In he *Suprabhedāgama* the names of the five orders are *Śrī-kara*, *Chandra-kānta*, *Saumukhya*, *Priya-darśana*, and *Śubhaṅkarī*. This last one is expressly stated to be the Indian composite order, being a compound (miśrita) of *Saumukhya* and *Priyadarśana*, exactly like the Græco-Roman Composite order which is a compound of Corinthian and Ionic.¹

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¹ For references see page 125 and the foot notes, and the writer's Dictionary under stambha.

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Between the European and the Indian columns, there is a point of difference. In the Græco-Roman orders, the names of the five orders do not vary while in India the names of the five orders have varied in various treatises referred to above. It is true, all the same, that the criteria of divisions are essentially the same in all these authorities. The variation of the names of the five orders can perhaps be explained. The names of the Græco-Roman orders, according to Vitruvius and other European authorities referred to in the Encyclopædia of Architecture by Gwilt, are geographical¹.

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¹ See page 126, note 1. The contents of the four following paras are referred to in more detail elsewhere in this book (p. 125 f); their repetition here is felt unavoidably necessary.

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In India, on the other hand, the names of the orders were based on the shapes of the columns. And as the Indians are comparatively more religious and sentimental than critical in temperament and imagination, they chose mythological and poetical names according to the spirit of the times, when these various works were composed. Thus in the *Mānasāra* we see the orders bearing the names of mythological deities, Brahmā, Vishṇu, Rudra, Śiva and Skanda; as well as the poetical names like *Chitra-karṇa* (variegated ear), *Chitra-skambha* (variegated capital), *Padma-kānta* (graceful like lotus), *Kumbha-stambha* (of jug-shaped capital), and *Pālikā-stambha* (shaped like a measuring pot). In the *Āgama*, the names are more poetical: *Śrīkara* (beautifying), *Chandra-kānta* (graceful like the moon), *Saumukhya* (of a charming face), and *Śubhāṅkarī* (auspicious). In the *Purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, and the *Kiraṇa-tantra*, the names combine beauty and utility—*Ruchaka* (pleasing), *Vṛitta* (round and dignified), *Vajra* (beautiful and solid like the club), *Dvi vajra* (doubly so), and *Pralīnaka* (firmly attached).

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