Studies in Indian Art c14: VIII. Medieval Art

Studies in Indian Art c14

Language: English

c14.s1 40. Early Medieval Period — 6 parts
c14.s2 41. A Note on Sculptures at Lakhamandal — 29 parts
c14.s3 42. A Samudramanthana Sculpture from Hardwar — 6 parts
c14.s4 43. The Kardameśvara Temple at Kandwa, Banaras — 5 parts
c14.s5 44. A Note on Medieval Temple Architecture — 26 parts
c14.s6 45. Some Archaeological and Art Terms — 49 parts

VIII. Medieval Art

40. Early Medieval Period

On the break-up of the Gupta empire in the ninth century the current of its fine culture also received a setback. We enter upon the seventh century as the period of transition between the Gupta and the early medieval age. In this transitional period the older convention of art began to be replaced by newer conceptions which were characterised by a conscious force and an urge for vigorous expression. With the rise of the Rajput states in the different parts of the country in the eighth century many institutional developments of great value for the future evolution of society were witnessed. In the sphere of art the refined and restrained conventions of the Gupta period were replaced by colossal creation and cosmic conception. Art now fulfilled its purpose, firstly by gigantic execution of such monuments as the Kailāsa temple of Ellora; secondly by the comprehensive narration of cosmic themes taken from the life-stories of gods and demons, and thirdly by interpreting the spiritual message of the age through a significant symbolism. We find that in the domain of philosophy, Saṅkarācārya proclaimed the unity of the individual soul and the universal soul, Ātman and Brahman. The old ideas about man and his powers circumscribed within the mortal coil of three and a half cubits were no longer sufficient to satisfy the inherent, human craving for greatness and expansion. All departments of human thought seem to have been affected. No longer satisfied with the tame, flat-roofed shrines of the Gupta period, new fashions in architecture concerned themselves with the developments of the śikharas and the maṇḍapas, and bold architects worked to convert entire mountain blocks into monolithic temples resembling Kailāsa and Meru. Both royalty and the people were moved by the same spirit. The Kailāsanātha temple of Ellora was the outcome of the grand conception of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa emperors in the eight century. The ideal divine abode of Śiva on mount Kailāsa where he lives in eternal conjugal happiness with his consort Pārvatī and hosts of devas, was recreated on earth, as if it were, in the form of the Kailāsanātha shrine for the visual delectation of the pious and devout worshippers.

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In the social and religious sphere the same spirit was manifested in the growth of such institutions as the Saptasāgara-Mahādāna (Gift of the Seven Oceans'), Brahmāṇḍa-dāna ('Gift of the Universe'), Dharitri-dāna (Gift of the Earth'), etc., an index of the increased tempo of man's aspirations. In the realm of poetry the figures of speech (alaṃkāras) became subordinate to an uncommon fondness for Atiśayokti or hyperbolic description. Of course, this led to inevitable degeneration of the poetic art, as of all arts but there was no escape from a process which ultimately petered out in conventionalised descriptions and trivial details of the poetry of the later medieval period. The high sounding titles like Paramabhaṭṭāraka Mahārājādhirāja, Parameśvara of many a potentate ruling the country from one end to the other and also the descriptions of the universe-enveloping dust stirred by their marching hordes give us some idea of the unbridled passion for big size and glory that was the rampant vogue of that age. The national soul bestriding the vast expanse of land and ocean from Madhyadeśa to Svarṇadvīpa and Śrīvijaya in Sumātrā on one side, and to the teeming Central Asian cities on the other, witnessed an unprecedented cultural empire unknown before or after in the history of Greater India.

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The medieval period of our history falls into two divisions: Early Medieval (8th-9th cent.) and Late Medieval (10th-12th century). Four great imperial powers strived for supremacy in the first period, viz. the Gurjara-Pratihāras in the north (Kanauj), the Rāṣṭrakūṭas in the Deccan (Mānyakheṭa), the Pallavas in the far south (Kāñchī), and the Pālas in the east (Bihar-Bengal). The architectural monuments of the Gurjara-Pratihāras in north India have rolled into dust, leaving the whole Madhyadeśa a blank for old Brahmanical temples. The Rāṣṭrakūṭas were more fortunate, having left the magnificent Kailāsa temple of Ellora, as an immortal monument to their glory. The Kailāsa temple of Dhārāpurī (Elephanta), although a little later, is in the same tradition, combining rich sculpture with bold architecture. The Kailāsanātha temple of Kāñchīpurī in the south is a Pallava monument eloquent with the same spirit, but rather conventionalised. The sculptures and images of the Pāla school belong to the early medieval art, and at times show genuine grace and feeling.

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The Paurāṇic stories of the lives of gods and goddesses play an important part in the sculptural representations of this period. The triumphant exploits of Śiva and Viṣṇu symbolise the spirit of the times and give power to its art. The image of Śiva Naṭarāja performing his cosmic dance was conceived and created in this period and makes eloquent at one point the artistic urge of the times. Śiva vanquished the demon Gajāsura, controlled its riotous energy and discovered a new rhythm of life in the form of his Tāṇḍava dance. The images of Śiva-Tāṇḍava in the Lākhāmaṇḍal temple of Princess Īśvarā (eighth century) on the banks of the Yamunā in the remote interior of Dehradun district show the wide extension of this motif.

Late Medieval Period (10th-12th Century)

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Both sculpture and architecture entered on a new lease of creative activity and elaborate workmanship in this period. The great centres of art were Khajuraho in the north, Mount Abu and Pālitāna in the west, Tanjore in the south and Bhuvanéśvara and Koṇārka in the east. Under the patronage of the powerful Chandella kings and the Parmāra rulers of Malwa a large number of temples with rich sculpture were executed. The Khaṇḍāriyā Mahādeva and other temples of Khajuraho are noted monuments of this period. King Udayāditya and Bhoja of Malwa also caused several big temples to be built of which the Nīlakaṇṭha or Udayeśvara temple built by Udayāditya (1059-1080 A.D.) at Udaipur in Gwalior State represents the best style of this period and is in fine preservation. The Jaina temples of Dilwara at Mount Abu are in marble, and the very elaborate carving of their pillars and reliefs shows how the sculptors handled hard stone like soft wax. In the Sun temple at Koṇārka and in the temples of Bhuvanesvara the elaborate wealth of beautiful sculpture and decoration has reached extreme limits, testifying to a passionate love for exuberant detail as the universal feature of art in this period.

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Details of Sculpture. Kandariya Mahadeva Temple Khajuraho.

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Several features may be noted about the subjects represented in this period. The iconography of the principal Pauranic gods and goddesses that had been evolved in the early medieval age entered into a new phase of elaboration, leading to an inconceivably complex pantheon, almost each deity revelling in a multiplicity of hands, attributes and variety of forms. An infinite number of goddesses, Mātṛkās, Yoginis, Yakṣiṇīs, Śāsana-devatās, etc. took the place of what used to be a vital religious art with significant religion. The iconographic forms were supported by a number of Dhyānas, Dhāraṇīs and Sādhanamālās. We also witness a conglomeration of numerous cults and faiths—Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Jaina and Bauddha, which multiplied and freely met and mingled with one another. Vajrayāna, Sahajayāna, the cult of the Siddhas, and the Nātha Yogis, of the Tāntrikas and the Śāktas, and many other imbecile forms of worship were serving as props for the religious beliefs of the people. There were many corrupt philosophies based on free sexual relationship, almost elevated to a religion. We witness its influence in several medieval temples portraying a series of ‘posture figures’, representing the eighty-four Karaṇas or Ratabandhas. This erotic basis of art and philosophy found its culmination in the later images representing the gods and their female counterparts in Yab-Yum (‘Father-Mother’) poses.

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In the domain of philosophy the rational power of man became ineffective to conquer new regions of thought or master new systems. As a palliative, the human mind keeps brewing and boring at its own centre, entering into futile details of ratiocination like the beetle which bores through the wood at the point under its feet. As a result we find that the system of logic pursued in this period is reduced to a bundle of absurd niceties and new off-shoots of thought are nipped in the bud by the double-edged sword of hair-splitting avachchhedaka and avachchhinna. There was enough vanity, but little scope for original creation.

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In the field of art also hardly any scope for individual initiative was left; all images became like dead imitations of each other. The artist instead of looking for new creative themes works according to stereotyped dhyānas of images, and indulges in cutting deeper and deeper into the outline of scroll-work until the chisel drills through to the other side of the stone, leaving behind a vacuum of jālī work from which its narrative contents had as if it were been squeezed out.

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In the realm of architecture there is the same partiality for details. The varieties of Prāsāda, Jagatī-Pīṭha (basement) and Śikharas with their innumerable spires (aṇḍas or or *śṛṅgas*) are perplexing, and it is doubtful if the classification was not more theoretical than real.

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The religious synthesis between Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva was expressed graphically in the form of the Trikūṭa shrines or triplecomposite temples both in the Chandella art of the north and the Hoysala art of the south. The plan of the temple combined three shrines in three directions leaving the fourth as the entrance; the three sanctums opened into a common *maṇḍapa*, and over the roof of each was built a *śikhara*. The art of this period still breathing of some force and a certain degree of freshness maybe compared to the last glow of a flickering lamp.

41. A Note on Sculptures at Lakhamandal

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¹ In collaboration with Pt. M. S. Vats.

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There are some important sculptures of Hindu gods and goddesses at Lakhamandal, a place of great antiquity on the Jumna in the Chakrata Tahsil of the Dehra Dun district. It is situated at a distance of 24 miles almost due east of Chakrata and can be covered on foot in two days. The sculptures are assembled at two places, firstly built into the side walls and also placed on the floor of the *antarāla* and of the sanctum of the Lākheśvara temple, and secondly collected in the closed shed built for the purpose by the Archaeological Department.

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The present *antarāla* of the temple, which is a later addition to the Lākheśvara shrine, contains the following images:—

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*South Wall*—In the first row is a Saptamātṛkā panel (length 4'—1½" × ht. 1'—0) depicting the Seven Divine Mothers, Brahmāṇī on full-blown lotus, Māheśvarī on bull, Vaiṣṇavī on Garuḍa who has a human face and two out-spread wings, Kaumārī on peacock, Vārāhī on a prostrate human figure, Indrāṇī holding Vajra and seated on elephant, and Chāmuṇḍā on a Preta. The lotus in place of *haṃsa* in the case of Brahmāṇī and the human figure as the *āsana* of Vārāhī are remarkable features.

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In the second row is also a Saptamātṛkā relief (3'—4" × 10½") with Vīrabhadra on right and Gaṇapati on left, followed by two more sculptures, viz., one showing a standing male figure (ht. 1'—10½" × 11½") with a bull behind him, and the other a figure of six-armed Mahiṣāsuramardinī. The figure in the second image is two-armed with a bunch of flowers in the left and a club in the right hand (now mutilated). He wears a *kirīṭa mukuṭa*, pearl ear-rings, *ekāvalī* pearl necklace, armlets and wristlets. The hair loosely fall in frizzles and a scarf is worn on the arms. A short *dhotī* is secured by a *mekhalā* knotted in front with a loop over a floral pattern from which depends an elegant chain going round like festoons, which shows the tassel ends falling on both knees. The figure is well-finished and gracefully posed; it reveals the post-Gupta style and may be assigned to the early 8th century A.D.

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In the third row are five smaller images including two Kārttikeya figures, one Saptamātṛkā relief and two Hara-Gaurī images. The first Kārttikeya image (1'—3" × 10") is of interest as besides the peacock vehicle in the centre are shown two more peacocks one at each end looking towards the god. The second four-armed figure of this deity has six heads arranged in a double row of three each, but is of a very late date. In the north wall of the *antarāla*, are small statuettes showing Hara-Gaurī, standing Viṣṇu, a female goddess probably Durgā, Lakṣmī-Nārāyaṇa, and a big rounded stela showing Śiva-Pārvatī seated in *āliṅgana-mudrā* (ht. 3'—0 × 1'—10"). Amongst loose sculptures placed on the floor two are noteworthy, one representing Śiva-Pārvatī (ht. 3'—2" × 2'—2") seated on Kailāsa and the other showing squatting Kubera with three treasure vases. Both the images are of considerable artistic interest and maybe dated to the early medieval period. (Circa 8th century A.D.) Inside the sanctum of the Lākheśvra temple is a Śiva liṅga in worship. About two dozen sculptures of the late medieval period are placed along the walls comprising 5 images of Hara-Gaurī, 4 of standing Sūrya, 3 of Durgā, 1 of Pārvatī performing penance, 1 of Śiva as Lakulīśa, 1 of Nāga, 2 of Viṣṇu and a few others. An image of Sūrya placed along the central wall is prominent (3′—0×2′—0). It shows the god holding lotuses in both hands wearing boots and attended by Aruṇa and the smaller figures of Daṇḍa and Piṅgala.

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Fig. 154. Image of Dvārapāla. Lākhāmaṇḍal.

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Fig. 155. Fourarmed Śiva with Pārvatī. Lākhāmaṇḍal.

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Fig. 156. Śiva-Pārvatī seated on Kailāsa with Nandi. Lākhāmaṇḍal.

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Fig. 157. Tripurāntaka Śiva. Lākhāmaṇḍal.

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The wooden porch in front of the temple is remarkable for some good carvings of a symbolical nature and has two Nandī bulls (length 4′—3″; 3′—3″) placed in front which are made of the same fine black stone in which are carved the two Dvārapāla images of Jaya and Vijaya in front of the larger Liṅga shrine in the northern part of the compound. These Dvārapāla figures are two-armed, each holding a mace in his outer hand while the inner hand is placed on the thigh (Fig. 154). Each wears fine jewelled mukuṭa, ekāvalī pearl necklace with a central elongated bead, short jaṅghikās or loin-clothes secured by a girdle, their busts being extremely well-done both as regards finish and polish. On stylistic grounds these figures maybe assigned to the Gupta period (circa 5th century A.D.). The two Nandī bulls and the bigger Śiva liṅga (girth 6′—8½″, ht. above floor 2′), which was reinstalled at some later date in its present position in the northern part of the compound, probably belong to the early medieval period.

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Of the three exterior niches (Sanskrit रथिका) of the Lākheśvara temple, the north one contains an image (रथिकाबिम्ब) of Mahiṣāsurmardinī in its original position; the niche on the west is occupied by a small relief (ht. 1′—7″) showing two female figures, with two attendant parasol-bearers, the right one on lotus being Lakṣmī and the left one on makara being Gaṅgā. The third niche on the south side is now empty.

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The niches were surmounted by a chaitya window or toraṇa ornament containing an image of Kārttikeya on south, Gaṇapati on west and Kubera on north.

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In the sculpture shed built by the Archaeological Department are collected about 70 sculptures. These have now been arranged and classified by Mr. M. S. Vats, Superintendent, Archaeological Survey, Northern Circle, Agra. Almost all the images appertain to the Śaiva pantheon and most of the beautiful architectural pieces belonged to the Śaiva temple built at Lakhamandal by the Princess Īśvarā whose inscription incised on a black basalt slab is preserved in this collection (Ep. Indica, Vol. I, pp. 11-15). The sculptures roughly belong to three different periods, viz., (1) circa 8th century, that is, of the time of the Princess Īśvarā, (2) late medieval period or circa 12th century and (3) post medieval period, i.e., about the 16th century or later.

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Amongst images of the first period the following five are of much artistic value:

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1. Image of Śiva-Pārvatī (ht. 3'—7"×1'—10") showing four-armed Śiva standing with his consort Pārvatī against Nandi bull whose regardant head is turned towards the divine couple in rapt attention (*Fig. 155*). Śiva is playing on Vīṇā with his two upper hands, the remaining right hand is holding a trident (?) and the corresponding left hand touches the left breast of Pārvatī who is holding a garland in her hand near the thigh. Śiva has *jaṭājūṭa* on the head with some locks falling on right shoulder and is wearing a necklace, a pearl ear-ring in the right ear and a big discular ring in the left, armlets and wristlets, and lastly a beaded girdle with the *ūrdhva retas* feature marked on it. Pārvatī is also elegantly dressed, wearing a bodice and a *sārī*, a pearl ear-ring, an *ekāvalī* necklace, bracelets, a girdle and anklets round the feet. The sculpture, although somewhat weathered, shows much artistic quality being marked by deep harmony and an expression of inward joy. Circa 8th century A.D.

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2. Bas-relief showing Śiva-Pārvatī (ht. 3'—0×2'—1") seated on Kailāsa with Nandi bull, standing Gaṇeśa on right, Kārttikeya on left and a Śiva gaṇa in *añjalimudrā* in the centre (*Fig. 156*). Śiva holds a trident and a *mātulunga* fruit in his right hands, a snake in the lower left, while his upper left hand embraces Pārvatī at her breast. The divine couple is shown experiencing ecstatic pleasure in their abode on Kailāsa. Circa 8th century A.D.

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3. Bas-relief (3'—2"×2'—4") showing Śiva in his Tripurāntaka form. Śiva stands in *pratyālīḍha* posture and is piercing the demon Tripura poised in the sky with his trident held in two hands (*Fig. 157*). Two other hands hold aloft the canopy of elephant skin. Of the remaining right hands one holds the *paraśu* and the other is held in *abhaya mudrā*. Pārvatī is seated in a low seat in front of Śiva. The god is touching her at the chin in the act of reassuring her. She is holding her son Kārttikeya, standing by her side, as if to afford him protection from fear caused by commotion in this great drama.

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Tripura seems to be depicted in his triple form, once being trampled under the left foot of Śiva, the middle one in the *antariksha* region is haggard and shown standing helplessly with a dagger in right hand, while the topmost form afloat in the sky is being pierced by Śiva's trident. Near the right foot of the god stands a *gaṇa* in the attitude of adoration, while the tall form of the deity majestically fills and dominates the whole scene. His matted locks stand erect on head and are secured at the lower edge by a fillet consisting of skull-bosses. He wears a long skull-garland (*kapālamālā*) and a *nāga-yajñopavīta*. (Circa, 8th century A.D.). There are two other reliefs showing Śiva killing the demon Tripura but they are not so well preserved.

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4-5. Bas-reliefs (2'—2"×1'—10½"; 2'—7"×1'—7½") showing god Śaṅkara in his *tāṇḍava* dance. The eight-armed figure of Śiva holds a canopy of elephant skin on the head with two hands; of the remaining three right hands one plays the *ḍamaru*, another touches the chin of Pārvatī seated on his proper right and playing on a *vīṇā*, while the third one is shown in the gaja-hasta pose. The corresponding left hands are held in abhaya-mudrā, grasping the trident and placed at the hip. An attendant gaṇa is seated at the left corner with a pair of upright drums in front. In the second bas-relief Pārvatī is seated in the lower left corner. The sculptures are expressive of movement combined with serenity. They maybe dated to about the 8th-9th century and are reminiscent of the best traditions of Ellora art.

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There are five other images showing Śiva-Pārvatī seated side by side in the usual āliṅgana attitude. These may be assigned to about the 12th century A.D.

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An image of Pārvatī (No. 14, ht. 2'-2" × 1'-1") showing the goddess in the act of performing penance is also worthy of attention. Pārvatī has a female attendant on either side, her right foot is placed on a lion and the left one on the back of the bull. The goddess is standing in the midst of four burning fire altars and holds a book in her left lower hand, the other attributes being lost. A Śiva-liṅga is carved in the right upper corner. Pārvatī wears simple dress and the image may be assigned to the same period as the foregoing sculpture of Śiva-tāṇḍava, i.e., about the 8-9th century A.D.

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There is also a statuette of Durgā on lion and three images of the goddess Mahiṣāsuramardinī (Nos. 16-17-18), one of which with a rounded top (2'-5" × 1'-5½") may belong to about the 9th century A.D.

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There is also a beautiful image of Kubera (No. 22; 1'-2" × 1'-6") squatting with three treasure vases arranged in a row in front of him and wearing curly hair and also having a scarf tied round his belly. Date circa 8th century A.D.

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A couple of Gaṇapati images (Nos. 20, 21; ht. 1'-8" × 1'-3½") date from about the 12th century and a bas-relief (1'-0" × 1'-2") showing four-armed Viṣṇu sleeping on Śeṣa dates from about the 16th century A.D.

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A prominent lintel (No. 24; length 5'-4", 1'-4") showing the Saptamātṛkās with four-armed Vīrabhadra on bull at proper right and Gaṇapati on left is also note-worthy as Vīrabhadra, Māheśvarī and Chāmuṇḍā alone have four hands each, the others having only two hands. Circa 12th century A.D.

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About half a dozen Śiva liṅgams of various sizes have also been collected in the museum shed. There are also about thirtysix architectural pieces, some of good merit, consisting of door-jambs and temple pediments carved with the chaitya-window enclosing the Trimūrti form of Śiva heads, this motif being a very common feature of Śaiva temples all over the hills of northern India. One sculpture (No. 37, length 8'-8", height 2'-4") consisting of three pieces is exceptionally good, the Trimūrti form shown in its circular sunk panel on the central piece being very dignified. On the side pieces adorned with beaded borders are carved haṃsas with conventionalised features. This as also a somewhat smaller pediment (No. 36) in one piece only (5'-6½" × 2'-4") maybe dated to about the 8th century A.D., and must have formed part of the impressive facade of the monumental Śiva temple built under the patronage of Princess Īśvarā. Many other pieces of pediments showing either the Trimūrti heads or a single head are also preserved and reveal varying degrees of artistic merit.

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An architectural piece carved in the form of a door-way (1'-1" × 1'-7") with central slit to accommodate a miniature shrine is carved on the jambs with two vertical bands, the inner one showing a foliated scroll and the outer one the Dvārapālas along the lower edges. Kārttikeya on proper right and Gaṇapati eating sweet balls on left are shown in the upper corners. Above the lintel is a Śiva head with three eyes. This piece possesses considerable merit and must date from the post-Gupta period.

Inscriptions

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A. 1. Inscribed slab (2'-10¼" × 1'-9") bearing 14 lines of writing known as the Lakhamandal Praśasti, recording the dedication of a Śiva temple by Īśvarā, wife of Chandragupta, prince of Jālandhara (Ep. Ind., I, pp. 11-15).

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A. 2. Inscribed slab (1'-10" × 1'-5¼") bearing the epigraph in a sunken panel. The writing originally consisted of about 20 lines in Gupta script of which not more than one-fourth is now indifferently preserved. (Edited and published elsewhere in JUPHS. XVII (1)

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A. 3. An irregular slab (1'-11½" × 1'-6") inscribed with several irregular lines of writing in Śaṅkhalipi of the Gupta Period.

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A. 4. Left hand piece of a rectangular inscribed stone slab (ht. 9" × 8") containing traces of 5 lines of writing in Gupta script. Removed from the Lākheśvara temple to the museum shed.

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A. 5. An irregular slab (2'-3" × 1'-4½") bearing a Devanāgarī inscription in six lines dated in Vikrama Saṃvat 1954.

42. A Samudramanthana Sculpture from Hardwar

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This nice lintel (ht. 11"; length 2'6"; width 11") originating from a village named Jhivarhedi, 16 miles south of Hardwar, is now deposited in the Gurukul Kangari Museum at Hardwar. It is a welcome addition to a style of art, of which only few specimens are known in north Indian sculpture. The whole scene is very animated and the composition of the figures is rendered with great mastery and success. The force and dynamic application of power as appropriate to the occasion of the churning of the ocean are manifest in every detail of the sculpture, specially in the poses of the figures on the proper right side (*Fig. 158*).

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The scene represented relates to Samudramanthana, churning of the ocean by the Devas and the Asuras. The cosmic serpent Vāsuki was used by them as the churning rope, Mount Mandarāchala was employed as the churning stick and its end rested on the back of the cosmic tortoise. The story says that the gods were relegated to hold the tail portion of the serpent as a mark of their receiving inferior treatment from the Asuras, who caught hold of the head of the serpent by virtue of their being of elderly rank. In the picture we find eight Deva figures holding the long body of the serpent and using their strength to pull it to their side. The figures have matted locks and beards. The bodies of the first two are shown slanting with the feet planted firmly on the ground and the busts exerting backwards. In between the first three figures there appear two more heads probably attendants or spectators. The third figure is wearing a *langoti* and the serpent passes under his right arm. His serious-looking long drawn face is the work of a master, and the same can be said of the face of the fourth oldish figure posed in tension. This figure has a long beard and a top knot and is holding the serpent with both hands, the right elbow showing a sharp angle. The fifth figure is rather of younger age. The sixth figure is standing in an opposite way, with its back to the visitor, the serpent passing under his armpits. The next two figures are facing towards and standing nearest to the churning stick.

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In the left corner of the relief, there is one figure which must be that of an Asura. He is holding the hood of the serpent, is wearing a conical *kulah* cap, and has a short beard and pointed cheek bones like those in Sassanian figures.

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In between the first and the second figures on this side there is a longish object around which the body of the serpent is coiled twice. It is the churning stick in a jar (*ghaṭa*) placed on a mountain below which rests on the back of a tortoise.

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The sculpture seems to be the work of a master. Its crowded but well ordered composition, the animated poses and rendering of the bodies in a realistic manner mark it as a work of extra-ordinary merit and an outstanding specimen of north Indian sculpture. The concentrated exertion of force, the pressure of crowding figures and the tension of feeling are effectively rendered, permeating the entire scene. In the gigantic trial of strength between the Angels and the Titans, or the cosmic struggle for supremacy—the Daivāsuram—the Devas appear to have had to summon much greater reserve of power and the application of combined strength than the Asuras who seem to have taken it easy. As against eight Deva figures only one Asura is pitched and the expression on his face shows the easy assurance of victory. On stylistic grounds the sculpture maybe assigned to about the seventh century A.D.

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Fig. 158. Samudramathan sculpture from Hardwar.

43. The Kardameśvara Temple at Kandwa, Banaras

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The small temple of Kardameśvara Śiva is a remarkable monument of medieval architecture being the only surviving specimen of the Gahaḍavāla period. It is situated on the Pañchakrośī road or the circumambulation (Pradakṣiṇā Patha) of the holy city of Banaras at a distance of two miles from the Hindu University towards its west. It marks the first stage on the Pañchakrośī yātrā.

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Sited on the western bank of a rectangular tank lined with stone slabs and having ghats on its sides, the temple stands on a raised stepped plinth with its doorway facing east. It is a triratha temple and has a small porch attached to it on the east. Each side consists of a middle projection the Raḥapaga (रहपग=रथपग) flanked by two recessed sides, each consisting of two parts, viz. the Anuraḥapaga (अनुरथपग) and the Koṇakapaga (कोणकपग). The plinth (Priṣṭha) consists of a double moulding. Above it is the vertical projection consisting of the Jaṅghā in two parts, the Talajaṅghā and the Uparijaṅghā separated by a projecting Kapotāvalī moulding. The lowermost course in the Talajaṅghā is adorned by decorative floral motifs in niches. The Talajaṅghā contains three sculptures on each of the three sides of the temple, one in the central niche (rathikā) of the Raḥapaga, and one each in the Anuraḥapaga and Koṇakapaga. On each of the north and south walls there is one panel extra. The Uparijaṅghā contains only one image in a central niche on each of the three sides. Each face of the temple thus has four images, and the three sides have twelve images in all plus two additional ones on the north and south walls.

Western Side

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(1) Talajaṅghā, central niche. Four-armed Naṭarāja holding ḍamaru and Triśūla in right hands and a skull and ghaṇṭā in left. Below is Nandī and a gaṇa playing on drum.

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(2) Talajaṅghā, proper right side: Four-armed Brahmā holding sruvā and akṣamālā in right and Veda and Kamaṇḍalu in left. A haṁsa on the pedestal below.

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(3) Talajaṅghā, proper left side. Four-armed Viṣṇu holding gadā and padma in right and Chakra and Śaṅkha in left hands. There are four attendant figures round Viṣṇu, and Garuḍa on the pedestal below.

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(6) Uparijaṅghā. Four-armed Viṣṇu holding attributes similar to the above figure.

South Side

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(5) Talajaṅghā, central niche, six-armed Śiva seated in Padmāsana on a lotus with Nandī in front. Śiva is holding a triśūla and lakuṭa in right and a khaṭvāṅga and ghaṇṭā in left hand. The remaining two hands are held in front in the exposition-pose (Saṁdaṁśa mudrā), the fingers of the right hand hold an akṣamālā.

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(6) Talajaṅghā, proper right side. Umā-Maheśvara seated in lalitāsana. Gaṇeśa in upper right and Kārttikeya in left corner. Nandī and lion shown below, and also two attendant figures.

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(7) Tala-janghā, proper left hand side : Umā-Maheśvara seated on Nandi. In the upper corners garland-bearing celestial figures, and in the centre a row of five liṅgas. Below : In the middle portion of the panel on the two sides are Gaṇeśa and Kārttikeya.

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(8) Upari-janghā : Umā-Maheśvara on Nandi.

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(9) Tala-janghā, central niche : Eight-armed Śiva as Vīra-bhadra standing with left leg forward in a pose called pratyālīḍha. He is holding a skull in left hand, other attributes being lost. A gajacharma is thrown over the head.

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(10) Tala-janghā, proper right side on Anuraha-paga : Four-armed Balarāma, holding hala and cup in right and musala in left hand, with a snakehood canopy above head; standing by his side is his wife Revatī. Balarāma is wearing an ekāvalī. Stylistically this seems to be an earlier image by about a couple of centuries (Gurjara-Pratīhāra in style), which was incorporated later as a panel in this temple or copied from an earlier model.

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(11) Tala-janghā, proper right side on Koṇaka-paga : Four-armed Ardhanārīśvara Śiva with triśūla in right and darpaṇa in left upper hand. The usual male and female features in the two halves of the body are indicated. This is an additional image on the north wall, the corresponding one on the south wall is completely defaced.

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(12) Tala-janghā, proper left side between Anuraha-paga and Koṇaka-paga : Four-armed Mahiṣāsuramardinī piercing the buffalo-demon, who is also shown in human form.

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(13) Upari-janghā Raha-paga : Two-armed Vāmana, holding right hand in Varada-mudrā with a lotus in the palm, and the Śaṅkha in left hand. On right is the figure of king Bali and on left a female figure probably Pṛthivī, and another woman seated on ground with folded hands.

Portico

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The portico is supported on eight pillars, arranged in two rows. The two pillars of the back row support the vestibule (antarāla) in front of the doorway. The figure on the door lintel (lalāṭa bimba) is damaged. In the proper right wall of the vestibule is an image of eight-armed Mahiṣāsuramardinī killing the buffalo-demon and on the left wall is a figure of dancing Gaṇapati, now worn. On the two jambs of the doorway are images of the river goddesses, Gaṅgā and Yamunā, whose vehicles are defaced. Each of the two groups consists of three figures : in the centre is the river goddess with a chhatra above head and a lotus in hand, on right of her is a male dvārapāla and on left a female attendant above whose head is a Nāgakanyā in añjalimudrā. Gaṅgā wears a crown on head with a horned Kīrttimukha ornament in centre and pearl festoons on the sides. She is wearing round the neck a torque and a necklace on breasts. Round the waist is a girdle with vertical pendants falling on each knee.

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There are three Aṇḍa-Śikharas in each of the three diminishing horizontal tiers in which the Gaṇḍi or Śikhara is divided. The Śikhara is surmounted by an āmalaka, on which is a kalaśa and then an āyudha

44. A Note on Medieval Temple Architecture

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*Vāstu-Sāra*¹ is the name of an interesting work on architecture written by Thakkura Pheru in 1315 A.D. in the reign of King Alauddin Khilji at Delhi, as stated by the author himself. It must have served as a practical handbook for architects of Jaina temples in the early Sultanate period. Its value for us lies in supplying architectural terms of precise significance applied to various parts of a temple building. Except for differences in the images installed in the sanctum of the religious edifices of the Hindus and the Jainas, the temple architecture of both was substantially identical, and more often than not the same artists and architects were being commissioned to build for the patrons of both religions. Thus the terminology used by Thakkura Pheru can be said to have been quite widely current, and as appears from a comparison with other texts, these words must have been the result of an uninterrupted evolution of architectural traditions as embodied in literature and illustrated in the existing monuments of the period. Some of those details can be recognised even in the temples of Un and Nemawar in Indore state published in this issue (i.e. JUPHS. Vol. XVI, Pt. I) and a knowledge of the original words designating the different parts, motifs and mouldings of a temple would make the study of such monuments more interesting. The following words are therefore recorded.

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¹ A good edition of this text with Hindi translation has been published by Pt. Bhagwan Das Jain in the Jain-Vividh-Granthamala of Jaipur. For the time of the author, see p. 10 of this edition.

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A temple is called *Prāsāda*. It has three principal divisions along its vertical line. The lower portion is the *Adhishṭhāna* (base), the central one the *Maṇḍovara* and the upper one the *Śikhara* surmounted by an *Āmalaka*. Vertical height is called *Udaya* or *Samutsedha*².

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² अधिष्ठान = जगती (प्रासादमण्डन २, १); five kinds—चतुरस्र, आयत, अष्टास्र, वृत्त and वृत्तायत (apsidal and elliptical).

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The entire basement or the *Pīṭha* was subdivided into two portions, the lower one directly rising from the ground level called the *Jagatī-Pīṭha* and the one above it *Prāsāda-Pīṭha*. These consisted of various mouldings and bands of decoration of which each had a separate name and a definite measurement allotted in proportion to the total height of the building. The simpler form of basement is said to consist of several preliminary courses with a variety of mouldings above them known as *Aḍḍathara*, *Pushpakaṇṭha*, *Jāḍya Mukha*, *Kaṇi* and *Kayavālī* (Skt. *Kapotālī*). Above is a course of lion faces called *Grāsapaṭṭi*. A *Mahāpīṭha* is more elaborate having in addition five more courses (*Thara* or *Stara*) named in order *Gajathara* (Elephant band), *Aśvathara* (Horse band), *Simhathara* (Lion band), *Narathara* (Band of human figures) and *Hamsathara* (Geese band).

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Next to the *Jagati* rises the central portion of the temple which forms its main body. It is called *Mandovara* or the main portion of the height of a temple equal to which the *Mandapa* is made. The *Mandovara* also has its mouldings and bands of decoration. Beginning from the lowermost the *Vāstu-Sāra* enumerates them as follows:

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खुर, कुम्भ, कलश, केवाल (कपोतालि), मंची, जंघा, छज्जि, उरजंघा, भरणी, शिरावटी, छज्जा, बेराडु, पहार। The height of the *Mandovara* is determined in relation to the length of the temple and is less than the length.

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The *Sikhara* is the last element of height in a temple building dominating the whole structure and contributing more than any thing else to its grandeur and majesty.

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Twenty-five kinds of temple buildings are enumerated with reference to the growing numbers of their subsidiary *Sikharas* called *Andakas*. The first of them, *Kesari Prāsāda*, has one central *Sikhara* and four *Andakas* at the four corners and the last one *Meru* has 101 *Andakas*.

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The eaves mark the last course of a *Mandovara*. Above it rises *Sikhara*. At the level of the first course are found on three sides of the temple three images enclosed in niches (*Rathikāyukta Bimba*). Projecting above it are the *Uruśringa* projections and in the four corners are four small *Andakas* also called *Kūṭas*. Surmounting the *Sikhara* is the *Āmalasāra* and on it at the top is the *Kalaśa*.

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The sanctum or adytum in the temple is called *Garbhagriha*, from which is derived the Hindi form *Gambhārā*. The cella marks the central lotus of the entire temple structure (*Prāsāda-Kamala*). There are three series of *mandapas* or pavilions leading from the sanctum. The first is the *Gūḍha Mandapa* or the *Antarāla Mandapa* which serves as a vestibule. In the centre is the Middle Hall called *Ranga-Mandapa*, *Navaranga* or *Nritya-Mandapa*. In three-celled structures of the triple shrines found in the Hoysala style in Mysore (c. 1047-1286), in the southern Chalukyan style and the north Indian Chandela style of architecture (as for example at Dudhai in Jhansi district in the Small Surang Temple), the central Middle Hall serves as the most conspicuous portion of the building. Its pillars support a high projecting cone as the roof with a pendentive and decorated all round with deep cusps. The entrance in front of the centre hall is connected by another covered space called the *Balāna-Mandapa* or *Mukha Mandapa*.

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The doorway of the sanctum was another centre of attraction. In the early Gupta temple the doorway served as an elegant outer frame to give a proper setting to the image installed inside. This is particularly noticeable in case of the Gupta Vishnu temple at Devagarh. The same tradition was kept up right into the medieval architecture and some of our temple doorways are models of good carving combined with a wealth of symbolical details.

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The lintel is called *Uttaraṅga* or *Śirapaṭṭi* (Apabhraṃśa *Siravaṭṭi*, Hindi *Serva*), the doorsil is *Udumbara* (देहली); the two side jambs are *Dvāraśākhā*. The image projecting from the lintel of the doorway is referred to as *dvāra-lalāṭa-bimba*. Each jamb is composed of several posts numbering three, five, seven or nine. There are attendant figures *Pratīhāris* occupying the lower portion of the jambs nearer the entrance. This agrees with Varāhamihira who gives a more elaborate and clear picture of the door-jamb decoration :

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अथ शास्त्रा चतुर्भागे प्रतीहारी निवेशयेत् ॥ शेषं मंगल्यविहगैः श्रीवृक्ष-स्वस्तिकर्घटैः ।
मिथुनैः पत्रवल्लीभिः प्रमथैश्चोपशोभयेत् ॥

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*Brihat.* 56. 14-15.

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One quarter of the door jamb height is occupied by human figures of *Pratīhāris*. The doorway decoration on the jambs consists of flying geese (*maṅgalya vihaga*), auspicious tree, Svastika and full vase (*Śrī-Vriksha-Svastika-Ghaṭa*), amorous couples (*Mithunas*), foliated scrolls (*patravalli*) and dwarfish figures (*pramathas*). These are illustrated on the Devagarh temple doorway and most of these features are continued in the medieval temples although in a conventionalised form. The festoon motif on the sil is called *Mandāraka* or *Santānaka*. The two lion heads on either side of the festoon are *Grāsa*. It is also laid down that in the eight corners of the temple in the *Parikramā* path there are figures of the eight *Dikpālas* carved in niches.

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A prominent and very charming feature of medieval temples is the representation of dancing and acting female figures in different poses. A band of these figures was placed exteriorly on the walls of the *Maṇḍovara* at about its middle portion called *Jaṅghā*. They are aptly termed *Pikkhanaya* (*Prekṣaṇikās*), i.e., acting female figures shown in beautiful dramatic poses.

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Thakkura Pheru wrote also another book entitled the *Prāsāda-maṇḍana* which awaits publication. We have also the *Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra* of Bhojadeva (11th century) containing an exceptionally rich stock of architectural terminology and minute details of buildings together with their several parts as the *Maṇḍapa*, *Jagatī*, etc. The *Mānasollāsa* written by King Someśvara of the Western Chālukya dynasty of Kalyāṇī (c. 1124-1138) seems to preserve the officially accepted canons of architecture, sculpture and painting in the Chālukyan period. It is extremely important that these texts should be studied with reference to existing monuments and their technical terms explained and illustrated by actual examples found in them.

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Fig. 159. Deogarh gateway showing Pratihārī, Patralatā, Mithuna Śrīvṛksha and Pramatha.

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Fig. 160. Door-sil with grāsa (lion face) and festoon.

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Fig. 161. Rathikābimba or exterior niche from a wall of Deogarh temple.

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Fig. 162. Mahāpīṭha showing the Five Courses or Pañchathara.

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Fig. 163. Prekṣaṇikā or women in dramatic poses on the outside of medieval temple.

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Fig. 164. Part of doorjamb showing Pratihārī and auspicious birds (māṅgalya vihaga).

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Fig. 165

Explanation of the Figures

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Fig. 159.—Proper right side of the gateway in the Gupta temple at Devagarh, illustrating (1) in the lintel the projecting image (ललाटबिम्ब) which became a regular feature of all later doorways; (2) on the jamb the standing attendant figures (प्रतिहारी), the foliate scroll पत्रवल्ली or पत्रलता the amorous couples मिथुन or दम्पती figures; the Prosperity Tree (श्रीवृक्ष) on the outer most band; the dwarfish figures (प्रमथा:) in the third band, which also occur in a great variety of poses on the Gupta architectural pieces from Nagod (now in the Allahabad Museum).

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Fig. 160.—Door-sil showing two lion faces (ग्रासा:) and a festoon (संतानक or मंदारक) between them.

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Fig. 161.—Niche from a wall of the Devagarh temple, containing a profoundly moving religious scene, viz., the गजेन्द्रमोक्ष, ‘Deliverance of the Lord of Elephants.’ The whole composition took the form of a sunk panel or false window framed in an architectural setting of pilasters and architraves and was repeated on all the three sides of the temple visible in the pradakṣiṇāpatha. The composition came to be technically known as रथिकायुक्तबिम्ब and continued throughout the medieval period.

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Fig. 162.—Mahāpīṭha consisting of a basement (जगती) below and the five horizontal courses (पर or स्तर) consisting of Elephants, Horses, Lions, Human Beings and Geese, named in order गजरथ, अश्वरथ, सिह्यरथ, नररथ, हंसरथ. Below are other mouldings named in descending order ग्रासपट्टी (lion-faces or Kirtimukhas), कपोतावलि or pigeon-row course or the bird’s beak (कपोतावलि), अन्तरपत्र (leaf moulding), कणी (torus), जाड्यकुम्भ (pot-form moulding) and three parallel plinth courses one above the other.

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Fig. 163.—Dancing women in various dramatic poses called प्रेक्षणिका or पेखणिका, and carved as a course in the Maṇḍovara portion of the vertical height of the temple.

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Fig. 164.—Part of a doorjamb from Dah Parbatiya in Assam (Sivaramamurti, Sculpture inspired by Kālidāsa, Fig. 38). It clearly shows the auspicious flying birds referred to by Varāhamihira as मंगल्य विहग. The Pratihārī figure with a garland occupying the lower portion of the jamb is also clear.

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Fig. 165.—Side view of a temple showing the जगतीपीठ (ground plinth), प्रासादपीठ (temple basement), मंडोवर (the central portion), the शिखर and the आमलक.