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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v4: Volume 4

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v4

Language
English

Contents

Volume 4

Front matter

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Architecture of

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Manasara *Exclusively Distributed by* ***Munshiram Manoharlal*** ***Publishers Pvt. Ltd.*** 54 RANI JHANSI ROAD, NEW DELHI-110055, INDIA.

Architecture of Mānasāra

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Translated from Original Sanskrit

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*by* Prasanna Kumar Acharya

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Manasara Series : Vol. IV

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(Sa 7V)/(Man/Ach)

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ORIENTAL REPRINT

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*Oriental Books Reprint Corporation* *54 Rani Jhansi Road, New Delhi-110055*

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*Second edition* 1980 ORIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN 1934 BY OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, LONDON

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PUBLISHED BY ORIENTAL BOOKS REPRINT CORPORATION, 54 RANI JHANSI ROAD, NEW DELHI 110055 AND PRINTED BY GAYATRI OFFSET PRESS, A-76 DAYANAND COLONY, LAJPAT NAGAR, NEW DELHI 110024 "What the learned world demand of us in India is to be quite certain of our data, to place the monumental record before them exactly as it now exists, and to interpret it faithfully and literally."

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| | | Pages |
| Preface— | | |
| History of publication | .. .. .. .. | xiii–xv |
| Preparation of the plates | .. .. .. .. | xv–xviii |
| Acknowledgments | .. .. .. .. | xix–xxi |
| Method of translation | .. .. .. .. | xxi–xxiv |
| General survey .. | .. .. .. .. | xxiv–xlvi |
| Relation with other works | .. .. .. .. | xlvi–lvi |
| Age of compilation | .. .. .. .. | lvi–lix |
| Translation— | | |
| Chapter I—The Contents | .. .. | 1–3 |
| Chapter II—The Qualifications of Architects and the System of Measurement | .. .. | 5–9 |
| Chapter III—The Classification of Architecture | .. | 11–12 |
| Chapter IV—The Selection of Site .. | .. | 13–16 |
| Chapter V—The Examination of Soil | .. | 17–21 |
| Chapter VI—Erection of Gnomons (for Orientation of Buildings) and Pegs (for Foundation) | .. | 23–32 |
| Chapter VII—The Site Plans | .. .. | 33–57 |
| Chapter VIII—The Sacrificial Offerings | .. .. | 59–62 |
| Chapter IX—The Village | .. .. .. | 63–92 |
| Chapter X—The Towns and Forts .. | .. .. | 93–98 |
| Chapter XI—The Dimensions of Buildings | .. .. | 99–107 |
| Chapter XII—The Foundation | .. .. | 109–121 |
| Chapter XIII—The Pedestals of Columns | .. .. | 123–130 |
| Chapter XIV—The Bases of Columns .. | .. .. | 131–150 |
| Chapter XV—The Columns | .. .. | 151–174 |
| Chapter XVI—The Entablatures and Roofs | .. .. | 175–185 |
| Chapter XVII—Joinery .. .. | .. .. | 187–198 |
| Chapter XVIII—The General Features of Edifices .. | .. | 199–221 |
| Chapter XIX—The One-storeyed Buildings | .. .. | 222–237 |
| Chapter XX—The Two-storeyed Buildings | .. .. | 238–244 |
| Chapter XXI—The Three-storeyed Buildings | .. .. | 245–249 |

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| | | | *Pages* |
| Chapter | XXII—The Four-storeyed Buildings .. | .. | 250–254 |
| Chapter | XXIII—The Five-storeyed Buildings .. | .. | 255–257 |
| Chapter | XXIV—The Six-storeyed Buildings .. | .. | 258–260 |
| Chapter | XXV—The Seven-storeyed Buildings | .. | 261–263 |
| Chapter | XXVI—The Eight-storeyed Buildings .. | .. | 264–267 |
| Chapter | XXVII—The Nine-storeyed Buildings .. | .. | 268–270 |
| Chapter | XXVIII—The Ten-storeyed Buildings .. | .. | 271–273 |
| Chapter | XXIX—The Eleven-storeyed Buildings | .. | 274–276 |
| Chapter | XXX—The Twelve-storeyed Buildings | .. | 277–286 |
| Chapter | XXXI—The Courts .. .. | .. | 287–293 |
| Chapter | XXXII—The Temples of Attendant Deities | .. | 294–304 |
| Chapter | XXXIII—The Gate-houses and the Windows | .. | 305–337 |
| Chapter | XXXIV—The Pavilions .. .. | .. | 338–372 |
| Chapter | XXXV—The Storeyed Mansions .. | .. | 373–397 |
| Chapter | XXXVI—The Situation and Measurement of Dwelling-Houses .. .. | .. | 398–403 |
| Chapter | XXXVII—The Opening of the Dwelling-House | .. | 404–409 |
| Chapter | XXXVIII—The Doorways .. .. | .. | 410–413 |
| Chapter | XXXIX—The Measurement of Doors .. | .. | 414–422 |
| Chapter | XL—The Royal Palaces .. .. | .. | 423–431 |
| Chapter | XLI—The Royal Entourage .. .. | .. | 432–435 |
| Chapter | XLII—The Royal Orders and Ensignia | .. | 436–441 |
| Chapter | XLIII—The Cars and Chariots .. | .. | 442–450 |
| Chapter | XLIV—The Couches, Bedsteads, and Swings | .. | 451–456 |
| Chapter | XLV—The Thrones .. .. | .. | 457–469 |
| Chapter | XLVI—The Arches .. .. | .. | 470–474 |
| Chapter | XLVII—The Central Theatre .. .. | .. | 475–477 |
| Chapter | XLVIII—The Ornamental Tree .. | .. | 478–482 |
| Chapter | XLIX—The Crowns .. .. | .. | 483–496 |
| Chapter | L—The Personal Ornaments and House Furniture .. .. .. | .. | 497–515 |
| Chapter | LI—The Triad .. .. .. | .. | 516–522 |
| Chapter | LII—The Phalli .. .. .. | .. | 523–543 |
| Chapter | LIII—The Altars .. .. .. | .. | 544–547 |
| Chapter | LIV—The Female Deities .. .. | .. | 548–557 |

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| | | | | | *Pages* |
| Chapter | LV—The Jain Images | .. | .. | .. | 558–564 |
| Chapter | LVI—The Buddhist Images | .. | .. | .. | 565–566 |
| Chapter | LVII—The Images of the Sages | .. | .. | .. | 567–571 |
| Chapter | LVIII—The Images of the Mythical Beings | .. | .. | .. | 572–573 |
| Chapter | LIX—The Images of the Devotees | .. | .. | .. | 574–580 |
| Chapter | LX—The Goose | .. | .. | .. | 581–583 |
| Chapter | LXI—The Garuḍa Image | .. | .. | .. | 584–592 |
| Chapter | LXII—The Bull | .. | .. | .. | 593–596 |
| Chapter | LXIII—The Lion | .. | .. | .. | 597–599 |
| Chapter | LXIV—The Comparative Measures of Images | .. | .. | .. | 600–605 |
| Chapter | LXV—The Largest Ten *tāla* Measures | .. | .. | .. | 606–617 |
| Chapter | LXVI—The Intermediate Ten *tāla* Measures | .. | .. | .. | 618–623 |
| Chapter | LXVII—The Measures along the Plumb Lines | .. | .. | .. | 624–632 |
| Chapter | LXVIII—The Casting of Idols in Wax | .. | .. | .. | 633–636 |
| Chapter | LXIX—The Penalties for Defective Construction | .. | .. | .. | 637–640 |
| Chapter | LXX—The Chiselling of the Eye | .. | .. | .. | 641–647 |
| Index | .. | .. | .. | .. | 649–793 |
| Opinions | and Reviews | .. | .. | .. | 1A–11A |

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*(This page is blank except for a stray mark/line at the bottom right).*

History of Publication

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Architecture of Mānasāra is an English version of a Sanskrit text of that name edited, with critical notes, for the first time by the writer. The text is based on all the eleven available manuscripts gathered together by the then Secretary of State for India, Sir Austin Chamberlain, for the use of the writer. Except one, all other manuscripts are fragmentary and none contains any commentary, drawings, diagrams or sketches. The buildings of the time, religious, military, or residential, do not appear to exist in their entirety for a ready reference. In 1838 Ram Raz based his *Essay on Architecture of the Hindus* on a few chapters of a single fragmentary manuscript. In recent years several other scholars have quoted extracts from one or other of the manuscripts, but no one, including Ram Raz, attempted the translation of any passage. A few Sanskrit texts of architecture have also been printed in the recent years, but none has been translated into English or elucidated in any other language, Indian or European.

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It was the great Director General of Archaeology, Sir John Marshall, who conceived the idea, and advised Lord Pentland, the then Governor of Madras, to get a reliable version of the standard work on Indian architecture scientifically edited and properly elucidated, together with sketches, diagrams, and measured drawings, when he (Sir John Marshall) came to know, through Dr. F. W. Thomas, then Librarian of the India Office, London, that I had been working for some time as a Government of India State scholar on the subject in consultation with Mr. E. B. Havell and under the guidance of Dr. L. D. Barnett of the British Museum, Dr. Thomas himself, and Dr. J. Ph. Vogel of Leyden. But the unfortunate coincidence of His Excellency's retirement and Sir John's absence from India at the time of my arrival in Madras upset the preliminary arrangement made for the publication from Madras. On my appointment to the Indian Educational Service in the United Provinces, Sir Claude F. de la Fosse, the then Director of Public Instruction, and the first Vice-Chancellor of the reconstructed Allahabad University, took up the matter with scholarly interest and induced the great educationist Governor, Sir Harcourt Butler, to sanction the publication on behalf of the United Provinces Government, through the Oxford University Press.

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The work of seventeen years—which Professor E. J. Rapson of Cambridge University correctly predicted to be a life's undertaking—has thus reached its present destination. It is, however, not the end, but the beginning, of a new line of Indology which, it may perhaps be hoped, is likely to prove not merely of cultural and historical interest, but possibly of some practical benefit to the country and to the nation. Our architectural policy of the past few hundred years, based as it has been on foreign imitation, and in an entirely different climate and soil, has not proved quite successful in regard to temples and humble dwelling-houses, if not in regard to public edifices also. That the sole object of a work like the *Mānasāra* was primarily and ultimately practical in giving general as well as special guidance to the builders of that time, as also of the future generations, will be clear even to the casual reader of the book. Whether or not the extant structures which have been restored to the nation by the activity of the Archaeological Department, or which having defied the effect of time and weather, are yet standing almost in their original grandeur, will indicate the application of the rules and regulations, or at least the methods and principles laid down in the *Mānasāra*, remains to be proved. If, after making allowance for existing conditions and requirements, the methods and principles, as well as the rules and regulations laid down in the standard treatise, are found to be scientifically sound and suitable for modern buildings, big and small, they may be experimented with, and the solution of the problems relating to its textual imperfection and historical uncertainty may be left to the care of those whose mission is the elucidation of the past culture.

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The preliminary accounts of the subject published in the writer's *Dictionary of Hindu Architecture* and *Indian Architecture according* to *Mānasāra Śilpa-śāstra* have awakened a world-wide interest as will be seen from the extracts from reviews and opinions appended at the end of the present volume. This has emboldened me to publish as complete a record as is at present practicable. ‘But the reader must understand that these volumes do not claim to be other than provisional. In the nature of things it could not be otherwise. These volumes may open up a new line of Indian achievement and may lead to a task which is just beginning. Fresh materials, facts, and figures are likely to come to light. In such conditions any approach to finality is out of the question.’

Preparation of the Plates

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Owing to the defective nature of the text, which has been shown elsewhere, one can hardly be perfectly sure of the interpretation. An elaborate effort, involving great expenditure of time, money, and convenience, was made to get into contact with the so-called traditional builders in the south, in the Orissan countries, in the Indian States of Rajputana, Central India, Gujarat, Bombay, in the Frontier Provinces, and in the Hill States, in company with trained and experienced engineers, architects, and interpreters, in the vain hope of getting some light from *salats*. These *salats* are stated to build in accordance with an ancient tradition which, they claim, to have inherited orally in some cases, but mostly from some fragmentary manuscripts that they have frequently failed to interpret.

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Another effort, extending over many years and made through many agencies, both official and non-official, to engage the services, against tempting payment, of teachers or advanced students of the few schools of arts and architecture in the Indian States and elsewhere, mostly under the Government, ended also in failure.

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In these circumstances, when it was about to be finally decided to publish this first edition without any illustrations, Mr. H. Hargreaves, the then Director General of Archaeology, in camp at Sanchi, while taking rest in the evening, possibly in a meditative mood concerning ancient monuments, was moved by my tale which had been once before related to him at his palatial office at New Delhi. He very definitely disagreed with my intention of bringing out such a volume without illustrations, and readily accepted my request to place at my disposal the services of Mr. S. C. Mukherji, B.A., G.D.ARC., A.I.I.A., then a research scholar of the Archaeological Department, whose name had been mentioned to me by his (Mr. Hargreaves’) personal assistant, Mr. B. T. Mazumdar, and who was subsequently recommended by Mr. R. L. Bansal, a very enthusiastic engineer of the Public Works Department. As an experienced officer of his exalted position, Mr. Hargreaves stipulated, however, that Mr. Mukherji’s services might be available only for a limited period and that I must be present while Mr. Mukherji would be working at his (Mr. Hargreaves’) office at Simla, obviously to get the fullest advantage of a joint effort of his whole department and my own.

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Mr. Mukherji himself undertook the task with the greatest possible enthusiasm. He had graduated with Sanskrit and ancient history and received training in the method and principle of Græco-Roman and modern architecture. As a part of his training, he had been taken under proper guidance round Nasik, Madura, and other places where he had to examine and sketch ancient Hindu and Muhammadan buildings. He came to know of the *Mānasāra* at the Agra branch of the Archaeological Department, wherefrom Mr. R. L. Bansal used to take books in connexion with the measured drawings he had been making to illustrate the preliminary chapters of the *Mānasāra*. Thus Mr. Mukherji eagerly undertook the task when Mr. Bansal could no longer continue with it.

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Mr. Bansal, after his training at Roorkee Engineering College, had been in charge of roads and buildings for several years before he started to make observations, in consultation with Dr. Gorakh Prasad, D.SC., the Reader in Astronomy at Allahabad University, on the astronomical calculation of the *Mānasāra* in connexion with the dialling and orientation of buildings. Mr. Bansal also accompanied me in my tour over Rajputana, including Pushkar, Mount Abu, and Jaipur, where he studied and made copies and sketches of old structures in order to ascertain the exact nature of the mouldings that are frequently referred to in the *Mānasāra*. Mr. Bansal's drafts on these objects have been accepted without much alteration and have been finally drawn by Mr. Mukherji. I shall ever remain grateful to Mr. Bansal and Dr. Gorakh Prasad for their very valuable assistance in doing foundation work for the architectural drawings.

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For the first three months, Mr. Mukherji and myself worked together at the rate of nearly sixteen hours a day. As a result of this hard work Mr. Mukherji was able to make drafts of the more important chapters, including the one dealing with pillars and columns. The first fruit of his labour apparently satisfied Mr. Hargreaves, who took round Mr. Mukherji's studio big officials, including Sir Frank Noyce, the then Educational Secretary, Mr. A. H. Mackenzie, then Commissioner of Education, and others, in order to explain to them the revelation of the *Mānasāra*. Mr. Mukherji has worked on these drawings for over two years and has earned my everlasting gratitude. Words fail me to express my indebtedness to Mr. Hargreaves and the Archaeological Department, without whose assistance these drawings could not have been prepared.

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Thus it can be expected that all preliminary precautions that have been taken at every stage in the execution of the architectural drawings may ensure a faithful representation in lines of what *Mānasāra* expressed in words. The measured drawings, one hundred and thirty-five in number, are appended as illustrations but represent only a fraction of those architectural objects that are actually described in detail. In any event these drawings will supply the much needed materials to determine whether the extant monuments of Hindu architecture were based on the methods and principles governing the details of the village scheme, town-planning, forts and fortresses, and temples, military buildings, gorgeous palaces and humble residential dwellings of various sizes and measures described in the *Mānasāra*.

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The sculptural drawings in line and in colours could not be given the same advantage of joint deliberation, mutual consultation, and final revision. Despite the fact that there is an ever-growing class of artists all over India, most of those of local renown and teachers of recognized schools of arts in Bombay, Baroda, Delhi, Lahore, Lucknow, Allahabad, Ajmer, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Calcutta, Shillong, Cuttack, Puri, Madras, and Bangalore refused, after due deliberation, to undertake the work; and the few artists who agreed, on their own terms, gave up the task after trials lasting from two to three months. At last Professor M. H. Krishna, M.A., D.LITT., Director of Archaeology, Mysore State, took me to several local artists and undertook to select one for me. But after protracted negotiations lasting over eight months he gave up in disgust the prospect of finding a reliable person for the purpose. declaring that "our old-type artists are so old-worldly in their business habits." But I am thankful to him for having brought me in contact with Śilpa Siddhanti Śivayogi Śrī Siddalingaswamy, the head of the Jagadguru Nāgalingaswamy monastery, who claims to be "a Śilpin by heredity," to have "studied Śilpa, painting, etc., at the feet of Guru" and to have been "training for a quarter of a century a number of youths in the art of sculpture, painting, and kindred subjects according to Sāstric canons." He undertook, after an experiment lasting for nearly a year, to supply twenty-two drawings on which another six months were spent. I believe that he has given the best of his inherited skill, ripe experience, and spiritual study of the subject to these sculptural drawings.

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In the absence of the expected assistance and personal supervision of Dr. Krishna, the elucidation of the details had to be carried out in lengthy, and, at times, trying correspondence. I shall, however, remain grateful to Silpa Siddhanti Śivayogi Sri Siddalingaswamy who, among all the artists I had approached, had the courage and patience of partly illustrating the sculptural section of the Encyclopædia of Hindu Arts, and hopes to execute the remaining sculptural drawings, numbering some three hundred, if his present performance proves successful and if the *Mānasāra* itself receives the practical recognition it deserves.

Acknowledgments

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The publication of these volumes has been made possible through the generosity of the Secretary of State for India, the Government of India, and the Government of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, to whom I can only express inadequately my most respectful thanks. To Professor F. W. Thomas, C.I.E., M.A., PH.D. the then Librarian of India Office, London, I owe most of the materials and general guidance at the early stage of my undertaking : words fail me to express my indebtedness to him.

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In addition to the assistance already acknowledged, my gratitude is due to Rai Bahadur Dayaram Sahni, M.A., the present Director General of Archaeology, for his scholarly interest in the work and the friendly appreciation for the past ten years, and to Mr. K. N. Dikshit, M.A., the then Deputy Director General of Archaeology, who used to come to my hotel and spent hours in discussing various obstinate passages which baffled repeated attempts at their interpretation, and who also very generously reviewed the earlier volumes. For his scholarly sympathy and generous appreciation my grateful acknowledgment is due to Mr. H. R. Harrop, M.A., I.E.S., the Deputy Director of Public Instruction. His interest increased through his official correspondence during the past ten years concerning the publication with the Oxford University Press, who, incidentally, have been anxious since the first year of their publication to bring out a second edition of my *Dictionary* and *Indian Architecture*.

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For his very encouraging and generous review of the earlier volumes and for affording me all facilities to undertake extensive tours year after year, I shall ever remain grateful to one of the greatest orientialists, Mahamahopadhyaya Pandit Ganganath Jha, M.A., D.LITT., LL.D., until recently Vice-Chancellor of Allahabad University. To my esteemed colleague, Professor C. D. Thompson, M.A., the head of our Economics Department, I am grateful for many linguistic and textual improvements of the architectural section, the penultimate proof of which he revised with great interest. I am grateful to another amateur archaeologist, Mr. P. C. Barat, B.A., for comparing some proofs and suggesting certain improvements; and to Messrs. S. C. Mukherji and N. K. Dasgupta, M.A., B.L., for their valuable assistance in arranging and comparing the index slips, which I prepared myself. My gratitude is due to my colleagues of the Sanskrit Department, Dr. B. R. Saksena, M.A., D.LITT., Dr. Umesh Misra, M.A., D.LITT., Pandit K. Chattopadhyaya, M.A., and Pandit Raghubar Mithulal Shastri, M.A., M.O.L., for their scholarly interest, friendly sympathy, encouraging appreciation, and various assistance from time to time. Not only for general encouragement, but also for valuable suggestions and constructive criticism of the earlier volumes, I am grateful to the reviewers whose opinions are quoted at the end of this volume.

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Like many other people, my gratitude is due to Shrimant Bala Shahib Pant Pratinidhi, B.A., the renowned Ruler of Oundh who has done so much to revive our ancient culture and to unfold our artistic treasures. He has taken a very great interest in the publication of the *Mānasāra* and intends to build a house according to the direction of this standard *Śilpa-śāstra*.

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Last, but not least, I am pleased to acknowledge my grateful thanks to Mr. D. W. Crighton and his staff for their ever sympathetic and kind treatment towards me and for their patient and careful handling which was necessary in bringing out a volume like this. For his personal interest in the work and for many useful suggestions and improvements I am further indebted to Mr. Crighton, who readily took the trouble of revising this Preface.

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But for a very special reason it would be rather unusual to give publicity to and acknowledge with grateful recollection the indirect assistance, indispensable as it has been, received from one's own people. Miss Śakti Chatterjee, who was educated in a convent school for girls at Shillong, though connected with Dr. Rabindranath Tagore, had acquired no artistic skill when she became my wife in 1923. Since our marriage, however, the traditional love of the Tagore family for arts, which may have been latent in her, came to help me immensely. She suddenly developed an enthusiasm for the completion of these volumes and contented herself with a sort of desertion during all these long years because I had almost wedded myself to the *Mānasāra* and had to give to this task all the attention and time, even during Sundays and long vacations, which could be spared from the strenuous duties of the Professor of a University (newly reconstructed into a residential institution for the first time in India), of the Head of a department of classics in these days of science, and the Dean of a Faculty including some thousand students and some hundred teachers of all ranks and of all temperaments. But for her enthusiasm these volumes, comprising some three thousand pages of crown quarto size, could not have been published in another ten years’ time, for my own patience and temper, as well as my eyesight, were put to a severe trial in doing everything single-handed in one stretch, without taking any leave or holiday since the work was begun in 1914.

Method of Translation

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None knows more clearly than myself what imperfections are to be found in this first attempt at translating such an imperfect text on such highly technical subjects. I owe it, therefore, to the reader to indicate the general method I have closely followed. In the translation of the Text I have endeavoured to adhere as closely as possible to the language of the original. It has consistently been my aim to reproduce the bare meaning of the *Mānasāra*, and to avoid, as far as can be done, taking liberties with the language in order to bring out meanings other than what the most obvious and ordinary natural interpretation would suggest. Notwithstanding this, however, I found myself obliged in some cases to deviate from a strictly literal treatment. The reason for this was mainly the very peculiar nature of the Text and its inconsistent construction, following, as it seemingly does, no rules of grammar. Under such circumstances, there being no standard to which the language can be made to conform, a particular passage may naturally lend itself to wide speculation and diverse conjectures. The method I have followed in such cases has been to avoid the tendency towards speculation and broad construction, and to attempt a more or less free rendering only so far as it was obviously necessary, or there was at least a high degree of probability to warrant it. There were some passages, for example, which in spite of the clear discrepancies in grammar did not fail to show what was meant. There were others which presented greater difficulty and it was only after a careful comparison of these, with other parts of the Text, and a reference to the passages in other works such as the *Āgamas*, *Purāṇas*, and a number of manuscripts on the *Śilpa-śāstra* dealing with similar matters of better construction, and easier interpretation, that I was enabled to explain their sense.

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Besides the grammatical confusion, there was another great difficulty I was faced with owing to the technical nature of the subject. There are various words used in a strictly technical sense, differing entirely from their derivative literal renderings. It is from the very nature of these an extremely difficult task to trace the exact significance of forgotten ancient technical expressions. I have attempted to some extent to apportion to these technical terms certain fixed meanings although there appears to be an apparent disagreement on particular occasions. Below are instanced a few of such difficulties:

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(1) The words Tāra, Vistāra, and Viśāla seem, generally speaking, to have been used to signify length, breadth, and width, and I have rendered them as a rule accordingly. Occasionally, however, passages are met with in which such a distinction between the words is not apparent. Both Tāra and Viśāla are sometimes used in the sense of Vistāra or breadth.

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(2) The words Aṁśa, Mātra, and Aṅgula have been used indiscriminately to signify either one of any number of equal parts into which the length or height of a particular object is divided, or a fixed standard of measurement either absolute or relative.

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It is, however, laid down in the Text that the Aṅgula measurement is of four kinds—

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(*a*) the Bera Aṅgula is stated to be the measurement by the finger-breadth of the idol;
(*b*) the Deha Labdha Aṅgula is nothing but one of the equal parts into which the length or height of the idol is divided;

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(c) the Mātra or Mātrāṅgula means the finger-breadth of the master or architect but it is also used as one of the equal parts into which the height of the master or a structure is divided; and
(d) the Mānāṅgula is the Aṅgula proper; this is the standard measurement equal to about three-fourths of an inch. But in use there appears to be no more distinction made between these different kinds of Aṅgula than between the words Aṁśa, Mātra, and Aṅgula themselves.

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(3) The names of the different mouldings or the different parts of a structure are not clearly distinguished. The Text for example gives the following sets of words as synonyms:

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Kapota—Prastara, Mañcha, Prachchhādana, Gopāna, Vitāna, Valabhi, Mattavāraṇa, Vidhāna and Lupā.

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Mañcha—Prati, Prastara, Prativājana, Anvanta, Avasāna, Vidhāna, and Vidhānaka.

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Vājana—Kshepaṇa, Vetra, Paṭṭa, Uttara, Paṭṭikā, Kampa, Dṛikka, Maṇḍa, Antarita, etc.

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Tulādaṇḍa—Jayanti, Phalakā, Kapota, Vaktra-hasta, Lupā, Gopānaka, Chandra, etc.

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Jaṅghā—Charaṇa, Stali, Stambha, Aṅghri, Sthāṇu, Sthūṇa, Pāda, Kampa, Araṇi, Bhāraka, and Dhāraṇa.

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But it appears very clear from the way these different words are used, that there is a distinction between them. I have attempted to explain elaborately most of these in the *Dictionary*.

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In a few cases of technical expressions which are now obsolete and the exact significance of which is often doubtful or conjectural I could not find suitable terms and phraseology of the science to translate them. The literal meanings of the words would convey no sense at all. If we have to coin words for these, it would be necessary to have the assistance of the artist on the one hand, of the philologist on the other, and a reference to existing buildings. For the present I have thought it better to quote the original expressions either untranslated altogether, or with literal meanings of them in bracket.

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I have thus endeavoured to follow the general lines adopted by Dr. Bühler in translating the *Manu-samhitā*. But in place of Bühler's citation of different commentaries on the *Manu-samhitā* I have referred to the numerous illustrative passages, not from commentaries on the *Mānasāra*, of which there are none, but from other *Silpa-śāstra*, inscriptions, *Āgamas*, *Purāṇas*, and other general literature which have been gathered together in my *Dictionary*. It was, however, not possible to quote all these numerous references in the footnotes.

General Survey

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So far as the contents of the *Mānasāra* are concerned it will be a mere repetition to give a detailed summary, as that has once been separately published from Leiden (1917) and has also been included in the writer's *Indian Architecture* (1927). It will be enough to refer to the main points. It will be noticed that of the seventy chapters the first eight are introductory, the next forty-two deal with architectural matters, and the last twenty-one are devoted to sculpture.

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It opens, following the usual custom, with a prayer to the Creator Brahmā and touches upon the origin and development of the science of Architecture, from Śiva, Brahmā, and Vishṇu, through Indra, Bṛihaspati, and Nārada, to the class of seers (*ṛishi*) called Mānasāra, and concludes the introduction with a list of the chapters. Of the preliminary matters, two distinct subjects, namely, the system of measurement and the qualifications of an architect, are dealt with next (Chapter II). *Aṅgula* (finger's breadth), equivalent to three-fourths of an inch, is the unit of architectural measures. The *tāla* (span between the tips of fully stretched thumb and middle finger) is the unit of sculptural measure, which is regulated by the length of the face, inclusive of head, of an image. This latter system of measure is dealt with in several chapters of the sculptural section.

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Architects are divided into four classes. Together they form the guild of architects, each an expert in his own department but possessing a general knowledge of the science of architecture as a whole.

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They consist of the chief architect (*Sthapati*), the designer or draftsman (*Sūtragrāhin*), the painter (*Vardhaki*), and the carpenter or joiner (*Sūtradhāra*). Different sets of qualifications are prescribed for each class, the gist of which may be expressed in the words of the Roman architect Vitruvius : ‘an architect should be ingenious, and apt in the acquisition of knowledge; he should be a good writer, a skilful draftsman, versed in geometry and optics, expert at figures, acquainted with history, informed on the principles of natural and moral philosophy, somewhat of a musician, not ignorant of the sciences of law and physic, nor of the motions, laws, and relations to each other, of the heavenly bodies.’ He must possess a wide outlook, bold temperament and self-control, and be endowed with all qualifications of a supreme managing director. He must be free from disease or disability and from the seven vices, like gambling, addiction to women, etc.

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The next chapter (III) called *Vāstu-prakaraṇa* defines the different branches of architecture, which are divided into four classes, namely, the ground, buildings, conveyances, and couches. The two following chapters (IV, V) on examination of soil and selection of site deal with the contour, colour, odour, features, taste and touch, elevation of the ground, and growth thereon of certain plants, trees, grasses, whereupon a village, town, fort, palace, temple, or dwelling house is to be built. Chapter VI deals with the orientation of buildings and recommends that a residential building should preferably face the east or the north-east, and never the south-east. Incidentally the principles, mechanics, and details of dialling are exhaustively described. The site-plans are next described (Chapter VII); thirty-two schemes are distinguished, each of which is divided into squares of various numbers. Following the usual custom, this preliminary section concludes with a chapter (VIII) on offerings to the presiding deities of the site.

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Town-planning is the next subject described in great detail in two chapters (IX, X). It is treated under two heads, *Grāma-lakshaṇa* (village scheme) and *Nagara-vidhāna* (lay-out of towns), and under three categories, village, town, and fort. Villages are divided into eight classes called *daṇḍaka*, *sarvatobhadra*, *nandyāvarta*, *padmaka*, *svastika*, *prastara*, *kārmuka* and *chaturmukha*: each of these, as the names indicate, represents a particular design and lay-out of which detailed measures and other particulars are given. Towns are also divided into eight classes: *Rājadhānī*, *nagara*, *pura*, *nagarī*, *kheṭa*, *kharvaṭa*, *kubjaka*, and *paṭṭana*. Forts are first divided into eight classes according to the size and the object and are called *śibira*, *vāhinīmukha*, *sthānīya*, *droṇaka samviddha* or *vardhaka*, *kolaka*, *nigama*, and *skandhāvāra*. According to their situation they are further classified into the mountain fort, water fort, chariot fort, divine fort, clay fort, and mixed fort. The mountain fort is further sub-divided into three classes as it is built on the top of a mountain, in the valley and on the slope.

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The next chapter (XI) describes in detail the proportions of breadth, length, and height of buildings of one to twelve storeys, assigned to persons of different ranks. Five forms, namely, square, rectangular, octagonal, round, and oval, are prescribed for buildings of four different classes, *jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa*, and *ābhāsa*. These forms are equally applicable to religious, military, and residential buildings. A palace of five to twelve storeys is stated to suit the emperor or universal monarch, highest in rank among the nine classes of kings. Residences of one to three storeys are assigned to the heir-apparent and the chief feudatories, and so on.

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Chapter XII deals with the foundations whereupon buildings, villages, and tanks are built. The foundation is excavated up to the depth of man's height with uplifted arms in the rocky or sandy ground as may be available and best suited to the structure to be erected. It is laid down that the bottom of the pit should be rocky or watery. The different materials to fill up the pit and various processes and measures are specified in great detail. The gist of the directions on foundations may be best expressed *mutatis mutandis* in the words of Vitruvius: 'When we are satisfied with the spot fixed on for the site of the city . . . the irfoundations should be carried down to a solid bottom, if such can be found, and should be built thereon of such thickness as may be necessary for the proj[ecting] [s]upport of that part of the wall which stands above the natural level of the ground. They should be of the soundest workmanship and materials, and of greater thickness than the walls above. If solid ground can be come to, the foundations should go down to it and into it, according to the magnitude of the work, and the sub-struction be built up as solid as possible. Above the ground of the foundation, the wall should be one-half thicker than the column it is to receive so that the lower parts which carry the greatest weight, may be stronger than the upper part . . . . Nor must the mouldings of the bases of the columns project beyond the solid. Thus, also, should be regulated the thickness of all walls above ground. The intervals between the foundations brought up under the columns, should be either rammed down hard or arched, so as to prevent the foundation piers from swerving. If solid ground cannot be come to, and the ground be loose or marshy, the place must be excavated, cleared, and either elder, olive or oak piles, previously charred, must be driven with a machine, as close to each other as possible, and the intervals between the piles filled with charcoal. The heaviest foundations may be laid on such a base.'

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The next four chapters (XIII—XVI) deal with the column and its different component parts, namely, the pedestal, the base, the shaft and the entablature, and their various mouldings and ornaments. Twelve kinds of pedestals are described with detailed measurements of the various mouldings of each pedestal. The variety, the beauty of proportion, and the richness of ornaments are remarkable. The same remark is true with regard to the bases also which are described in detail under sixty-four varieties. While in Graeco-Roman orders the forms and dimensions of both the base and the pedestal are fixed by invariable rules with respect to the orders in which they are employed, in the Indian orders, it will be noticed, the choice is left to the option of the architects. The entablatures, including the capital, and comprising the architrave, frieze and cornice, are described in detail under eight varieties. Their massiveness offers a striking contrast to the lightness of the Grecian entablatures.

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Columns are divided into five orders in regard to general shapes and are called *Brahmakānta*, *Vishṇukānta*, *Rudrakānta*, *Śivakānta*, and *Skandakānta*. With respect to dimensions and ornaments columns are classified under *Chitrakarṇa*, *Padmakānta*, *Chitraskambha*, *Pālikā-stambha*, and *Kumbha-stambha*.

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In the *Matsya-purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, and the *Kiraṇa-tantra* columns are also divided into five classes and are called *Ruchaka*, *Vajra*, *Dvi-vajra*, *Pralinaka*, and *Vṛitta*. In the *Suprabhedāgama* the names of the five orders are *Śrīkara*, *Chandrakānta*, *Saumukhya*, *Priyadarśana*, and *Śubhāṅkarī* which is composite of *Saumukhya* and *Priyadarśana*. The Græco-Roman orders, as is well known, are also five in number and are called Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite.

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The total number of mouldings or the component parts of the column, including those of the pedestal, base, and entablature are forty-seven in the *Mānasāra*. The mouldings of the shaft alone number five and are called *bodhikā*, *mushṭi-bandha*, *phalakā*, *tāṭikā*, and *ghaṭa*.

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The *Suprabhedāgama* describes two sets of seven mouldings, one set referring to the column of the main building and the other set to that of the pavilion, and are called respectively, *daṇḍa*, *maṇḍi*, *kaṇṭha*, *kumbha*, *phalakā*, *vīrakaṇṭha* and *bodhikā*; and *uttara*, *potikā*, *vājana*, *mūrdhikā*, *tulā*, *jayantī* and *tala*. In the *Matsya-purāṇa*, the *Bṛihatsaṁhitā*, and the *Kiraṇa-tantra*, the mouldings are eight in number and bear the same names : *vāhana*, *ghaṭa*, *padma*, *uttaroshṭha*, *bāhulya*, *hāra*, *tulā*, and *upatulā*. The component mouldings of the Græco-Roman orders are also eight in number and are known as (1) the ovolo, echinus or quarter-round, (2) the talon, ogee or reversed cyma, (3) the cyma, cyma-recta, or cymatium, (4) the torus, (5) the scotia or trochilos, (6) the cavetto, mouth or hollow, (7) the astragal, and (8) the fillet, listel or annulet.

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The concluding chapter (XVII) on the preliminary subjects deals with joinery. The wood-joining is of various kinds and forms. Pieces of wood are joined in such a way as to make the figures of *nandyāvarta*, *svastika*, *sarvatobhadra*, and such other shapes. Some kinds of wood are strictly forbidden to be joined with some others.

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The next chapter (XVIII) deals with certain general features of buildings which are specified in the following twelve chapters (XIX–XXX). A brief reference is made in the beginning to the foundations. Then the subjects are divided under several headings. First the classification of buildings of one to twelve storeys, and the proportionate dimensions thereof are described very elaborately and various alternatives are given. The three styles, *Nāgara*, *Vesara*, and *Draviḍa*, and their distinguishing features based on the shapes of the top portions (*śikhara*, spherical roof) are next described. Then are described in order the domes, the pinnacle staffs, the pentroofs, and the front porches, of each of which the classification, dimensions and other particulars are given in detail. The chapter concludes with a description of the building materials, namely stone, brick, wood, and metal (*lit.*, iron), and the classifications of buildings thereunder.

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The chapter on ‘Single-storey buildings’ (XIX) opens with further classifications of buildings under *jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa*, and *ābhāsa* based on the length of the cubit, which is taken as the unit of measure; under *sthānaka*, *āsana*, and *śayana*, otherwise called *saṁchita*, *asaṁchita*, and *apasaṁchita* based both on the standard of measure, which may be respectively height, breadth and length, and on the erect, sitting, and recumbent postures of the idols when the buildings happen to be temples; lastly, under masculine, feminine, and neuter, based on the equiangular, rectangular, and circular forms, as also on the sex of the main deity to be installed when the building is used as a temple.

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After a brief reference to the dimensions of the storey the comparative measurement and plans are described at great length. The whole height of the building is divided into a certain number of equal parts which are distributed in a happy proportion amongst the component members, namely the base, pillar, entablature, neck, dome and pinnacle. Similarly, the length of the entire temple is divided into a certain number of equal parts which are also distributed amongst various rooms and halls, such as the shrine, the anterooms, the pavilion, etc. A detailed account of the water-channels, like those of the *Mahenjodaro*, is added. Steps and staircases are described at the end of Chapter XXX. The concluding portions of Chapter XIX and the next eleven chapters are devoted to an enumeration of the various deities with whose images the door and walls of buildings are decorated. The Buddhist and the Jain temples are stated to be similarly built, with this difference, that in those temples the images of Buddhist and Jain deities are installed.

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There are eight types of single-storey buildings indicating different designs and bearing technical and mostly significant names. Similarly, the buildings of two storeys are divided into eight types, of three storeys into eight types, of four storeys into eight types, of five storeys into eight types, of six storeys into thirteen types of seven storeys into eight types, of eight storeys into eight types of nine storeys into seven types, of ten storeys into six types, of eleven storeys into six types, and of twelve storeys into ten types. The last ten types are given geographical names and seem to imply ten provinces into which whole India was architecturally divided—*Pāñchāla* (the Punjab), *Driviḍa* (Deccan), *Madhyakānta* (Doab), *Kaliṅgakānta* (Coromandal Coast), *Virāṭa* (Jaipur), *Kerala* (Malabar), *Vaṁsakānta* (Kauśāmbī), *Magadhakānta* (South Bihar), *Janakakānta* (North Bihar), and *Sphūrjaka* (? Gurjara.)¹.

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¹ For identification of these places see details in the writer’s *Indian Architecture*, pp. 173–175.

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The compound of a big house, temple, or palace, is divided into five courts (Chapter XXXI). The fourth court, after which the chapter is named *Prākāra*, is divided into *jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa*, *ābhāsa* and *kāmya* classes, as also into *śuddha* (of one material), *miśra* (of two materials), and *saṅkīrṇa* (of mixed materials) classes. At the outset a reference is made to five kinds of *prākāra* buildings in connexion with *bali* (offerings), *parivāra* (attendant deities), *sobhā* (beauty), and *rakshaṇa* (defence). The shrines of the attendant deities in connexion with a big temple, and the gate-houses both for temples and palaces are very briefly described in conclusion, the next two chapters being entirely devoted to a special treatment of these two subjects.

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The temples of the attendant deities are stated (in Chapter XXXII) to be built round the *prākāra* (court). At the eight cardinal points of the innermost or the first court, the shrines of a group of eight deities are built. Groups of sixteen and thirty-two deities are located in the second and the third court respectively. Between the third and the fifth court is said to be a special pavilion. After an elaborate description of the situation of the shrine for each of the deities of the three groups, the attendant deities of Vishṇu are described in detail.

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Chapter XXXIII deals with gate houses of various kinds which are assigned to both temples and palaces. They are first divided into five classes as they belong to the five courts and bear very significant names: *dvāra-śobhā* (beauty of the gate), *dvāra-śālā* (gate-house), *dvāra-prāsāda* (gate-palace), *dvāra-harmya* (gate-mansion) and *mahā-gopura* (great cow-house). Each of these five classes is sub-divided into three sizes: small, intermediate and large. Under each of these fifteen varieties the gate-houses are elaborately described. They are further divided into ten classes, bearing ten different technical names, with regard to the number of domes, pinnacles, neck-peaks, and vestibules. They are made one to sixteen storeys high. The dimensions and ornaments of each storey are described in detail. Pillars, entablatures, roofs, walls, floors, doors, etc., are also fully described.

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The chapter closes with an interesting description of windows, not only for gate-houses, but also for other kinds of buildings, both religious and residential. Windows admit of various patterns represented by the following designations: *nāga-bandha* (snake-band), *valli* (creeper), *gavāksha* (cow’s eye), *kuñjarāksha* (elephant’s eye), *svastika* (cross-shape), *sarvatobhadra* (a special design), *nandyāvarta* (another special design), and *pushpa-bandha* (flower-band). They are decorated with floral and foliated ornaments, as well as with decorative devices in imitation of jewels. The dimensions are mostly left to the discretion of architects with a general direction in regard to the windows for gate-houses.

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Detached buildings situated both within the compound and outside, have been described in great detail in the chapter (XXXIV) on ‘Pavilions.’ Pavilions are single-storey buildings, generally self-contained, but sometimes they imply the special rooms in a house. They are also built on the roadside and on the sea-shore; on the banks of a river, tank, or lake.

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Various component members of pavilions such as walls, roofs, floors, verandahs, court-yards, doors, windows, pillars, sheds, etc., are described in detail. Seven pavilions bearing the names of the seven well-known mountains are stated to be built in front of the main edifice and to be used as a bath-room, study, library, and so forth.

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Pavilions bearing other names and descriptions are mentioned for wedding and other ceremonies, for kitchen, for storing water, etc., for guests, elephants, horses, and for pilgrimage, etc. The chapter closes with a description of the forms and shapes of pavilions. The *jāti* shape is given to the pavilions of the temples and the residences of the Brahmans, the *chhanda* shape to those of the Kshatriyas, the *vikalpa* shape to those of the Vaiśyas, and the *ābhāsa* shape to those of the Śūdras. Again, the pavilions are classified under technical names in accordance with the number of their faces, which vary from two to six.¹

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¹ In the *Matsya-purāṇa* (chap. 270, v. 1–16) pavilions are divided according to the number of pillars (see the writer's *Dictionary*, pp. 471–472).

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Chapter XXXV deals with the 'Storeyed Mansions' which consist of rows of buildings varying from one to ten. The blocks of buildings varying in number of storeys up to twelve are artistically joined up. They are classified under six main groups called *Daṇḍaka*, *Svastika*, *Maulika*, *Chaturmukha*, *Sarvatobhadra*, and *Vardhamāna*. Each of these is again sub-divided into several types: the arrangement of the *Daṇḍaka* mansion, for instance, is described under eight varieties. The *Daṇḍaka* is an isolated mansion and consists of a single row of buildings and would look like a stick (*daṇḍaka*). The *Svastika* mansion is plough-shaped and consists of two rows of buildings. The *Maulika* mansion is shaped like a winnowing basket and consists of three rows of buildings. The *Chaturmukha* mansion is four-faced and consists of four rows of buildings. The *Sarvatobhadra* mansion consists of seven rows of buildings, and the *Vardhamāna* of ten rows of buildings. These huge buildings are naturally meant for kings, to the nine classes of whom they are assigned in accordance with the importance of the mansions and the rank of the king. But they are also stated to be used by the Gods, the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the Vaiśyas, the Śūdras, the ascetics, the hermits, the priests, the Buddhists, the warriors fighting with the help of the horse, the elephant, and the chariot, the artists and the courtesans. Their lay-out, architectural members with dimensions, ornaments, and other details are fully described.

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