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Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c8: Chapter IV: 4 (a). Vedic Arts and Crafts

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c8

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Chapter IV: 4 (a). Vedic Arts and Crafts

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CRAFTS IN THE VEDAS—We learn from the Vedic literature about some arts and crafts executed in material media, although up to no now actual relics have been traced. There are references to Stūpa (as in Hiraṇya Stūpa), Yūpa or sacrificial post with a rope and a top-ring (Chashāla) which were fashioned by felling timber trees by expert carpenters known as Yūpa-vraska. The workmen possessed tools made of copper (Ayasī-vāsī) for cutting stately forest trees (Vanaspati) of a hundred or a thousand branches (Satavalśa, Sahasravalśa).

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VIŚVAKARMĀ—There is repeated emphasis on the creation of forms of great variety (Puru-rūpa), by Indra with his intrinsic power, and by Tvaṣṭā, ‘Shaper’ with an actual technique of cutting and chiselling (rūpa piṁśana). The deity of creation Viśvakarmā is compared to a smith (Karmāra) working at his furnace and smelting metals for forging various objects, the process being called Saṁdhamana (RV. X. 72.2). Even the mighty gods are said to be produced by the smelting of their substance on fire in the furnace.

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ŚILPA—Craftsmanship was known as Śilpa, a well built body being Suśilpa, and the maker of a beautiful form as Surūpa-kṛtnu. The Goddess of Beauty was Śrī with her companion Lakshmī. The opposite of Śrī was A-Śrī and an ugly face was A-Śrila whereas a beautiful face was Supratīka. It seems that men and women were fond of cultivating beauty both of forms and general appearance by improving their dress, hair-style and ornaments, as indicated by a number of beauty denoting words in the Ṛigveda. Gold-embroidered cloth (Hiraṇyamaya Drāpī), a high pointed head dress (Opaśa), figured drapery (Peśas), woollen cloth (Ūrṇā) and coats of tanned sheap-skin (Pavasta) are mentioned. Opaśa was a fan-like decoration rising several inches above the forehead and secured by a fillet. Kurīra often mentioned with it was a pannier-like cone for the ear. Hair was arranged in braded locks sometimes four for young women (Chatushkapardā yuvatīḥ supeśāḥ, RV. X. 114,3), the bunch of twisted hair on the back of the head being Kumbā (cf. koppu, Hindi khopā). Once a belle is called Svopaśā, Sukurīrā and Sukapardā (VS. 11.56).

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WEAVING—Reference to cotton cloth is absent in Ṛigveda although wool was much in vogue, e. g. Śamulya (probably the same as samūr) and Dūrśa (class. Sans. Dūshya, Hi. dhussā). The art of weaving was Vayana, the loom Tantra, the warp Tata, the shuttle Tasara. The imagery of the loom is applied to Time weaving the cosmic texture with the twin yarns of Night and Day. In a passage the mother is said to be weaving the garment for her son (RV. V. 47.6, *Vastrā putrāya mātaro vayanti*). Yarn or thread was known as *Sūtra* and *Tantu*.

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CART-WRIGHT—The craft of a cart-wright (*Rathakāra*) was quite developed; frequent mention being made of chariot (*Ratha*), axle (*Aksha*), wheel (*Chakra*), spokes (*Ara*), nave (*Nabhya*), felly (*Pradhi*), rim (*Nemi*), body of the chariot (*Kośa*), seat (*Bandhura*, also *Garta*), pole (*Ishā*), yoke (*Yuga*), a movable stand to hold the chariot (*Rathavahana*) and the fore-part of a chariot (*Ratha-mukha*). The heavy country-cart was *Anas* or *Śakaṭī* (RV. X. 146.3).

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UTENSILS—A number of household utensils give an idea of the crafts behind them, e. g. *Amatra* (a vessel), *Āhāva* (a bucket), *Ukhā* (a cooking pan), *Udañchana* (a bucket for lifting water from a well), *Kaṁsa* (a metal pot), *Kalaśa* and *Kumbha* (water pots), *Chamasa* (big bowl), *Charu* (cauldron), *Kadruka* (a loṭā), *Droṇa* (large wooden vessel), *Dṛiti* (leather-bag), *Pariṇahya* (household utensils), *Maṇika* (water-bottle), *Śūrpa* (wicker-work basket), *Sthālī* (cooking pot), *Sushirā Sūrmi* (a hollow tube), *Dṛishad* (pounding-stone), etc.

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OCCUPATIONS—The different arts were developed as occupations of special workers, e.g. a plough-man (*Kināśa, Kṛishīvala*), smith (*Karmāra*), fisherman (*Kaivarta*), herdsman (*Gopa*), boatman (*Nāvāja*), barber (*Nāpita*), bow-maker (*Jyākāra*), carpenter (*Takshā, Tashṭā*), smelter (*Dhmātṛi*), cook (*Paktṛi*), hand-clapper (*Pāṇigha*), basket-maker (*Bidalakārī*), jeweller (*Maṇikāra*), washerman (*Malaga*), rope-makar (*Rajju-sarja*), dyer (*Rajayitṛi*), acrobat (*Vaṁśa-nartin*), weaver (*Vayātṛi*), maker of winnowing baskets (*Śūrpakāra*), gold-smith (*Hiraṇya-kāra*), flute player (*Viṇā-gāthin, Viṇā-vāda*), etc.

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HOUSE-BUILDING—Building art was quite evolved, as shown by terms about architectural lay-out and the several parts of a building pillar as the main support of a building was called *Skambha*. Indra is *Skabhīyān*, best possessor of pillars (RV. X. 111. 5). The building was measured out (*dhāma mame*) and supported on pillars (*skambhena adhāryat*, RV. VIII. 41, 10). There is a reference to three pillars made stable in their foundations which gives a good picture of a vaulted or conical roof (*Trayaḥ skambhāsaḥ skabhitāsaḥ*, RV. I. 34. 2). The foundation is called *Dharuṇa* on which the pillar was raised (*Skambhaṁ dharuṇe* RV. X. 44. 4). A big pillar was praised as *Mahat Skambha* (RV. VI. 47. 5), having a tall shaft (*Varshman*, R. V. III. 8. 3), raised aloft (*Urdhvamtiṣṭha*, RV. III. 8. 1) and considered to be an emblem of universal prosperity (*Uchchhrayasva mahate Saubhgāya*, RV. III. 8. 2) as a *Yūpa* or Indra’s Banner. The word *stabhanāt* has been used for a pillar (*Skambhanena stabhanāt*, RV. VI. 47. 5), giving the later word *Stambha*. Expert wood-workers went to the forest, selected the stately tree and felled it with their axes (*Vanaspate Svadhitistataksha*, RV. III. 8. 6.).

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ARCHITECTURAL LAY-OUT—There are several names for the house *Dama*, *Griha*, *Pastya*, *Sadana*, *Durona*, *Harmya*. It had three main parts, a clear scheme which continued throughout as the basic lay-out of a house or palace in India. The first part was the door with its forecourt (*Dvara*), the second *Sadas*, corresponding to the *Asthana-mandapa*, *Sabha*, *Asthayika* of later literature. This was the male apartment or the room for receiving guests and holding public audiences in the royal palaces. The third element consisted of a female apartment called *Patni sadana*, same as *antahpura*. In Vedic times a fourth part of the house was *Agnisala* in which the sacred fires were kept. This later on became the *Devagriha* portion of a palace. A house was regularly planned and measured (*Nimita*, *Mita*, AV. 9. 3. 19). There were several kinds of houses both big and small, e. g. *Mana* and *Sala*, the former denoting a rich man's house or palace (*Brihat Mana*, RV. VII. 88. 5), and the latter a middleman's average house. We read of *Mahasala* in the Upanishads. The Rigveda refers to *Sahasra-sthuna*, a house on a thousand pillars, adorned with gold inlay (*Hiranya-rupa*) on a sheeting of copper (*Ayah-sthunam*, RV. V. 62. 5). A grandiose structure resting on a thousand columns is stated to be a *Sadas*, which could only be a public audience-hall (राजानौ ध्रुवे सदस्युत्तमे सहस्रस्थूणा आसाते, RV. II. 41. 5.). We know the place of *Sabha* and *Samiti* in Vedic polity, the latter forming an assembly of the people (*Visah*). It must have been to convene sessions of the *Samiti* that the need for a thousand-pillared hall with the king himself seated at one end was felt. There is also reference to a companion idea of a big house or palace having a thousand doors (*Sahsra-dvara-griha*) called *Brihanta Mana* (RV. VII. 88. 5), the main entrance being known as *Prathama Dvara*, which was the same as *dvara-koshtha* of later times. We find also reference to *Sata-bhuji* and *Sata-dvara*, a house with a hundred columns and a hundred doors. The ideal world was referred to as Thousand and real human life as Hundred. Houses had two, four, six, eight or ten walls (*Dvipaksha*, *Chatushpaksha*, *Shat-paksha*, *Dasapaksha*, AV. 9. 3. 21). The meaning of *paksha* seems to be the same as in the dialects today, namely, wall (*Pakkha*). A room was called *kulaya* and rooms within rooms were planned (*kulaye adhikulayam*), and a storey as *kosa* of which several were superimposed (*Kose-kosah samubjitah*, AV. 9. 3. 20.).

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The house had open spaces as an integral part of its lay-out called *Udara*, same as *angana* or *ajira*, court-yard, in later times. This was spacious in the female apartments called *Pratichi*, the back portion (*Pichhavada*) as contrasted with the front portion which was the *Sadas* itself. The *Rajakula* portion of an Indian palace, also known as *Antahpura* consisted of the female apartments or living quarters of the king and queens. In between the *Sadas* (the public hall) and the *Patnī-sadana* seems to have the site of the open courtyard where the *Havirdhāna* and *Agnisālā* were sited, corresponding to the temples in the later palaces.

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DETAILS OF A HOUSE—An idea of the construction of a house may be obtained from several references in the *Śālā-sūkta* of the Atharvaveda (9. 3. 3). The first fact is that even houses of big dimensions were constructed of timber (यस्त्वा शाले निमिमाय स जभार वनस्पतीन, 9. 3. 11.). This was the material of which the ideal house of Parameshṭhī Prajāpati was made and the same model was adopted by human beings (*Prajāyai chakre*).

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A house was raised on a foundation pillar of big size, either one or more according to needs (*Skambha* and *Upamit*). It was the practice to support the roof on three rows of pillars (त्रयः स्कम्भासः स्कभितासः, RV. I. 34. 2.). On these upright pillars leaning rafters were placed as props (*Pratimit*). On the upright pillars in the middle which probably were higher than the others, was placed a strong cross-beam called *Parimit*, same as *Prāg-vaṃśa* of later literature. This structure was covered with bamboos (*Vaṃśa*) and held together by means of certain binding ropes and fastening devices. The general name for them was *Naddha*.

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ROOFING—In preparing the thatched roof a number of unsplit bamboos (*Vaṃśa*) were laid in parallel rows (now called *kore*), secured at one end by a stout rope made of twisted *Muñja* grass (now called *jūn*, Sanskrit *Yūna*) which seems to be the same as *Prāṇāha* of the *Śālā-sūkta*. The bamboos were tightly held cross-wise also by other strings referred to here as *Nahana* (*Vaṃśānāṃ nahanānām*, AV. 9. 3. 4.). Two processes were distinguished, the first a net-work of unsplit bamboos with cross-wise split bamboos above it. This was the *Āyāma*, a squre or rectangular frame-work now called *Thāṭa* or *Thaṭṭara*. The second process was covering it with several layers of straw which is referred to here as *Barhaṇa* (*Saṃ-babarha*, AV. 9. 3. 3) similar to the *Barhir-āstaraṇa*, spreading the stew on altar), now called *Bichhāvan* or *Aṭakana* or *Phiṭakarī*. This was again covered by split bamboo sticks and the upper and lower layers were fastened by knots called *Granthi* (*Granthīṃs, chakāra te dṛḍhān*, AV. 9. 3. 3), same now called *gūnth* (गूँथ). In the same *Sūkta* two words are used in connection with a thatched house; (i) *Triṇa*, which refers to the several kinds of grasses, like *Muñja*, *Śara*, *Kuśa*, *Kāsa*, *Vīrana*, etc., and (ii) *Palada* which denoted the straw obtained from rice and wheat plants (तुणैरावृता पलदान्वसाना, AV. 9. 3. 17). Strong ropes to prevent the thatched roof from slipping down and keeping it secured to the main beams and pillars were known as *Parishvañjalya*, *Sadaṃśa* denoted a clamp or strut. The sling-pendants inside the house from the roofs were called *Śikya* (*Antaḥ śikyāni*, AV. 9. 3. 6). The ridge in the centre called *Parimit* (later *Prāchīna-vaṃśa* or *Prāg-vaṃśa*; now बलैंsī from Sanskrit *Bala-daṇḍa*) was called *Viṣuvat*, because this central beam divided the roof in two portions. Over this were placed a number of protuberant pots, each of which covered a hole (*Akṣa*) in the roof as an outlet for smoke (later on known as *Dhūmanetra*, Pali, *Dhūmanetta*, at present *Naina, Nainuā*). This architectural feature and been perfected in Vedic times and referred to in the Atharva as *Sahasrākṣa Opaśa*, the thousand-eyed protuberants arranged in a line on the middle ridge (ओपशं विततं सहस्राक्षं विषुवति, AV. 9. 3. 8.). A house was made beautiful (*Raṇya*), decorated and was the object of attraction for all (*Viśva-vārā*). An idea of its roof is given by comparing it with a standing female-elephant (*Hastinī padvatī mitā Pṛthivyām tiṣṭhati*, 9. 3. 17.). This refers to the vaulted roofing which we see in a developed form in the Chaitya-halls of Western India.

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Attached to the house in the first court were also the broad spaces for cows and horses, both of whom formed an essential part of the domestic economy in Vedic times (*Aśvāvatī Gomatī śālā*, 3.12.2., *Gobhyo Aśvebhyo namo yachchhalāyāṃ Vijāyate*, 9. 3. 13). A house is compared to a beautiful bride (*Vadhūmiva te Śāle*, 9.3.24) and the same is still current in the saying that the decoration of a house is similar to that of a bride. A Vedic house-holder (*Śālā-pati*) adored his house like a goddess, since it was the real place where the whole cycle of life was unfolded for him. He felt happy to think of the delightful home overflowing with stores of food and milk, free from hunger and thirst, and full of laughter and merriment.

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This joyous spirit is reflected in another hymn devoted to *Śālā* and *Vāstoshpati* (AV. 3. 12) where besides referring to the joys of a happy family mention is also made of some architectural features, viz. its being thatched and having a big lay-out (*Bṛihat-chhanda*) both in loftiness and plan. It is also said that the big cross-beam (*Vaṃśa*, same as *Prāchīna-vaṃśa*) was supported on smaller wooden posts called *Sthūṇā* (*Sthūṇamabhiroha Vaṃśa*, AV. 3. 12. 6.). The Śatapatha refers to the house planned in two parts, the first one called *Pūrvardha* was the same as *sadas* or the male apartment. It was here that the main upright pillar called *Varshishṭha Sthūṇārāja* was erected (ŚB. 3. 5. 1. 1). As to orientation it is stated that the Gods preferred it to be east-west (*Prāchīna vaṃśa*) and for human dwellings it was north-south (*Udīchīnavamśa*, ŚB. 3. 6. 1. 23).

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With all these specific details about the lay-out and architecture of a Vedic house it is not correct to say that ‘very little is known of the structure of the house’ (Vedic Index, I. 230). The fact is that many of the basic elements of house-building that we find in historical times were developed in Vedic times and those early architect perfected their plan of a standard house to suit the basic requirements of Indian life and climate.

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We can say that the lay-out of an Āryan house is quite clear divided into three portions, viz. the first court for domestic animals, the second for men and the third as the women's apartment, the same is in the epic palaces of three courts called *Tri kakshā*. Subsequently the number of courts increased up to seven (*Sapta-Kakshā*) as mentioned in the *Harsha-charita*.

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Another point is that the thatched palaces of later times were also named *Māna*, e. g. *Kāya-Māna* raised for Harsha on his tour, the temporary palace (*Māna*) which also served for royal offices (*Kāya*).

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Amongst specialised crafts that of the wood-worker (*Takshā*), metalsmith (*Karmāra*), arrow-smith (*Ishukāra*) and bow-maker (*Dhanushkāra*) and of the potter were important. Music and dancing were also cultivated and as later in the *Jātakas* and Pāṇini they were regarded as *Śilpa*. Indra is addressed as a dancer (*Nritu*); a female dancer was *Nritū*. Both vocal and instrumental music for the Sāman-chants was learnt; a stringed instrument of the lute class (*Viṇā*) and a harp with seven notes (*Sapta-tantrī*, *Saptadhātu Viṇā*, RV. X. 32. 4). There is also mention of a *Śata-tantu* or *Śata-tantrī*, a hundred stringed lyre or harp. These instruments were constuctad on the basis of seven notes or a heptatonic scale of music which has continued since then (*Vedic Index*, I. 283). The consciousness of physical beauty and a regular attempt to create such forms in material media distinguished the aesthetic response of the Vedic people, which became personified as the goddess Śrī-Lakshmī, whose worship continued throughout the later periods.

(b) Vedic Symbols in Art

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A important legacy received by Indian art from its Vedic sources of life and literature is the large number of symbols depicted from the earliest times.

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I—DIVINITIES—*Śrī Lakshmī, Yaksha, Nāga, Sūrya, Chandra, Vāmana-Virāṭ* (dwarf and giant), *Ardhanārīśvara, Kumāra, Gaṇapati, Ambikā, Tryambaka* (three-eyed God), *Paśupati* (Lord of Paśus), *Mātṛkā* (One Universal Mother), *Dvimātā, Sapta-mātaraḥ* (Seven Mothers), *Sapta-svasāraḥ* (Seven Sisters), *Daśamātaraḥ* (Ten Mothers), *Tisraḥ Devī* (Three Goddesses, Three Mothers as *Ambā-Ambikā-Ambālikā*), *Samudra*, (Ocean), *Hiraṇyagarbha* (the Golden Egg, *Haimāṇḍa*), *Nārāyaṇa* (Deity of the Cosmic Ocean), *Daksha* (Goat-headed deity of *Yajña*), *Asura, Agni* (Fire), *Sahasrāksha* (thousand-eyed Deity (cf. Thousand-eyed Buddha figures on *thaṅkas*), *Nritu* (Dancer of the *Tāṇḍava*), *Gandharva-Apsaras, Brahma* (same as Yaksha), *Vasus, Rudras, Ādityas, Aśvins* (horse-headed Twin Deities, cf. Dioscuri), *Gaṇa-Devatā* (Host-Deities), *Pramathas, Saptarshi* (Seven Sages), *Aṣṭamūrti Siva, Kumbhamushka* (ithyphallic gnomes, same as *Kumbhāṇḍa*, AV. 11.9.17), *Chaturdamshṭra* (Four-tusked demons, AV. 11.9.17), Nārada (the archetypal Sage of music and movement, AV. 12.4.24), Keśinī (Woman with dioshevelled hair, AV. 12.5.45, cf. the nude goddesses Koṭṭavī and Kālikā), Rudra-Mahādeva, Viṣṇu, Yama, Viśvarūpā Nārī (AV. 14.2.32, same as Śatarūpā, wife of Kaśyapa), Agni-Soma (Fire and Water principles, cf. Hot and Cold streams for Buddha's bath), etc.

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II—IDEAS & CONCEPTS—Svastika, Daivāsuram (conflict between Angels and Titans), Trivikrama (Three Steps), Jyotirliṅga (Pillar of Light) Pṛthu and Pṛthivī (Milking of the Earth-Mother by the King, cf. Māndhātā and Sudassanā motif in Buddhist literature), Pṛthivī-Varāha (Boar lifting the Earth, Varāheṇa Pṛthivī Saṃvidānā, AV. 12.1.48), Sahasra-Puruṣa (Thousand or Infinite Puruṣa, cf. Sahasrātmā Buddha), Sapta-padī (Seven Steps, cf. First Seven steps of Buddha), Tiraśhcīna-nirgamana (oblique birth of Indra, RV. IV. 18.2; also of Buddha; and of Skanda, Matsya 159.48); Agni-Skandha (Pillar of Fire, cf. Jyotirliṅga, Ensign of Light), etc.

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III—ANIMALS & BIRDS—Paśu (animals), Suparṇa, Haṃsa, Daśāśīrsha Vatsa (ten-headed Calf, AV. 13.4.6), Dviśīrsha Vṛṣabha (two-headed Bull), Dviśīrṣṇī Suparṇī (two-headed Eagle, also called Ubhayataḥ-Śīrṣṇī, ŚB. 3.2.4.16), Saptāśva (Seven Horses), Nandi (Bull of pleasures), Ananta (thousand-headed cosmic Serpent), Varāha (Boar), Vṛṣabha-Dhenu (Bull-Cow), Deva-Jāta Aśva (Divine Horse), Mahiṣa (Buffalo-demon), Mahoraga (Tritons), Mahāsya Śvā (Barking Dog, AV. 11.2.30, cf. hunting dogs of Revaṇta), Chaturdaṃṣṭra (Four-tusked animals, as Chaturdaṃṣṭra Kesari), Sahasra-Śṛṅga Vṛṣabha (Thousand-horned Bull, AV. 13.1.12). Harihaṃsa (Golden Swan, AV. 13-3.14), Airāvata (White elephant of Indra, cf. Buddha as white elephant from Tushita heaven), etc.

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IV—ARTICLES & OBJECTS—Pūrṇa-Kumbha, Chakra, Yūpa, Skambha (same as Stambha), Indrayaṣṭi (triangle-headed Standard), Vaijayantī, Vedikā, Sapta-ratna (cf. Seven Jewels of a Chakravartī), Triśūla (Trident), Vajra (Thunder-bolt), Vasudhārā (Shower of Gold), Devaratha (Divine Chariot, cosmic car of Time), Ketu (Banner), Maṇḍala (also Kuṇḍala, the two ear-rings motif), Chamasa (Bowl, Holy Grail), Devaja Maṇi (Auspicious Jewel, AV. 10.6.31), Vasudhāna-Kośa (Jewel Chest, AV. 11.2.11), Araṇi (Twin Churners), Gharma (Milk Boiler, also Mahāvīra or Miraculous Hero), Apūpa (Honey-cake), Dhanur-Ishu (Bow and arrow), Kumbhī (Vase, AV. 11.3.11; Iyameva Pṛthivī Kumbhī, the earth is the Kumbhī), Charu (Five-mouthed cauldron, AV. 11.3.18), Nidhi (Wealth Jar, AV. 12.1.44), Bhujishya-Pātra (Food Bowls AV. 12.1.60, cf. Buddha's begging bowl), Chatur-Chamasa (Four Cups, presented to the Buddha by the merchants), madhu-kośa (cup of honey presented to the Buddha), Indrā-sana (high seat of Indra or Indra's throne on the ridge of heaven; cf. Bodhimaṇḍa), Daivī-Nāva (heavenly ship), etc.

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V—TREES & FLOWERS—Padma or Pushkara (Lotus), Kalpa-vriksha (Wish-fulfilling tree), Kalpalatā, Vanaspati, Puṇḍarīka (Cosmic Lotus with nine holes and three pericarps, AV. 10.8.43), Hiraṇyasraj (Golden Garland), Pushkara-Sraj (Lotus Garland, later called Kiñjalkinī-mālā of Gupta art), etc.

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VI—MISCELLANEOUS—Mithuna (Man-Woman motif), Chatasraḥ Pradiśaḥ (Four Quarters), Sumeru (Golden Mountain), Dyāvā-Pṛithivī (Father-Mother Principle), Vimāna (Divine Mansion, Devagṛiha), Salilam (Water), Vātaraśanā (Nudity motif), Mahā-Nagna (Primeval Nude, same as Digambara), Mahā-Nugnī (same as Kālī, the Black Mother), Pur (Divine City, Ayodhyā), Deva-Sadana (abode of the Gods, also called Nāka; the former in Buddhism as Harmikā and the latter as Sukhāvatī), Grāvāṇau (Clashing Rocks), Guhā, Agni-Guhā (cf. Indra-śaila cave of Buddha’s life), etc. It shows how rich the heritage of Vedic symbols was inherited in art, literature and mythology, and inspiring there new motifs and themes. Whatever be the religion, Indian tradition had accepted the above alphabet of symbols to build an elegant language of form and meaning (Śabda and Artha). Just as literature reflects the mind of India so does its art as a mirror of her soul. The concrete forms in Art have been made use of by the artists to interpret and vitalise the meanings and beliefs handed down through generations. A genuine study of Indian Art requires the understanding of the meaning of symbols created in antiquity and received as tradition by the people. For example, we may look into some of them.

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Śrī-Lakṣmī, is the consort of Viṣṇu, the cosmic deity, a popular symbol of beauty and prosperity. From the time of the Puruṣa-Sūkta upto now her position as the symbol of a happy home has held the field. She is the Daughter of the Ocean, Lady of the Lake, depicted in art as a beautiful woman standing in a lotus-pond and bathed with heavenly waters by two or four elephants holding inverted jars in their trunks. The elephants are the quarters of Space and the jar is the receptacle of the Waters of Immortality. The waters of the pond symbolise the Infinite Ocean, i.e. the source or first cuase of the universe and the growing lotuses typify the sprouts of life manifesting in visible form. It should be remembered that a symbol develops an expanding meaning and many variations as to form and significance are valid.

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The Tree refers to the Tree of Existence, as the Pipal or the Bodhi tree, and the flower to the fruition of the inherent power in the tree, be it lotus, Pārijāta, Mandāra or any other variety. Viṣṇu and Lakṣamī typify the universal parents like Siva and Pārvatī, Rādhā and Kṛiṣhṇa, same as Dyāvā-Pṛithivī of the Vedas, being the two halves of a single primeval Egg, Hiraṇyāṇḍa. Lakṣmī is depicted in the art of Bharhut, Sāñchī, Amarāvatī, Bodh-Gayā, Mathura, etc. and it is not possible to put a religious label on her. The Siri-Mā Devatā at Bharhut is this symbol.

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*Yaksha*, ‘a wonderous being’ of colossal size typified in a visible form Brahman himself (*Mahad-Yakshaṃ Bhuvanasya madhye* AV. 10.7.38), taking giant strides in fervour (*Tapas*), on the surface of the waters of creation. He is lofty like a tree on whose branches spreading from the stern sit hosts of Devas. This was a grand conception befitting a Supreme Deity, symbolising the mysterious principle of life and creation. The Yaksha-cult was a folk religion of the widest distribution which has come down from the Ṛigveda to our own times, and was accepted as much by the Buddhist as by the Jainas and the Brāhmaṇas. Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Arymā of the Vedas and Buddha and Mahāvīra of later times were compared to a Yaksha and the former even reckoned amongst lists of Yaksha deities. Each village had its Yaksha and an annual festival called *Yaksha maha* was held in their honour. Many Yaksha shrines (*Yakkha-chetiya*) are described in Jaina and Buddhist texts.

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*Nāgas*, were serpent deities of folk-cult represented both in a human and a serpent form. The conception was rooted in that of Vedic *Ahi*, signifying Vritra as the Dragon of the Deep (*Ahi-budhnya*) and also identified with Ananta, the cosmic serpent. The Nāgas were powers of the subterranean world but also elevated to the rank of Devatās. They typify the principle of Death (*Mṛityu*), and Darkness (*Tamas*) and Untruth (*Anṛita*), as against the Devas symbolising Immortality (*Amṛita*), Light (*Jyotiḥ*) and Truth (*Satyam*). Buddhism accorded to the Nāga deity a place of honour in the pantheon. There occurs an affair with a Nāga in the life of Buddha, Mahāvīra and Kṛiṣhṇa and we find that like the serpent Vṛitra, the genius of evil, vanquished by Indra. Śiva also drinks poison and makes of the serpent an ornament on his body.

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*Sūrya* and *Chandra* are two great symbols honoured from the Vedas up to now. The two opposite principles of Heat (*Ghrāṃsa*) and Cold (*Hima*, AV. 13.1.46) are typified by them, as also the inseparable pair of the male and the female, father and mother, *Prāṇa* and *Apāna*, *Piṅgalā* and *Iḍā*. The pair of Sūrya and Chandra is depicted in Gupta art and also in Sasanian Iran, a common motif is found on the Kulah caps of the statuettes of Daṇḍa and Piṅgala attendants of Sūrya (*Chandra-divākara*). In folk lore the motif is repeated and also depicted in folk art up to our own day under the name of *Chaṇḍa-Sūraj*. The basal duality of the creative process appears as Sūrya and Chandra, the one changeless and eternal, resplendent with its own lustre, and the other waxing and waning with borrowed light; the former as the principle of *Buddhi* centred in the Divine and the latter of *Manas* pursuing the other.

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*Ardha-Nārīśvara*, half-male and half-female, viz. two conjoint portions of a single egg is the biological pattern of life. The Veda speaks of it as Man and Woman (*Tvaṃ Strī Tvaṃ Pumān*, AV. 108.27). Each woman is half-man and each man is half-woman (RV. I. 164.16). This is the nature of *Mithuna* or *Ardha-Nārīśvara* a composite form of Agni and Soma, is so graphically depicted in art from the Kushāṇa period onwards.

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*Kumāra*, the miraculous babe, the wonderful hero, leader of the divine army, is the son of Agni and symbolises the principle of *Prāṇa* or life. There is a complex mythology under-lying the iconographic form of *Kumāra* as six headed son of six mothers, son of Gaṅgā, son of Agni, etc. An epic cycle of myth is associated with specially his conquest of Tārakāsura the latter typifying the lower mind and the former the death conquering principle of the divine power. Each life centre is a babe or *Kumāra*, the miraculous technique by which Nature has designed to perpetuate life in her laboratory.

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*Gaṇapati*, mentioned in the Ṛigveda, was the symbol of *Brāhmaṇas-pati* Soma, the universal infinite ocean deemed as the primeval cause of creation. Its elephant head being biggest typifies the same, i.e. *Mahat*. Soma was also called *Madhu* (honey). Its symbol was the sweet cake (*Apūpa*) which in iconography becomes the sweet balls of the Gaṇeśa. The micky mouse shows the mind borrowing in earth or matter.

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*Ambikā*, the Great Mother, also *Mahī-Mātā* in the Ṛigveda, fills a large canvas in early Indian Art. A number of Goddesses are her emanations, being variable as one, three, seven, ten, sixteen, etc. both in the Vedic and Paurāṇic theology. The *Sapta-Mātṛkās* as the *Śaktis* of Śiva regularly appear from Kushāṇa art onwards. *Aditi*, *Haimvatī Umā*, *Pārvatī*, etc. are different names and aspects of the Goddess or Devī, who is differentiated as Sarasvatī-Lakṣmī-Durgā in the triadic pattern of the cosmos.

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*Samudra*, represents the primeval waters or sourse of creation, also called *Salilam*, *Apaḥ*. Brahman himself is a infinite ocean and his Mind also is *Samudra* (*Mano-vai Samudraḥ*). The ocean is depicted at Udaigiri in the Mahāvarāha panel. It is also part of the *Samudra-manthana* scenes later. *Nārāyaṇa*, the thousand-headed Purusha of the Ṛigveda and the Brāhmaṇas, is the same as Viṣṇu residing in the milky ocean. He represents the *Hiraṇyagarbha* principle of life or *Prāṇa* abiding in the infinite source and taking birth as the omnipresent divinity both in the universal and the individual. The concept of *Nārāyaṇa* became favourite of the Bhāgavatas and repeated almost in every Purāṇa. In art it becomes the Anantśāyī Viṣṇu as in a panel of the Deogarh temple.

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*Svastika*, a solar symbol typifying the four-armed pattern of the cosmos spreading in the four directions. From this was developed the cult of Four Regions (*Chatur mahā-diśaḥ*). The doctrine is found in Ṛigveda; its followers in popular cult were known as *Diśā-vratika*. Each wheel or *Chakra* carries within its womb or centre a *Svastika* formed by combining four right angles of 90° each. The *Svastika* is the symbol par excellence of the four-fold divine principle (*Chatush-pād Brahma*), of which another significant form is four-faced Brahmā in art and mythology, the Tetradic Deity of the four basic types of manifestation. A chain of four-fold symbols as four Vedas, four Lokas, four Devas, four Quarters, four Varṇas, four Āśramas, four Priests, etc. is linked to this basic pattern of quadruplication.

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*Daivāsuram*, the conflict between Devas and Asuras, Angels and Titans, represents the basic pattern of creation on the plane of matter. The powers of light are heavenly and immortal, those of darkness belong to the earth or matter and are mortal, bound by time and space. The celestial and the chthonic forces function at every level directed to cancel or overcome each other. The triumph of the Deva principle means life and of the Asura death. The whole pattern of Ṛigvedic myths is cast into the Daivāsuram mould which serves both in literarure and art as their life breath. Buddh's tempatation by Māra, Śiva's victory over Kāma, Devi's conflict with Mahisha, and a number of other themes offer a commentary on this basis cosmic myth. The Garuḍa-Nāga struggle depicted in Mathura art is a part of this symbolism, which in the Suparṇa Saga (*Sauparṇākhyāna*) appear as the Sauparṇas (heavenly birds) and Kādraveyas (the black serpents of dark regions) and enter into rivalry for obtaining mastery over the Cosmic Horse, viz. Sūrya. The Deva and Asura myths have a wide range and are found in all nations, holding the key to their religious beliefs and art form. A statement of surprising clarity is made in the Ṛigveda itself (RV. X. 5. 2., repeated in ŚB. 11. 1. 6,10) that all that men recount about the battles of Indra with the Asuras is pure illusion, for no enemy Indra ever had to fight. No historical basis need be tracad in these myths as the same deprives them of the truth of their vital purpose at several levels.

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*Trivikrama*, the Three Steps of Viṣṇu, was a Vedic motif transferred to the Purāṇic legend of Vāmana and Virāṭ, equally a theme of art and poetry. It is the symbol of triple motion, viz. centripetal and centrifugal and the principle of rest abiding in the centre. Movement is essential for life. It is the same as Time whose dynamism is pushing the worlds ahead. Life is governed by the three steps of past, present and future and each unit of time both big and small has these three divisions visualised as the process of growth. By this irresistible process the dwarf (*Vāmana*) becomes the giant (*Virāṭ*). Where life functions growth is inevitable, typified as the presence of Trivikrama Viṣṇu.

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Jyotirliṅga, the banner of light, was an ancient symbol since Brahman and all the Gods are Jyotiḥ, the ensign (Ketu) or Liṅga of the unmanifested essence of the Creator. Sūrya is the visible Jyotirliṅga which stands in axial alignment with millions of other Suns and is, therefore, without measure at both its ends. The Māheśvara teachers made capital of this idea and it found a happy representation in art. Similar are other aspects of Śaiva theology speaking of him in a variety of forms, e.g. Kāmāntaka, Yogeśvara, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, etc. which possess valuable religious intimations and formed a significant alphabet of art motifs. The whole idea of Śiva was rooted in the Vedic conception of Rudra being another name of Agni. Rudra's son Skanda is also a scion of Agni.

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Suparṇa, the Eagle which is the same as Garuḍa, being the symbol of Sūrya, Time, Saṃvatsara, Agni and for the matter of that of each god associated with movement. The universal spirit is Suparṇa or Eagle and its individual counterpart on earth is a Quail. The former dives at the latter to hold it in its clutches. The Garuḍa-Nāga motif of art is an extension of the Suparṇa myth. In the Ṛigveda we read of one, two, three or many Suparṇas.

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Mahisha, the Buffalo-demon vanquished by the Great Goddess, is the type of riotous energy which challenges the supreme mother of the Gods. He is mentioned as Gaura (Bos Gaurus, RV. V. 58. 2) and Mahisha (RV. X. 189. 2). He is a form of Vṛitra who challenges Indra or the power of the Sun.

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Pūrṇa-Kumbha, Pot and Foliage, Full Vase, was the symbol of plenty and creativity. The water in the jar is the sap or humidas radicle (Salilam, Ṛitam, Āpaḥ) and the over-flowing leaves and flowers typify life itself with its manifold blessings and joys. The human body is Pūrṇa-Ghaṭa and so is the created cosmos. The Pūrṇa-Kalaśa or Bhadra-Kalaśa of the Ṛigveda is filled with the immortal sap of Soma, the Pūrṇa-Kumbha of Atharva with streams of Ghṛita and Amṛita (AV. 3. 12. 8). The home is the Maṅgala-Ghaṭa, Maṅgala-Kalaśa and actually beautified with it (Puṇṇaghaṭa-Paṭimaṇḍita ghara). The motif of a Dame with the Well-filled Pitcher is mentioned as Pūrṇa-Kumbha-Nārī in Atharva (3. 12. 8) and as Pūrṇa-ghaṭa-Kanyā in the Lalita-Vistara, amongst walking in the Lumbinī procession of Māyā Devī. In art the motif is seen at Bharhut, Sāñchī, Amarāvatī, Mathura, Kapiśā, Nāgārjunikoṇḍa, Sarnath, Anurādhapur, Borobudur, etc. It is combined with Pillar both in the basement and on top, and also in the figures of Gaja Lakshmī. In Jaina manuscripts it is given an anthropomorphic form, and in religious worship it is regarded as the symbol of Trinity.

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Chakra, is the symbol of the Sun or Time (Kāla-chakra), Cosmos (Bhava-chakra, Saṃsāra-chakra), Life (Jīvana-chakra), and of the transcendent creative power (Brahma-chakra), distinguished by rhythmic or cyclic movement (Chhando-gati).

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It is identified with the supreme moral order in the form of *Dharma-chakra* and *Sudarśana-chakra*, both having a thousand spokes (*Sahasrāra*). The number of spokes is variable as 3 (*Tryara*), 5 (*Pañchāra*), 6 (*Shaḍara*), 12 (*Dvādaśāra*), according to the varying divisions of Time units in the year. This elasticity is the quality of a symbol pointing to its exploding meaning at several levels. The year being conceived as *Kāla-chakra*, it is possible to look upon the seasons as 3, 4, 5 or 6. *Chakra* is also equal to *Ratha*, both signifying movement, the former being the source of word ‘circle’ and the latter of ‘rota’. The Sarnath Aśokan Pillar was a *Chakra-stambha*, the like of which also occurs in Jaina Art of Mathura. In the Rigveda it is called the perfect wheel (*Vṛitta-chakra* of *Viṣṇu*, RV. I. 155. 6), which later on was named the *Sudarśana-chakra* by the Bhāgavatas.

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*Yūpa*, the pillar of sacrifice, typified the *Axis Mundi*, the cosmos being a *Yajña*. The sacrificial stake is the World-Pillar (*Skambha*); the Divyāvadāna speaks of a *Yūpa* as the sign of *Dharma* (*Dharma-chihna*), which is the same as *Dharma-stambha*, a pillar with a *Chakra* on its summit like the Sarnath Capital, which reminds of a *Chakravartī* king firm in his duty or *Dharma*, or piety, morality and law. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa the portion of *Yūpa* inside the ground is said to belong to the Asuras, that up to the rope (*Raśanā*) to men, up to the ring (*Chashāla*) to the Gods and above it the *Deva-sadana* to the highest Sādhya-Devas. This tallies with the four-fold division of a *Stūpa* which constituted the rendering of the idea of *Yūpa* in a different form. The *Deva-sadana* portion was the same as *Harmikā*, the abode of gods or their seat in the highest heaven.

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*Skambha*, a support or pillar with a lofty height (*Uchchhraya Varshaman*) was erected on the earth as the symbol of both the absolute Brahman (*Jyeṣṭha-Brahma*) and the created cosmos (*Skambha-sūkta*, AV. 10.7.). All the worlds and all the gods reside within the *Skambha*. The pillar was regarded as the perfect symbol of the highest Creator (*Parameṣṭhī Prajāpati*). *Indra-yaṣṭi*, Pole of Indra, was a banner erected in honour of Indra, god of rain and thunder and genius of festivity and joy of the community. This was an Indo-European symbol. Its visible form being a stately forest tree raised with much eclat and ceremony. The triangle-headed banner on a post, seen on ancient Punch-marked coins of silver may be identified as *Indra-yaṣṭi* or *Vaijayantī*. Its festival was known as *Indra-maha*.

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*Sapta-Ratna*, mentioned for the first time in the Rig veda as the gift of Agni in each home, was later transferred in the Buddhist and Purāṇic literature to a *Chakravartī* King. These included a *Chakra-Ratna* (wheel of Law), *Hasti-Ratna*, *Aśva-Ratna*, *Maṇi-Ratna*, *Strī-Ratna*, *Gṛihapati-Ratna* and *Pariṇāyaka-Ratna* (Wise Counsellor).

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*Padma*, also called *Pushkara*, the Lotus, is the highest Indian symbol in art, religion and cosmology, of life floating on the surface of creative waters. It is the flower opening its petals to the rising Sun. Sūrya is the symbol of Brahma, the Supernal Sun in heaven, and the Lotus is the flower of life blossoming on earth; it is the visible sign of consciousness (*Prāṇa*) in matter (*Bhūta*). A gamut of meanings is associated with the lotus. It symbolises the principle of growth, rising from the immortal navel of Viṣṇu or the cosmic deity whose ‘awakening’ throws up the lotus as the seat of Brahmā, the genius of emanation (*Brahma ha vai Brahmāṇam Pushkare sasrije* Gopatha, 1. 1. 16). The lotus-leaf typifies the womb of creation (*Yonirvai Pushkara-parṇam*, Śatapatha, 6.4.1.7). Lotus is also the cosmic mind (*Sahasrāradala Kamala*), and of the centre of energy in the individual. A detailed metaphysical doctrine of the Bhāgavatas explains the birth of the cosmos form a lotus (*Padmajā Sṛiṣṭi*) in distinction to the other belief of the world from the Golden Egg (*Aṇḍaja Sṛiṣṭi*). The womb of the individual and the universal mother giving birth to the child is symbolised as the lotus growing in water. The *Pūrṇa-ghaṭa* symbol combines both of them.

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*Kalpa-Vriksha*, the Wish-fulfilling Tree, was churned as a jewel from the Ocean. It is the symbol of Mind, where *Kalpa* signifies ‘thought’ or ‘idea’. What one wishes under the *Kalpa-Vriksha* tree one obtains. Mind is the instrument of such a will. Life itself is a *Kalpa-vriksha*. One gets out of it as one wills. Home also is a veritable *Kalpa-vriksha*, its various branches are father, mother, brothers, sisters, producing all that the young man or woman wishes, of which food, ornaments, clothes and articles of beauty are only gross forms. The *Kalpa-vriksha* is a tree of heaven, with Gods seated on its branches and leaves. It is the tree of dense foliage (*Supalāśa*). The tree has four main boughs in four directions, which link it with the four-fold pattern of life and the world. Pairs of eternal Man and Woman (*Mithuna* are produced on this heavenly tree, viz. the home with its sacrament of marriage which brings about the union of the two parents. In the Uttara Kuru idealogy *Kalpa-vriksha* plays an important part, being described in the Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, Mahā-vāṇija Jātaka, Purāṇas, Jaina texts and classical Saṃskṛit literaure. It is depicted in detail at Bharhut, Bhaja, Sāñchī, etc. The *Mithuna* motif continuing on the door-jambs of temples and caves was derived from the same source. The Jaina texts speek of kinds of *Kalpa-vriksha* trees. The *Kalpa-latā* or meandering creeper was a rendering of this motif very popular in early Indian Art, showing a wealth of ornaments and fabrics pendant from the tendrils of the creeper. Another derived motif was the *Nārī-latā* or *Kāma-latā* depicted on a pillar from Garhwal.

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*Sumeru*, the golden mountain, the immortal centre of the Universe, holding all the other mountains and continents on its periphery, is the symbol of the immovable centre of the world. It is the source of four great rivers flowing in four directions, typifying the four-fold flux of life. It is the abode of all the Gods. Himālaya which enters so much in art and myth is said to be a friend of Meru.

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Buddha, whatever may be said of him as Gautama the Man, has been rendered in art with a gushing acceptance of an ancient symbolism from the Vedas. The Lokottaravādin biographers of the Buddha, as in Lalitavistara, wholeheartedly admitted the strands of yore for weaving the rich texture of Buddha's life. What is the meaning of the white elephant, of oblique birth, seven steps, first bath, Bodhi-tree, Māra, Indra-śaila cave, Honey gift by the monkey, conversion of four bowls into one, miracle of fire and water and assumption of the Thousand-Buddha form? The answer to these questions is a despair of the Buddhist texts; the key lies in the long tradition of Vedic and popular symbols. Buddha is Sūrya, the white elephant is the principle of universal consciousness incarnating in the individual centre; oblique birth is the appearance of life from an unknown source which is neither up nor below; the First Bath of hot and cold streams is a dip in the duality of Agni and Soma; the honey was the symbol of Soma or immortal knowledge, light and life; the monkey is the ancient Vṛishākapi, a friend of Indra; Indra's cave is a Vedic idea where Agni was first lit or the light first appeared; the conversion of four cups into one is reverse of what the Vedic Ṛibhus did in making four of the one original bowl, viz. a tatradic cosmos from a single cause; Fire and Water miracles are plainly of metaphysical import and are remind of the two views in the Ṛigveda of the Waters (Āpo-Bhūyishṭha) and Fire (Agni-bhūyishṭha) views of creation (RV. I. 161. 9).

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The Chakra-Stambha was identical with the ancient Yūpa as stated in the Divyāvadāna itself. Both the Dharma-Chakra and the Sudarśana-Chakra have a thousand spokes and are symbols of the transcendent beyond the categories of time and space. Thus, the Buddha's life striding as colossus in Indian Art, is virtually a radiating bunch of symbols, and ceases to have meaning if torn from its essential context. It is cast in the same mould as the mythical feats of Vishṇu or Śiva. The begging bowl of Buddha (Bhikshā-Pātra) traces its descent from the Food Bowl (Bhujishya-Pātra, AV. XII. 1.60) of the Creator entrusted to Mother Earth, the Universal Mother Annapūrṇā. In this domain lines of separation or cult boundaries disappear and we find ourselves face to face with a language which is of universal significance and employed to expound the metaphysical truths of Perennial Philosophy (Sanātana Dharma; cf. Dhammo Sanantano of the Buddha).

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It may be noted that Indian aesthetics lay stress on both aspects of art, namely, its inner meaning and outer form (Artha and Rūpa). Without meaning art is jajune, mere portraiture or external representation regarded as unheavenly (*Asvargya*). Kālidāsa hinted at it as the conjoint aesthetic principle of ‘*Vāk* and *Artha*’, inseparable like the two universal parents (*Pārvatī-Parmeśvara*). The same pair is named *Antarvedi* and *Bahirvedi* aesthetic approach (*Viṣṇudharmottara*, 3. 1. 2). It should be the endeavour of a true artist and a true connoisseur (*Śilpī* and *Vichakṣaṇa*) to take interest in either of them. The artist creates the art forms with the power of his mind (*Chitta*) and the critic understands the form and meaning in the measure of the deep joy in his soul. This is complete Indian aesthetics or the doctrine of *Rasa*. A true search in the mystery of literature is needed to discover the meaning as envisaged both in art and literature. The worship of both *Artha* and *Rūpa* was a passion of the creative mind in India. Art, Religion, Poetry and Philosophy are like the four teats of the mother of wisdom, *Sarasvatī*, whose milk flowing from a common breast streams thousand-fold. The ancient Vedic literature in the *Saṃhitās* and *Brāhmaṇas*, *Pāli* and *Āgama* texts, Buddhist and Jaina Sanskrit commentarial texts of later times, and the *Purāṇas* together with the *Kāvyas*, knit by one unifying Thread Spirit (*Sūtrātmā*). Their human message of unity and diversity is writ large on the face of Indian Art and inspired the artist to serve both Man and God, or the kindred points of heaven and home. Art became a way of life, a purposive endeavour. The wise writer of the *Divyāvadāna* assesses it from the aesthetic point of view. The motifs of art had both a decorative (*Śobhanārtha*) and a spiritual value for life (*Ārakṣaṇārtha*, *Divyāvadāna* p. 221).

Linked texts (15)