Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c47: Appendix

Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c47

Language
English

Contents

Appendix

c47.1

The following are extracts from a note on the presumed chronology of the Ajanta and Ellora rock-architecture prepared recently by the Hon'ble Mr. Justice Edgley who has devoted some time to an investigation of the sequence in which these excavations were made. Appended is a table showing the dates of the chaityas and viharas according to Mr. Justice Edgley's researches and deductions.

c47.2

Ellora was probably regarded as a holy place from the earliest times by the principal religious communities of ancient India. Moreover its most important temples date from a period when complete toleration was observed by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. At Ellora, side by side with Buddhist monasteries, which were constructed between the sixth and eighth centuries A.D., magnificent groups of early Brahmanical and Jain temples have been cut out of the rock. Most of the Hindu temples were probably constructed in the seventh and eighth centuries A D. They culminate in the Kailasa Temple, which belongs to the middle of the eighth century and is the finest monument of its kind in India. The earliest of the Jain Temples, the Indra Sabha, is probably contemporaneous with the Kailasa Temple while the latest of the Jain group appears to have been constructed in the thirteenth century.

c47.3

Ajanta shows Buddhism at the zenith of its power. At Ellora, on the other hand, we see Buddhism being gradually overshadowed by a vigorous Hindu reaction. Ellora in fact represents a period when Buddhism began rapidly to decline in influence and authority ultimately to disappear almost completely from India. In the light of available information, the cases of this decline are difficult to explain with any degree of accuracy and this remarkable phase in religious history opens out a wide field for speculation.

c47.4

It is sometimes suggested that Ajanta and Ellora were abandoned by the Buddhists in 642 A.D., as a result of the defeat in that year of the Chalukyan, Pulakesin II, by the Pallava King, Narasimhavarman I, and consequent disturbances in the Deccan. Although Narasimha succeeded in capturing Badami he does not appear to have been able to establish himself for any length of time in any considerable portion of the Chalukyan territories. The dynasty of his rivals was certainly not extinguished as is shown by the fact that, some thirty years later, Pulakesin's son, Vikramaditya I, waged a victorious war against the Pallavas and captured their capital, Kanchi. Even if Narasimha had reached Ajanta and Ellora it is hardly likely that he would have been instrumental in suppressing Buddhism in Western India From the observations of Hiuen Tsiang, who visited Kanchi in 640, it would appear that the Pallavas actually protected the Buddhists in South India. As part of the spoils of war Narasimha may possibly have removed to his country the sculptors and stone-masons who were actually employed at Ajanta and Ellora in order that they might work for him at Kanchi and Mahabalipuram. It is, however, highly probable that the unskilled members of the monastic communities would have been allowed to remain in their settlements and to continue their religious activities unhampered, except possibly by the withdrawal of financial support from the Chalukyan kings whose treasury must have been sadly depleted by the Pallava invasion

c47.5

It is difficult to say whether the first excavations at Ellora were made by Buddhists or Hindus, but, from the general appearance of the older temples, I incline to the view that the earliest work here must have been undertaken almost simultaneously by the followers of both these religions. The influence of the Badami style of cave-architecture is very apparent in the early temples at Ellora, particularly in the use of the elaborate pillars with "cushion" capitals, which from so characteristic a future of the Badami work In fact, it is not unlikely that, after the completion of the work at Badami, many of the artizans at that place were sent to work at Ellora

c47.6

An inscription in Cave III at Badami fixes the date of the construction of that cave approximately 578 A.D We may, therefore, infer that those Ellora temples which show a close connection with the Badami style were constructed during the period from about 580 to 642 A D. In the latter year work was probably suspended for a time owing to the Pallava invasion of the Deccan.

c47.7

The Badami influence may be detected in the capitals of the pillars in Buddhist Caves II and V and in the Dumar Lena (XXIX) which is a Hindu temple From its position Cave I is likely to have been constructed at approximately the same time as Cave II. Probably the Buddhist Caves, I, II, and V (Maharwada) and the Dumar Lena (XXIX) are the only caves at Ellora which were completed before 642 A D.

c47.8

The most interesting of the early group of Buddhist caves mentioned above is the Maharwada (V) It contains a long central hall flanked by pillars of the Elephanta type and, along the whole of its length, run two parallel stone platforms Whether these served as refectory tables or were provided for use in connection with some religious ceremonial is not altogether clear.

c47.9

The next group of temples and *viharas* in chronological sequence would probably include those in which the "vase and foliage" capital begins to be adopted as one of the main architectural features for decorative and structural purposes This particular form of capital seems to have been borrowed from Ajanta towards the middle of the seventh century. I shall deal with this matter more in detail in connection with Ajanta where something happened which interrupted further work just at the identical time that the "vase and foliage" capital was in the process of being adopted on an extensive scale as an architectural order. It is not unreasonable to suppose that the same sort of thing happened at Ellora. I therefore think that it is probable that some of the early caves in which this form of capital appears at Ellora were in an unfinished condition in 642, and that the work there was interrupted for some years ultimately to be completed during the last quarter of the seventh century.

c47.10

Within this group I would place Buddhist Caves III and IV and Hindu Caves XXI (Ramesvara), XXV (Kumbharwada) and XXVII (The Milkmaid's Cave). The most remarkable of these is the Ramesvara (XXI) with its verandah supported by four massive and richly carved pillars to which elaborate struts with female figures have been added. The pillars of the interior are of the Elephanta type. The temple contains some interesting sculptures one of the best of which is a representation of the Dancing Siva.

c47.11

The next group appears to me to be still later in style than those last mentioned, and to have been constructed probably between 700 and 750 A D. It includes Buddhist Caves VI to XII and Hindu Caves XIII to XV. The sculpture to the right and left of the shrine in *vihara* VI shows signs of Hindu influence and, in this respect, it may be compared with the sculpture to be found in Cave VII at Aurangabad. In my view, the Hindu influence which is sometimes noticeable in the later Buddhist sculptures at Ellora and Aurangabad does not indicate that Buddhism at that time was merging into Hinduism but merely shows that the sculptors engaged in the work had spent more time working for the Hindus than for the Buddhists. Indeed some of them might have spent many years working at Mahabalipuram as captives of the Pallava king.

c47.12

The most interesting cave of this group is the Visvakarma (X). It is the only *chaitya* hall at Ellora. There is some realistic sculpture of the late Mahayana period in the triforium and in the galleries. The style of the interior decoration of this chapel—particularly that of its facade—is later than and not so satisfying as that of the last Ajanta *chaitya* hall (XXVI) and, on a comparison with work of a similar character at Bhubaneswar, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the Visvakarma must have been constructed nearly a hundred years after the completion of the last Ajanta chapel (XXVI).

c47.13

The Do Thal (XI) and the Tin Thal (XII) are three storied *viharas*. They belong approximately to the same period as the Visvakarma, although they may have been cut a little later than the other *viharas* compared with which they seem to be better constructed and to represent a more advanced stage of architectural development Further, they contain many more sculptured figures of the Buddha, the Bodhisattvas and other divine or semi-divine beings connected with Buddhist mythology than are usually found in Mahayana *viharas*.

c47.14

The most interesting of the Hindu temples of this group of the first half of the eighth century is the Das Avatar the walls of which have been elaborately sculptured. This temple contains an inscription which suggests that it was probably completed during the reign of Dantidurga Rashtrakuta who conquered the Chalukyans about the middle of the eight century.

c47.15

By far the finest of the Ellora temples is the Kailasa (XVI) which was probably begun about the year 760 A.D., in the reign of Krishna I of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. To cut out of the rock a temple of this size would be in itself a remarkable achievement. The further work connected with its detailed elaborate decoration and the construction of the subsidiary shrines and the sculptured corridors must have been phenomenal.

c47.16

AJANTA

c47.17

The question as to the chronological sequence according to which the caves were constructed is one which presents considerable difficulties. Historical records throw very little light on the subject and relevant contemporary inscriptions are few.

c47.18

The earliest caves are those which have been cut towards the centre of the crescent (VII to XIII). Caves IX and X are *chaitya* halls or chapels and the others are *viharas* or monasteries. Their style indicates that these caves (with the possible exception of XI) were excavated during the first and second centuries B.C. by Buddhists of the Hinayana community. Cave XI may have been cut during a slightly later period than the other caves of this group. The shrine at the back of this cave and the sculptures in the verandah are much later additions and clearly belong to a period when the Mahayana form of worship had been established.

c47.19

The next cave to be cut was probably XV. The shrine contains an image of the Buddha of the early Mahayana type and the cave appears to have been constructed between 400 and 440 A.D.

c47.20

Cave XIV has been cut above XIII It is not easy to attribute a date to it but, as it has been left unfinished, it probably belongs to the middle of the seventh century when all constructional work then in progress seem to have been abandoned. From the beginning to the fifth century, however, for a period of at least two hundred and fifty years, the work at Ajanta continued almost without interruption

c47.21

Cave VII probably belongs to the same period of construction as Cave XV, but it may be a few years later. Cave VI was probably begun after VII had been completed. Cave VI is double-storied and both VI and VII are remarkable for the number of small sculptured figures of the Buddha which they contain. These caves are of an earlier type than XVI and XVII which are among the finest of the entire series, and, as the last two caves can be attributed with tolerable accuracy to the concluding years of the fifth century (possibly 470 to 480), I would assign Cave VII to 400 to 440 and VI to 440 to 480 A.D.

c47.22

Caves XVI and XVII are magnificent *viharas*. From an architectural and artistic point of view, they are perhaps the best specimens of Gupta art in India. Fortunately both these caves contain inscriptions which connect them with Harishena. He was the last king of the Vakataka dynasty of whom we have any definite record, and reigned from about 465 to 500 A D. From these inscriptions it appears that Cave XVI was dedicated by Varahadeva, Harishena's minister, while Cave XVII was cut during the same reign by the minister of a ruler who seems to have been subordinate to Harishena. It would, therefore, be safe to estimate that these caves were constructed about 470 or 480 A D.

c47.23

The next group consists of Caves XVIII to XX As regards style they show a development from that of Caves XVI and XVII, especially as regards the ornamentation of the pillars in the fine *chaitya* hall (XIX) The probable date of their construction would be from about 500 to 550 A.D. The interior of the *chaitya* cave (XIX) is a magnificent piece of work. The pillars of the nave are particularly pleasing and the sculptured decoration is in the best Gupta style In the *chaitya* caves of the earlier period considerable use had been made of wood for the purpose of completing the facade and for internal decoration. Here wood has been discarded and all the work is of stone There is a large representation of the Buddha in bas-relief in the stupa, which indicates a complete break with Hinayana traditions as regards the ritual of worship.

c47.24

A further demand for accommodation led to the construction of *viharas* XXI to XXIII, which were probably cut between 550 and 600 A D. Of this group Cave XXI is extremely interesting At each end of the verandah and also to the right and left of the shrine some beautiful little chapels have been constructed, separated respectively from the verandah and the side aisles of the main hall by two pillars and two pilasters The pillars support delicately sculptured friezes of the 'jewel pattern,' depicting various scenes from Buddhistic mythology.

c47.25

A further notable feature of these chapels is the use, probably for the first time, of the "vase and foliage" capital, which subsequently came to be very widely adopted as an architectural order in the principal mediaeval buildings of Northern India

c47.26

There is some difference of opinion among archaeologists with regard to the period when *viharas* I and II were completed Most of the authorities seem to agree that they may be assigned to the first half of the seventh century A D., but it has also been suggested that Cave I may have been constructed towards the end of the fifth century and that Cave II belongs to a slightly later period, possibly the first half of the sixth century. The latter theory, if correct, would place the four caves (XVI, XVII, I and II) which contain the best of the Ajanta paintings within a period which is generally held to have produced the finest specimens of Gupta art On the other hand, it would be equally interesting if the theory could be reaffirmed, that Caves I and II belong to the first half of the seventh century A D. as this would indicate that the Gupta tradition at Ajanta was sufficiently strong to ensure its survival there long after the disruption of the Gupta Empire in North India under the impact of the Hun invasions I must confess that I find the latter theory the more attractive one and I would be loath to discard it except in the face of very convincing evidence.

c47.27

On page 320 of the "Cave Temples of India" there is a discussion regarding the age of the first five westernmost caves of Ajanta and the last seven at the other extremity in which the following observation occurs :—"There are no inscriptions from which their age can be ascertained with precision, but their architectural details and other indications are sufficient to enable us to feel confident that nearly the whole of them belong to the seventh century, as those of the central group certainly belong to the sixth " The joint authors had assigned the inscriptions in Caves XVI and XVII to about 500 A D and it was on this account that they attributed the central group to the sixth century. They are, however, quite definite that Caves I and II cannot belong to the same period. They seem to base their opinion principally on architectural style which is often the safest and clearest indication with regard to the period of construction of ancient monuments.

c47.28

It seems to me that Caves I and II are nearer in style to the unfinished *viharas* at Ajanta than they are to Caves XVI and XVII. I incline to the view that the last excavations to be completed at Ajanta were *viharas* I and II and *chaitya* hall XXVI and that they may be attributed to the period between 600 and 642 A.D They are all splendidly decorated and must rank among the best examples of Buddhist architecture in India.

c47.29

This brings us to the caves at Ajanta, which were never completed, viz, Caves III, IV, V, XIV, XXIV, XXV, XXVII, XXVIII and XXIX. They were probably under construction in 642 A D, when further work was interrupted by the Pallava invasion of the Deccan. Two of these caves, (*viharas* IV and XXIV) if they had been finished and decorated, would have been the most magnificent of the entire series The hall of Cave IV is considerably larger than that of I and is supported by twenty-eight pillars. There is an interesting Buddhistic Litany near the main door Sculptures of this kind are characteristic of the late Mahayana period.

c47.30

Cave XXIV would have been the largest *vihara* in the series after IV, the hall being about 75 feet square with twenty columns. The sculptures which still exist in the verandah show that it was intended in this *vihara* to use the "vase and foliage" capital as one of its main architectural motifs. In Cave XXI this form of capital seems to have been introduced experimentally into the decorative scheme of the *vihara*. Now for the first time we find it being adopted on a larger scale

c47.31

Architectural details of this nature may possibly throw some light on the general history of the time. It is, I think, reasonable to suppose that, once the use of the "vase and foliage" capital had emerged from its experimental stage at Ajanta, the place of its origin, its general adoption on a larger scale as a prominent architectural feature would take place almost simultaneously at Ajanta and the other Buddhist centres in the immediate neighbourhood of that place. As might have been expected, we find this form of capital in use in a number of the caves at Ellora and Aurangabad. These caves are certainly later in style than any of the completed caves at Ajanta. In fact, they seem to continue the development of Buddhist cave-architecture from the point it had reached when the excavation of Cave XXIV at Ajanta ceased.

c47.32

Cave I at Aurangabad, in which the "vase and foliage" capital has been used with great effect in the verandah, was intended to be a large *vihara*, but further work therein was abandoned at almost the same stage of construction as Cave XXIV at Ajanta. I cannot help thinking that the cause of the cessation of work must have been the same at Ajanta and Aurangabad, and it is highly probable that the same cause must also have brought work to a standstill at Ellora. As already stated, this cause was probably the invasion of the Deccan in 642 A.D., by Narasimhavarman I and the overthrow of the Chalukyan king. At the same time, there seem to be every reason to suppose that a good deal of constructional work must have been done in the Buddhists caves at Aurangabad and Ellora long after it had ceased at Ajanta.

c47.33

It is sometimes assumed that work in connection with the Buddhist caves in this part of the Deccan was discontinued permanently about the middle of the seventh century. I think that can only be correct as regards Ajanta. I therefore venture to put forward another theory.

c47.34

I suggest that what really happened was that after defeating the Chalukyans in 642 A.D, the Pallava king removed the artisans and sculptors from Badami, Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad to Mahabalipuram and other places in his own country and that they or their successors were taken back to the Deccan about 647 A D , when the Chalukyan king, Vikramaditya I, defeated the Pallavas and captured Kanchi (Conjeeveram).

c47.35

This theory finds some support from the fact that the style of the work at Mahabalipuram seems to show a close connection with the Deccan. The cave-sculptures at Mahabalipuram both in the subject represented and in the manner of their execution bear a certain resemblance to those at Badami. Further, there is a remarkable similarity between the Pallava sculpture known as "Arjuna's Penance" and some of the work at Ajanta On this point, the authors of the "Cave Temples of India" observe (p 157) that "Even if this great bas-relief does not afford us much information regarding the rock-cut architecture of Eastern India, it has at least the merit of fixing almost beyond cavil the age of the various objects of interest at Mahavallipur. The sculptures, for instance, of Cave XXIV at Ajanta, are so nearly identical that their age cannot be far apart. We have in these the same flying figures, male and female, the same Kinnaras (harpies) the same style of sculpture in every respect, and such as is not found either before or afterwards. As this Ajanta cave is only blocked out, and only finished in parts, it is probably the latest excavation there and may therefore with certainty be assumed to belong to the seventh century of our era, and most probably the later half of it "

c47.36

As regards architecture, the Badami tradition seems to have been continued in the Pallava country. One of the most characteristic features of the Badami cave temples is the use of very effective pillars with "cushion" capitals, a motif which had probably developed from the bell shaped capital found at such places as Karle and Bedsa and in some of the earlier Buddhist monuments. Further developments of the "cushion" capital are to be found at Ajanta and Ellora, for example in the *chaitya* Caves XIX and XXVI at the former place and in the Maharwada at the latter. In Pallava territory we notice its introduction in the later cave temples of the Bhairavakonda groups, which were probably constructed during the reign of Narasimhavarman I and also in that king's temples at Mahabalipuram where good examples are to be found in the Mahishasura and Ramanuja Mandapas.

c47.37

It is also not without significance that some use is made of sculptured tracery of the later Ajanta variety in some of the Mahabalipuram caves (*e.g.*, the Mahishasura).

c47.38

It must be remembered that apparently during the latter half of the seventh century the work at Mahabalipuram was brought suddenly to a standstill and many ambitious projects which had been begun there were abandoned. At approximately the same time there seems to have been a resumption of constructional operations at Ellora and Aurangabad where the old traditions are followed and to some extent developed This was probably due to the restoration of the Deccan stone-masons and sculptors (or their descendents) to their former country. The non-resumption of work at Ajanta may possibly be explained by the fact that there was already sufficient accommodation there for ordinary monastic requirements and that the Chalukya-Pallava war may have prevented the further development of Ajanta as a seat of learning. The Buddhist settlements at Aurangabad and Ellora, on the other hand, seem to have been purely monastic institutions but very little progress could have been made in constructional work at either of these places before 642. At Ellora only Caves I, II, and V appear to have been completed by that date. If it be assumed that the use of the "vase and foliage" capital was adopted simultaneously on a large scale at Ajanta, Aurangabad and Ellora, it is probable that Cave III at Ellora, in which this form of capital first appears at that place, had reached about the same stage as Cave XXIV at Ajanta. Similarly at Aurangabad the completed work in 642 A.D., could only have consisted of the existing *chaitya* hall and a small remodelled *vihara*. The work on the other later *viharas* must have been in a very incomplete stage If monastic communities of any size existed at Ellora and Aurangabad, as seems to have been the case, further accommodation was clearly necessary and I am inclined to think that, from the time of the return of the stone-workers from the South about 674 A D., the work in the Buddhist caves temples at those places was continued from the point it had reached in 642. In some of the caves, however, the work was not resumed. This may have been due to want of funds or to be the reduction in the numbers of the monks since 642. For instance, no further work seems to have been done in Cave VII at Ellora and Cave I at Aurangabad. But, as regards the other caves which were unfinished in 642, (*e g.* Caves III and IV at Ellora and most of the Caves at Aurangabad) the work seems to have been continued until about 750 A D., when it may have been interrupted by the demand for large numbers of stone-workers in connection with the construction of the Kailasa Temple at Ellora.

Chronology of the Principal Ellora Cave Temples

c47.s1.1

| No. | Description | | Local Name | | Date | Remarks |
| 1 | Vihara (Buddhist) | .. | Dherawara | .. | 580-642 A.D. | |
| 2 | Hall ” | .. | | .. | 580-642 ” | |
| 3 | Vihara ” | | | | Begun c. 640 A D. | . / / Work probably interrupted and completed after 675 A.D. |
| 4 | ” ” | . | | | ” c. 640 A.D. | |
| 5 | ” ” | .. | Maharwada | . | 580-642 A D | |
| 6 | ” ” | .. | | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 7 | ” ” | .. | | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 8 | ” ” | .. | | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 9 | Annexe to 6 ” | | | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 10 | Chaitya Hall | | Visvakarma | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 11 | Vihara ” | .. | Do Thal | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 12 | ” ” | | Tin Thal | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 13 | Small Hall (Hindu) | | | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 14 | Temple ” | | Ravana-ka-kai | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 15 | ” ” | | Das Avatara | .. | 700-750 ” | |
| 16 | ” ” | | Kailasa | .. | 750-850 ” | |
| 21 | ” ” | | Ramesvara | | Begun c. 640 A.D. | . / / Work probably interrupted and completed after 675 A.D. |
| 25 | ” ” | .. | Khumbharwada | . | Begun ” ” | |
| 27 | ” ” | | The Milkmaid's Cave | | ” ” ” | |
| 29 | ” ” | | Dumar Lena (Sita's Nahanı) | .. | 580-64 A.D. | |
| 33 | ” (Jain) | .. | Indra Sabha | .. | 750-850 ” | |
| 33 | ” ” | | Jugannath Sabha | .. | 750-850 ” | |

Chronology of the Ajanta Caves

c47.s2.1

| No. | Description | | Date | | Remarks |
| 1 | Vihara | .. | 600-642 A.D. | .. | Paintings |
| 2 | ” | . | 600-642 ” | .. | ” |
| 3 | ” (unfinished) | . | Begun c. 640 ” | .. | |
| 4 | ” ” | . | ” c. 640 ” | .. | Buddhist Litany |
| 5 | ” ” | . | ” c. 640 ” | . | |
| 6 | ” | . | 440-480 ” | .. | Traces of paintings |
| 7 | ” | . | 400-440 ” | .. | |
| 8 | ” | .. | c. 100 B.C. | .. | |
| 9 | Chaitya Hall | .. | c. 100 ” | .. | Traces of paintings |
| 10 | ” | .. | c. 150 ” | .. | Paintings |
| | | | | | Facade has fallen |
| 11 | Vihara | .. | c. 100 A.D. | .. | Shrine later |
| 12 | ” | | c. 150 B.C. | . | |
| 13 | ” | .. | c. 100 ” | | |
| 14 | ” (unfinished) | .. | Begun c. 640 A.D. | . | |
| 15 | ” | | 400-440 ” | | |
| 16 | ” | .. | 470-480 ” | .. | Paintings |
| 17 | ” | .. | 470-480 ” | .. | Paintings |
| 18 | Porch | . | 500-550 ” | .. | |
| 19 | Chaitya Hall | . | 500-550 ” | .. | |
| 20 | Vihara | .. | 500-550 ” | .. | |
| 21 | ” | .. | 550-600 ” | .. | First appearance of vase and foliage capitals |
| 22 | ” | .. | 550-600 ” | . | |
| 23 | ” | .. | 550-600 ” | | |
| 24 | ” (unfinished) | .. | Begun c 635 ” | . | Vase and foliage capitals |
| 25 | ” ” | .. | c. 640 ” | .. | |
| 26 | Chaitya Hall | | 600-642 ” | .. | |
| 27 | Vihara (unfinished) | .. | Begun c. 640 ” | .. | |
| 28 | Chaitya Hall ” | .. | ” c. 640 ” | .. | |
| 29 | Vihara ” | .. | ” c. 640 ” | .. | |

Linked texts (8)