The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan c9: Chapter V

The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan c9

Language: English

c9.s1 Scales Used in Hindustani Music and Styled "Thâts" — 14 parts

Chapter V

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Taste of European and Oriental nations : how differing—Reason for non-employment of harmony—Method of singing—Of Indian melodies—Form—Classification of—Rhythm—Employment of mixed times—Tonality often doubtful—Resemblance of Indian music to that of other countries—Examples of popular melodies—Hindustani musical system : how differing from Karnátik—Examples of Hindustani melodies—Scales employed in the Hindustani system.

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THE wide divergence of taste in the matter of music between European and Asiatic nations has doubtless arisen from the fact that while Western nations gradually discarded the employment of mode, and clothed the melody with harmony, the Eastern nations in this respect made little or no progress; and now, in India, the employment of authentic modes and melody types (or râgas) is still jealously adhered to.

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Speaking of this, Willard remarks: “To expect an endless variety in the melody of Hindustan would be an injudicious hope, as their authentic melody is limited to a certain number, said to have been composed by professors universally acknowledged to have possessed not only real merit, but also the original genius of composition, beyond the precincts of whose authority it would be criminal to trespass. What the more reputed of the moderns have done is that they have adapted them to their own purposes, and found others by the combination of two or more of them. Thus far they are licensed, but they dare not proceed a step farther. Whatever merit an entire modern composition might possess, should it have no resemblance to the established melody of the country, it would be looked upon as spurious. It is implicitly believed that it is impossible to add to the number of these one single melody of equal merit, so tenacious are the natives of Hindustan of the ancient practices.”¹

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¹ “A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan.” Capt. N. A. Willard. Calcutta, 1834.

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This continued employment of mode, combined with the almost entire absence of harmony, has prevented Indian music from reaching any higher pitch of development, such as has been attained elsewhere. It stands to reason also that this is the chief cause of the monotony which causes Indian music to be little appreciated by, if not repellent to, European ears.

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Since the early periods of Indian history, music would seem to have been cultivated more as a science than an art. More attention seems to have been paid to elaborate and tedious artistic skill than to simple and natural melody. Hence arose technical rules that marred the pristine sweetness of melody—the very life of all real music. To a great extent this must be attributed to the art falling into the hands of illiterate virtuosi. Their influence, which caused music to suffer both in purity of style and simplicity, is being felt less and less. The great aim of all music—“Rakti,” or the power of affecting the heart—now asserts itself more and more, and is slowly but surely bringing about a return to the early type of sweet, simple melody.

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Very little of the good or classical music of India is heard by Europeans. What is usually played to them consists, as Colonel Meadows Taylor very truly remarks, of modern ditties, sung by ill-instructed, screaming, dancing women, at crowded native durbars, marriages, and other ceremonials. And when this is the case, it does not cause much surprise to hear native music often described as abominable, and devoid of all melody. But music of great intrinsic beauty nevertheless exists, and only requires to be heard by an unprejudiced ear to be appreciated. Throughout India music and poetry go hand in hand. Their influence may be seen and felt in almost every phase of native life, from the palace of the râjah to the humble dwelling of the ryot. Music has there been developed to a degree far greater than has been generally recognised in Europe. It is there felt to be a means of passionate expression, such as is apparently unknown amongst nations farther East. And indeed the very soul of all Indian music may be said to be râga—which in its literal sense means *that which creates passion*. And that this has been fully appreciated in Europe would seem to be evident, for a musical reviewer writing in the *Athenæum*, and contrasting the music of India with that of Japan and Siam, recently wrote: “In the Indian Peninsula we are really in another world. We exchange a music in which noise and dry executive skill prevail for one vibrating with sentiment and passion, and that combines a refined execution with the highly nervous organization that makes the poetic artist. Such a one was a Jeypore been player (*been*—a kind of vina), who was to be heard, but we fear was not much heard, at a little exhibition called ‘India in London,’ in 1886. To go from one of the clever Siamese ranat players of the Inventions Exhibition the year before to this man, was to quit the atmosphere of a desert for one redolent of sweet air and flower scents. The Hindu chromatic scale, from which the numerous modes and melody types are selected, does not appear to differ from our own. As there is no harmony, slight differences may pass without notice. Very much of Hindu music impresses the European as being in the minor scale; but deflections in the stringed instruments, and possible accommodations in the wind, introduce an enharmonic elaboration that defies notation.² And here it might be interesting to quote the opinion of a learned native gentleman:³ “Many of the Hindus themselves,” he writes, “labour under a false impression concerning the difference between Indian and European music, even as to the employment of tones and semitones. The opinions held by so many natives, that pieces played upon the piano or harmonium are to them discordant, can be easily accounted for thus: they are simply confused—being unaccustomed to anything but simple melody—when they hear five or six notes played in chords. The chief difference seems to me to be that the Hindus prefer melody simply, while to European ears melody is preferred when clothed, as it were, with harmony of some sort.”

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² The *Athenæum*, Jan. 4, 1890. Review of “Musical Instruments and their Homes.” M. E. and W. A. Brown, New York.

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³ T. M. Venkatas'esha S'astri.

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Comparatively few Indian airs have found their way to Europe. Those few that have been published are mostly from either Bengal or Northern India, so that there is but small resemblance in them to the national music of the Deccan or the South; for there is a marked difference between the music of the various parts of India, which to even the most casual observer is evident.

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The following examples of songs—though a mere handful from so vast a storehouse—will, it is hoped, aid in filling the vacancy, and thereby afford some help to those who may care to make further research.

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Many of these melodies in themselves are extremely beautiful, and their simplicity adds an additional charm that no words can express—the airs of different country districts are but a reflex of the character and feelings of the people to whom they belong. Some are pathetic and melodious—music that exactly reproduces the feelings inspired by the words; others are gay and bright—true accompaniments to the daily pursuits and occupations of life; and in many of them may be found a vein of repose, slightly tinged with melancholy, that offers a curious contrast to either of the former; indeed, so much variety may be found that it is unnecessary to notice in detail merits that must be evident to the musical reader.

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But yet, though the melodies themselves are so beautiful, it is but seldom that we hear them well sung; indeed, singers of the ordinary type often entirely ruin the effect of the music; for native singers appear to have an idea that the highest form of their art consists in introducing as much grace as possible, whether it adds to the beauty of their songs or not; in fact, they try to disguise the real melody as much as possible by embellishments of their own, and so in nine cases out of ten it is quite impossible to follow either the air or the words of a song, since the singer is only anxious to exhibit what he fondly imagines to be his skill.

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Native singers rarely practise, for they think that practice, to even a moderate extent, ruins their voices. The treatment of the voice, too, is quite different to what experience in Europe has proved to obtain the best results.

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The voices of Indian singers are almost always weak and deficient in volume—one result doubtless of their system of training, by which a full clear tone is made to give way to incessant small inflections. Girls, too, are taught singing when much too young, so that their voices either break or become harsh and shrill.

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A singer rarely stands while he sings, and instead of using his proper range of voice, he prefers a most unnatural falsetto, which he can rarely control, and his endeavours to make himself heard generally cause him to make the most ludicrous grimaces. Singers of this kind it is who bring Indian music into disrepute, and cause it to be regarded with contempt by European audiences.

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But still there *are* singers in India whose voices are wonderfully sweet, and when they sing their own songs in their simple form, no hearer can doubt that, like other national music, that of India possesses a charm peculiarly its own.

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The various styles of Indian compositions, consisting as they do entirely of melody, do not present to the casual observer differences as clearly marked as in those of European music. Nevertheless these melodies are classified systematically, and in their construction are subject to certain definite rules of composition. Almost all consist of a burden or refrain called Pallevi, a kind of answer to this refrain styled Anupallevi, and stanzas (called Charanam) of which there is usually an uneven number. These parts are in the several compositions arranged in different ways, and by this means the style of composition is determined. Rhythm is usually very marked, but differs largely from that of most European music from the fact that the times are frequently irregular.

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Between vocal and instrumental music the difference is slight, the vina, the only instrument of any large capability, being considered to be but an imitation or reproduction of the human voice; and if an air be accompanied by that instrument, it is usually only played in unison with the voice.

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The different exercises, compositions, &c., are usually classified under the following heads:—

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A râga, when performed by itself, contains two movements—(i.) Alâpa and (ii.) Madhyamakâla.

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Pallevi, a kind of fantasia upon some theme abounding in imitation, and with a well-defined rhythm.

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The rhythm existing throughout all the different styles of composition is worth careful notice; and it is interesting to compare it with that employed by other nations. The similarity of that of the Turks and other Eastern nations is remarkable.

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As in European music each period is complete in itself, being clearly marked by the tâlas, which divide the different periods into regular or irregular sections, as the case may be, following each other in definite and regular order. The periods differ only from those commonly found in European music in that they may consist, if necessary, of an uneven number of sections or measures, the tâla itself often being irregular, owing to the employment of mixed times. Hence when Indian music is written in ordinary notation there will be a regular rotation corresponding to the tâla, of bars each of which may have a different time signature. A reference to the list of tâlas upon page 36 will explain this more readily than any words can. These periods or phrases are often extended by the addition of a few notes leading up to the commencing note of the phrase, or by being terminated with a small cadence or codetta which may be either a repetition or imitation of what has gone before, or may lead up to the next phrase.

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The rhythm of the Pallevi and Anupallevi is usually a great deal more marked and regular than that of the stanzas, where the phrasing is frequently irregular, the periods being interwoven by means of, as it were, abbreviaturas, or extended by the prolongation and “rekhu,” a species of turn or transient shake upon a note in the middle of a roulade with which all Hindu music abounds. This is especially the case in the performance of râga as a solo, which in certain cases is absolutely timeless.

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Hence the great difficulty of expressing such music correctly by means of ordinary notation. The peculiarity of the scales or modes employed in Hindu music often raises a difficulty in determining the real tonality of many of the melodies, the Hindu Sa, taken by native musicians as the “ Khuruj ” or keynote of their scale, not necessarily corresponding to what is the real tonic of the scale. Indian music has been compared to that of Scotland, but the resemblance can be traced principally to the frequent employment by both nations of a somewhat similar scale of five intervals, the fourth and seventh being omitted; and possibly also from the fact that a similar motive is often found in both, where the first note has one-fourth of the duration of the second, as—

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In reviewing the national music of any country, we cannot help being struck with the way in which special scales are employed, special graces worked in, all more or less varying in the music of different nations. In the music of India, owing to the multitude of scales or modes which it employs, a resemblance here and there can be traced to the music of nearly every country.

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The chief characteristic, for instance, of Hungarian music is that it usually employs a scale with two superfluous seconds, or the harmonic minor with a sharp fourth. This scale is in every respect similar to the Indian scale called S'rinhandra, and nearly similar to one much employed and called Sábhapán-tovarâli, both of which will be found among the list of scales upon pages 32-35.

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Many of the graces and embellishments employed in the gipsy music in Hungary are to be found in Indian melodies.

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Mr. Carl Engel⁴ has drawn attention to the employment of the minor seventh in both Servian, Wallachian, and Scotch music. This interval is employed both in Arabic and Indian music. Some idea of the plaintive and impressive effect of which it is productive can be gained from the song, “ Seki yénaka thaké,” given upon page 80.

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⁴ “An Introduction to the Study of National Music.” Carl Engel. London, 1866.

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Mr. J. A. Kappey, in his collection of “ Songs of Eastern Europe,”⁵ draws attention to the characteristics of Turkish songs, and to the fact that they employ a scale having a minor third with an augmented fourth, and a minor sixth with a major seventh. A comparison of the examples he gives with songs of India will be of great interest; and the similarity of both melody and rhythm is striking. One of the songs quoted—a song of sorrow by Nihad Bey—might be from India; it appears to be written in much the same form, and it is also to be noticed that it employs a mixed time of 3/8 and 2/4, precisely the Indian Triputa Tâla, already noticed.

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⁵ “Songs of Eastern Europe.” Edited by J. A. Kappey. London, 1881.

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In a previous chapter attention has already been drawn to the resemblance that Indian music bears to that of Greece, and this is still more fully borne out by a careful study of modern Greek national airs. In a work not long published, by M. Bourgault-Ducoudray,⁶ the construction of the peculiar scales found throughout the East have been made the subject of most careful research, and the use of what the author terms the "chromatique oriental" is especially noticed. This scale is no other than the Indian Mâyamâlavagaula, and to its frequent use attention has been drawn elsewhere. M. Bourgault-Ducoudray's work to students of Eastern music is especially interesting, and the careful analysis that is given of each air renders the work most valuable. The resemblance between Indian songs and the examples of melodies from the Levant is so striking that, in many cases, it is difficult to believe that their origin is not identical.

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⁶ "Trente Mélodies Populaires de Gréce et d'Orient." L. A. Bourgault-Ducoudray. Paris, 1876.

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Mr. Engel calls attention to the fact that Chopin, in one of his studies for the black keys (Douze grandes Études, No. 5), has given some idea of the beautiful effect that may be produced by a melody which employs a limited number of intervals; only in this case he notices that as the accompaniment employs other intervals, the pentatonic effect of the whole is somewhat marred. In Indian music, too, a frequent use is made of the pentatonic scale, as has been already remarked. Again, in Spanish national music, embellishments are of constant occurrence, especially in descending the diatonic scale; the same predilection can be observed in Indian melodies; indeed, a further resemblance can be traced in the occasional employment of endings of the following nature—

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which in the common songs, such as are heard in the jungles and country districts of many parts of India, are not unfrequent.

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The following observations by Captain Willard are short and to the point, and seem to apply equally well to Southern as to Northern Indian melodies :—

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1. The melodies are short, lengthened by repetitions and variations.
2. They all partake of the nature of what by us is called a Rondo, the piece being invariably concluded with the first strain, and sometimes with the first bar, or at least with the first note of that bar.
3. A bar or a measure or a certain number of measures are frequently repeated with slight variations, almost *ad libitum*.
4. There is as much liberty allowed with respect to pauses, which may be lengthened at pleasure, providing the time be not disturbed.

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The times employed in Indian music are peculiar; simple times are of most frequent occurrence, mixed times are largely employed; true triple time, curiously enough, is of the rarest; but there is a time, the accentuation of which is upon the first and second beat, which may be said to be a kind of triple time (although in reality a mixed time of 2/4 and C), and is much used for love songs.

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The *tempo* in which the various melodies are sung is sometimes irregular, and from being exact sometimes changes into a recitative or *ad libitum* in the middle of a song. The peculiarities in the working out of the motives are striking, and the employment of rests of short duration is noticeable.

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The endings are often not definite, the last few bars leading up to the commencement; the reason for this is probably that it is usual to repeat the melodies, and when the performer wishes to end, he generally leads up to the note upon which he wishes to conclude, and prolongs it in this manner—

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Indeed, it seems more natural to regard all endings of Indian melodies rather as different forms of *Da capo* than as real closes, the object in most cases being a return to the commencement of the song. The fact so often noticed by those who have endeavoured to collect Indian airs, that almost every interval of the scale can be found used as a close, can possibly be thus accounted for. The words of most of these songs, particularly those sung by the common people, such as lavanies and javadis and svarajotas, are generally a long ballad, so that a definite ending is not required after each stanza. Many singers indeed, as a variety, improvise their words, so that after each stanza closes on intervals of all kinds are found. But when the real ending is reached, the performer frequently leads up to the key-note, or what he regards as the key-note of the Indian scale. Judged from a European point of view, it appears that closes on the intervals of the third and fifth should be regarded more as half closes upon the intervals of the tonic chord; those on the second and seventh as upon intervals of the dominant chord; whilst those on the sixth or minor third betray the relative minor; sometimes the third may be looked upon as the fifth to the relative minor. This view can of course be equally well applied to the national airs of any country, but it appears to be specially applicable to those of India.

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Some of the melodies in their conclusion imply a modulation into the relative minor, showing thereby a trace of the old pentatonic scale. Examples will be found among the following melodies of endings with the fifth, the sixth, the second, the second, and (like those of the Servians) with the third. Closes on the fourth are rarely if ever employed. An example will nevertheless be found in the Khyal upon page 88.

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In the examples following an endeavour has been made to point out some of the chief peculiarities and characteristics of the different râgas in which the melodies are composed.

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The first exercises taught to pupils are called Sâralas, they are always in the scale of Mâyamâlavagaula; similar exercises called Gentu-versis, containing repeated notes, are next taught, after which Alankâras—exercises upon time—are learnt, several in each tâla.

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The simplest melodies are called Gíta, and are of two kinds—Pillârigíta and Ganarâga-gíta. The first-named are four in number and are hymns to the god Pillâri or Ganésha. The Sangíta Pârijâta mentions four Pillârigítas, and it is believed that these are the four that are still in use. The following is an example of one of these ancient Pillârigítas:—

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Andante. Râga Malahâri. Tâla Rupacca.

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Ganarâga-gítas are very similar to the above.

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Somewhat similar to gítas are Prabhandas, only that they are usually longer, and are divided into two or three parts by breaks called Khándam. Skilful performers are fond of playing such pieces in order to exhibit their proficiency to an audience.

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Thânas are studies for the vina, teaching special styles and difficulties met with in the performance of the various râgas. They are particularly intended as an introduction to the difficult movement called Madhyamakâla of a râga. Thânas are in no particular tâlas, the time being taught orally, and left in a great measure to the performer's discretion. Great attention is bestowed upon proper accentuation and grace; the tempo is usually very rapid—

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Râga Nâta.

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Râga Ârabi.

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Râga Gaula.

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Some of the most popular ballads of Southern India are called Svarajotas, and are sung by almost everyone. The words are usually odes to some deity or popular hero of the country. A song of this kind commences with a kind of refrain termed pallevi; following in quick succession is the anupallevi, a kind of short stanza, the words of which are an addition to a comment upon those of the pallevi. After this the pallevi is again repeated. The stanzas, which may be dissimilar both in metre and melody, follow in order, each concluded by a repetition of the refrain. There is an almost entire absence of superfluous grace in these songs, and their marked rhythm renders their execution within the attainment of nearly all. The following examples of these melodies are interesting, and display the fluent and decisive nature so characteristic of them all to the greatest advantage—

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Allegro moderato. Pallevi. FINE. Anupallevi. Râga Bilahari. Tâla Adi. Stanzas i. ii.

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iv. w w w w w w

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w w w

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This air is one of the most popular in Southern India; it is usually known only by the name of the râga in which it is composed, as the words vary in different parts of the country. Its origin is not known, but it is believed to be very old.

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The following, a song peculiar to Mysore, and in praise of the goddess Parvati or Châmandi, is in a râga that is very little employed—

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Allegro. Pallevi. “PARVATI PATE.” w w { Râga Purna-chandrika. Tâla Adi.

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Anupallevi. w w w

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Stanzas i.

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ii.

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iii.

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iv.

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As an example of a melody confined entirely to the pentatonic scale and with an undefined conclusion the following is interesting. The apparent want of a distinctly indicated key-note is evident, and it might be harmonised equally well in several different keys. Some musicians would doubtless treat it as in a minor key, and harmonise it therefore in E minor. The Hindus, however, regard it as pertaining rather to the Mesolydian mode, and therefore make G—the dominant of the natural scale—the tonic.

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This melody is also worthy of note as it is considered to be one of the oldest songs of the kind remaining—

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Moderato. Pallevi. “SAMI DIA MERA.” Rága Mohanna. Tála Adi.

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Anupallevi

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Stanzas i.

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ii.

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iii. poco a poco.

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[Figure: "RÂMA NA MORÂ ALINCHERA." Pallevi. Anupallevi. { Râga Kamachi. Tâla Rupacca.]

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Stanzas i.

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ii.

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iii.

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The above air displays a good example of the peculiar effect of a rhythm of three measures. More than one example of what is styled " Vishama tâla " by the Hindus may be found here, where a note at the end of a bar is tied to one at the commencement of the bar following.

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The two songs following are of a similar kind to the foregoing, and both are exceedingly popular. They are of quite recent date, and were probably composed by some Telugu pandit at the court of Mysore. I have given them precisely as they are sung, and without attempting to divide the parts (i.e., pallevi, &c.)

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composing them. The parts can, however, be easily distinguished, and also the small codettas and cadenzas which separate them—

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“SUVI, SUVI,” Râga Behag. Tâla Rupacca

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“KAMINI VINAISA.” Râga S’ankârabharna.

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Sacred songs, called Kruthis, are very popular. The airs of some of these hymns are very old, and have been handed down by successive generations for hundreds of years. Kruthis are, as a rule, in the more difficult râgas, the characteristics of which are made as prominent as is consistent with the melody. They consist of a pallevi, anupallevi, and one stanza. Some few have three stanzas, and this number is never exceeded. The pallevi is sung at the commencement, then the anupallevi, after which the pallevi is repeated with a slight variation at the option of the singer, followed by the stanza, and concluding with the pallevi again. The tempo is rather of an Andante con moto, and the whole is sung in a dreamy way, with a great deal of expression, and as much grace as is wished.

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These hymns were revived by the Râjah Sarabhoji of Tanjore, and were greatly improved in style by the celebrated musician Tiâgyarâj of that place, who composed a large number which are still popular.

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Other famous composers of kruthis have been Siama S'astri, Diksitalu, and Subbaraya S'astri.

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As will be noticed from the following example, kruthis have a curious mixture of pathos and hilarity, and the words are always in accordance with the emotions expressed by the music. The peculiarly plaintive effect imparted to these melodies by the employment of grace embracing intervals less than semitones, and its special charm so readily shown upon the vina—the usual companion to these hymns—no notation can be found capable of expressing—

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“UPACHARAM CHESAVARU.”

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The scale of this melody is “Nâta-Bhairavi,” which, as can be seen, corresponds exactly to the ancient Hypodorian mode. The peculiarities of the râga Bhairavi, in which it is composed, admit of E being taken either as ♮ or ♭ at will. Hence this melody, although partaking partly of the nature of a minor key, should be regarded as founded upon the dominant of the major key; and, therefore, if harmonised to preserve its character, written in one flat only, and harmonised with the triad of the dominant as the principal chord. The vibrato upon B♭ is characteristic of the râga, and is never omitted.

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The composer of this melody was Tiâgyarâj.

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The composition of the next melody is attributed to Kolashekara, a former Maharajah of Travancore, which, perhaps, accounts in some way for its wide popularity.

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One great peculiarity of the compositions of the Maharajah is the copious insertion of what are called “Svaraksheras” in them. To make my meaning clear—the Hindu gamut, as has been stated, is signified by the syllables “Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni.” The composer has adroitly introduced these syllables at the very place where the notes signified by them occur in the song, without interfering with the sense of the words. This is the more difficult to do when we remember that in Hindu music the notes must follow each other in a particular order, according to the râga, and not exactly according to the composer’s fancy. In the following piece the words are “Sarasa Samamukha para navama,” &c. The syllables Sa and Ma are introduced at the very points where the notes C (Sa) and F (Ma) stand in the song. The Hindus regard, in this song, C and not F as the key-note, though the latter is clearly the real tonic, and there is apparently no difference in the tonality of this and the melody “Smaranâ Sukâm,” in which they allow the tonic to be F. The other two melodies, also from Travancore, are compositions of Kolashekara Maharajah—

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“SARASA SAMAMUKHA.”

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Anupallevi.

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Stanzas.

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ad lib.

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MELODY FROM TRAVANCORE.

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Pallevi. Râga Bilahâri.

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Anupallevi.

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Stanzas.

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MELODY FROM TRAVANCORE.

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Pallevi. Anupallevi. Râga Mohanna.

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Stanzas.

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“SMARANA SUKAM VO RAMANAM.”

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Moderato. Pallevi. Râga Gârudadvâni. Tâla Eka.

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Anupallevi. 1st time. 2nd time. Stanzas

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An example of an irregular melody is shown below. The two first periods consist of nine and seven bars respectively. This frequently occurs in Indian music, and is probably produced simply by rests having in course of time been either lengthened or disregarded; or by a bar imitated, repeated, or overlapping; so that a symmetrical period is transformed into one of an uneven number of bars. The effect produced is original, and often very pleasing. That this has been fully recognised by musicians in Europe is well known, and many examples might be quoted from the works of classical composers to prove that this has been largely appreciated as an important element of variety—

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“NANNA GANNA TALLI.” Andante. Pallevi. Rága Manohari. Tála Eka. Anupallevi. Stanza.

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The two melodies following are both in the scale called Máyamálavagaula. The intervals of the scale are so peculiar and so many harmonical combinations can be formed from them that it well deserves attention, especially when it is remembered that this is a scale largely used by the Hindus, and that all elementary exercises taught to pupils are invariably upon this scale, instead of, as would be supposed, the diatonic major, which is by us commonly regarded as natural.

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These melodies are again irregular in construction; the râgas in which they are composed, though much alike, differ, in that the third is not admitted as a real note in the ascending mode of the second example. A characteristic of the râga Purvi is shown in the “glisse” from D to G in the sixth and seventh bars of the first air--

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“TRILOKA MÂTA.” (Râga Purvi. Tâla Adi.)

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“NAGÂDHERA.” (Râga Nâdanâmakryâ. Tâla Rupacca.)

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Very similar to kruthis are Kirthanas. They consist, like the former, of a pallevi, anupallevi, and stanzas, the tâla being regular throughout. The râgas in which they are composed are for the most part popular ones, and there is little grace essential to their performance. The music of kirthanas is very simple, and the words, addressed to some deity, plain and easy to be remembered.

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The following are examples of popular kirthanas-- Vérnams are songs very similar to svarajotas, merely differing in that the several parts of which they are composed are not arranged in quite the same manner, and that they are more difficult of execution. Vérnams are, as a rule, much longer than svarajotas, and contain a larger amount of grace throughout. They are usually in the more uncommon râgas, and the time is purposely made as catchy as possible. Their performance is therefore seldom attempted by other than skilled musicians.

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Allegretto. “BÂLA NANNA CHALA BROVAVA.” (Râga Kambódi. Tâla Adi.) Pallevi.

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A vérnam consists of an introduction to which there are words, usually concluded by a “Sol-fa” passage. Following this are stanzas generally merely “sol-fahed.” After each stanza there is a short refrain to which words are sung. The words of vérnams treat mostly of the deeds of favourite heroes or warrior deities.

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The following is an example of one of the simplest vérnams. In performance a musician would treat this as a kind of theme which he would expand, vary, and embellish according to his own taste and skill—indeed, grace is sometimes employed to such an extent that the original air can hardly be recognised.

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This melody is the composition of some pupil of Tiâgyarâj of Tanjore; it displays two of the characteristics of the râga Sâranga very prominently—viz., the glisse from B to G and the vibrato upon D—

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“ INTA MODI.” Râga Saranga. Tâla Adi. Allegro. (Introduction with words.)

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poco accel. (without words.)

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Pallevi (at end of each stanza). a tempo.

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Stanzas, ad lib. i.

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ii.

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iii. a tempo.

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ad lib.

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The following is another well known song of this kind—

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“ SÂRASÂMU DELUPÂRA.” Râga Kamachi. Tâla Adi. Allegro. (Introduction with words.)

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*poco accel.* (without words.)

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Pallevi (at end of each stanza). Stanzas *ad lib.* i.

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ii.

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iii.

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iv.

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S’ankâ-vérnams are somewhat similar to vérnams, only that the *tempo* is less rapid. They are usually very elaborate in style, and abound with graces of all kinds. They are commonly sung at Nautches and are intended to give full scope to convey “bhavas”—the gestures and sentiments conveyed by the dancer as she sways to and fro to the music.

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Javadis are songs of a light and pleasing nature, such as love songs, cradle songs,⁷ &c. They are much sung by both Nautch girls and all, especially women, of the higher classes in domestic life. They are of two kinds—ordinary ballads and songs of a more or less indelicate nature, sung during the performance of a peculiar dance called Kârwar. Javadis consist usually of a pallevi, anupallevi, and stanzas, sung in the usual manner as described before, and are chiefly in popular râgas. The tempo is in accordance with the words, and not too slow, the favourite measure being Rupacca. Consequently, many of these songs bear a resemblance to a waltz, only that they are taken at a slightly slower pace.

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⁷ Simple cradle songs, called “Palna,” are very common, and answer to the lullaby songs of Europe.

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The words of javadis are often very beautiful; and those upon the loves of Krishna and Radha are always popular. Musicians as a rule sing these songs more in their naked form, and with less grace than is their usual custom. Each stanza is sung to the same air.

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These songs are of comparatively recent introduction, being first sung by the Kanarese musicians of the Court of Surapuri, a petty state near the celebrated Humpé ruins. The popularity of songs of this kind increased rapidly, and they are now to be heard throughout the whole of Southern India, where they take the place of the Tappa of Hindustan.

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Among the following examples the air “Anthalona Telavari” is perhaps the most popular—the accompanying rhythm of the tâla falls upon the first and second beat of each bar; this is much noticed when it is accompanied by instruments, such as the small tinkling cymbals and drums, which mark the time strongly. This song seems to be known throughout Southern India—the version varies slightly in different places, but, on the whole, the air is much the same everywhere.

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The air “S'ri Sâratha” is very popular both in Mysore and Tanjore; the modulation into the relative minor is noticeable as it shows traces of a pentatonic scale—

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Andante. Pallevi. “YIVANA PIRDIDU.” Râga Biag. Tâla Adi.

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Stanzas.

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“KAYALÂGA DÂVANA.” Râga Janjuti. Tâla Rupacca.

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“ANTHALONA TELAVARI.” { Râga S’ankârabharna. { Tâla Rupacca.

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Pallevi.

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Anupallevi.

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Stanzas.

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rall. a tempo.

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“JÉNAKA VANEANATHA.” { Râga Janjuti. { Tâla Rupacca.

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“SEKI YÉNAKA THAKÉ.” { Râga Kapi. { Tâla Eka.

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Pallevi.

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1st time. 2nd time.

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Anupallevi.

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Stanzas.

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FINE.

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“S’RI SÂRATHA.” { Râga Kamachi. { Tâla Rupacca.

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Musical notation for "S'ri Sâratha."

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Very similar to javadis are songs called Pathams; they are exclusively love songs, and are sung largely both in the native drama and by Nautch girls. The music is very much varied, and the performers frequently leave the air and improvise cadences and embellishments, rejoining the melody at will. The tempo is slower than that of javadis, and is varied according to the expression the singer wishes to put into the words; the tâla is generally irregular, a mixed time of 3/4 and C is the commonest.

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The most popular composer of pathams was Kshattrya, whose songs are largely sung, and contain some of the most beautiful and poetical sentiments that can be found; but, like all Oriental love poetry, they employ imagery too luxuriant for exact translation—

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“YALLA TELLA VARA.” { Râga S’ankârabharna. { Tâla Druva.

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Musical notation for "Yalla Tella Vara."

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In the above melody the characteristics of the râga S'ankârabharna are well shown. The glide to the upper C is never omitted in this râga. Another peculiarity of this air should be noticed: at the sign ‡ it will be seen that B is tied; the string is *twice* slightly deflected and shaken upon the fret, so as to sharpen the note to a degree less than a semitone, with a trembling effect.

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This song is very well known in the Mysore country. The pace is moderately quick but not hurried, and the melody is sung in a soft, dreamy manner, that, coupled with the gestures of the singer and the tinkling of the accompanying cymbals, is peculiarly fascinating, especially when heard for the first time.

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Here is another example of these songs—

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{ Râga Mukâri. { Tâla Triputa.

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Andante.

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Religious hymns, called Yallapathams and Tathvams, are largely sung by the lower orders. They are very lugubrious and monotonous, and are invariably in the râga Yedukula-Kambógi. The former are funeral dirges, the latter allegorical chants sung at religious gatherings. The following example of a Yallapatham shows the nature of these songs—

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Andante. Râga Yedukula-Kambógi. Tâla Adi. FINE.

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The ordinary folk-songs of the country are called Lavanis, and will be familiar to everyone who has heard the coolies sing as they do their work; the women nursing their children; the bullock drivers; dhooly bearers; or sepoys on the march. The airs are usually very monotonous. The words, if not impromptu, are a sort of history or ballad in praise of some warrior or “burra Sahib.” Some have a kind of chorus, each man in turn singing an improvised verse. There is no employment of râga.

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At the time of the Kâma festival in honour of the Indian god of love, special lavanies called Saval are sung. The words of these are sung by two parties—one called Turai and the other Kalki—intended to represent the god Krishna and his mistress Radha. Questions of a metaphorical nature are sung by one party and answered by the other. These were formerly sung extempore, but their performance is now usually rehearsed beforehand. This species of entertainment is also practised in Northern India under the name of Kabi.

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The two following are examples of popular lavanies—

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Allegro moderato. No. 1.

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No. 2.

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A composition called Râga-mâlika, or “garland of râgas,” is occasionally heard. As the name implies, it is a song that modulates into many different râgas. A râga-mâlika consists of a pallevi or refrain, and stanzas. The pallevi is employed only at the beginning and at the conclusion. The stanzas are usually uneven in number. Each stanza employs a different râga, the name of which must be mentioned in the words, in order that the audience be able to follow and appreciate the performer's skill. The tâla remains the same throughout.

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Somewhat similar to the above is a Pallevi. This word signifies literally “a creeping plant,” and hence the name is given to a kind of fantasia upon some theme worked out in accordance with certain rules, and containing a large amount of grace and imitation. As this kind of composition is extremely popular it well merits some attention.

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A stanza or sentence of some poetical nature is sung to any air that the performer may improvise, and in any râga and tâla. This opening melody is taken as the theme of the pallevi, and is varied, imitated, and answered subsequently according to the skill and inclination of the performer. Occasionally a kind of counter theme is introduced, and a skilful musician will keep the two parts distinct. If this is done the counter theme is, as a rule, introduced upon a fourth or sixth lower. But it is not intended to imply that there is any employment of counterpoint as understood in Europe; for though in certain cases these two parts may be actually going at the same time, yet the native musician is guided by no contrapuntal laws, but by his ear, and the rules of râga, entirely. Much greater license is given as to râga in a pallevi than in any other composition.

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There are usually three movements—viz., an adagio, a moderato, and an allegro or scherzo.

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The first movement commences with the subject being given out in any râga or tâla that may be called for. The space of time occupied by this is termed an avatâr, and constitutes the chief rhythmical division or period into which the pallevi is divided. Each succeeding avatâr, though consisting of several short phrases, either linked together or separated by rests, must be of equal length to the original. Each avatâr differs essentially from those preceding, and if the voice is employed, commences invariably with the first syllable or word of the original theme.

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The second movement follows with or without a short pause between. The measure remains the same, but the duration of the movement is less.

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The third, or concluding movement, follows; the only difference being that the tempo is much increased. In this it is usual for the performer to modulate into different râgas (called for at the time by the audience), taking care that the special characteristics of each shall be made clear; each avatâr is, however, ended in the original râga. This movement is brought to a close by a repetition of the original theme in the original tempo, after which a few bars in the same râga are given ad libitum by way of a Finale.

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In the performance of a pallevi no harsh or discordant instruments are employed. For marking a rhythmical accompaniment the hands are employed, or sometimes a Mridang or Gatha. Occasionally another performer hums softly a kind of accompaniment to syllables (ta, di, ti, ka, &c., as if sol-fahing) intended to represent the beats of a drum; this is called konnagólu, or tâlavinyasa.

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Songs of salutation or hail, called Mangala, are sung at the conclusion of all performances. Melodies of this kind are usually in either the râgas Surati or Saurâshtra. The following is one of the most common Mangalas. The chief peculiarity in songs of this kind is evident here—the beats of the tâla falling upon tied notes at the commencement of a bar—

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“PARAMANA SUTTU BATTU PADARA.” Râga Saurâshtra. Tâla Adi.

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Hindustani music in some respects differs from the system previously described, and which is called Karnâtik. It has been much copied from the latter, but its professors are not often men of much education; and though many of them are skilled executants, their knowledge of the theory of their art is, as a general rule, but small. In Hindustani music more attention is paid to the minute distinction between the various râgas than to the actual melody itself. To melodic form the same importance is not attached. The nomenclature of Hindustani and Karnâtik râgas differs, but musicians everywhere quote the Sangíta Ratnâkera as their principal authority. They also say that, apart from Arabian and Persian innovations, the difference between the systems of music prevalent in the North and South of India is accounted for by the fact that in the former that of Hanumân is preferred, while the Southern music is a relic of the earliest system of Nârada.

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In Hindustani music the elaborate arrangement of scales previously described is not used, but merely twelve; all of which, however, are found, and are in common use, though under different names, in the Karnâtik system. The tâlas, or measures, employed in Hindustani music are similar to those previously described upon page 36. As regards the form of Hindustani melodies, in place of what has been styled “pallevi,” “anupallevi,” and “charanam,” or stanzas, all their songs consist of distinct parts. The pallevi is styled asthayi—the anupallevi antâra—and the charanam abhōg. As the differences between the two systems consist mainly of technical points, which would be of slight interest to the reader, the following observations will, perhaps, be sufficient.

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The Dhrupad—perhaps the most admired of all Hindustani songs—is a heroic song, with a slow and dignified style, and sung almost exclusively by men. It consists of three parts—i.e., asthayi, antâra, and abhōg. Great scope is given to variations upon the actual theme, and the time cadence is very complex. Other songs are called Tilanas and Sarigams (or svaragrâmas), and are in particular tâlas; they contain only two parts.

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Ghuzals—songs of the same nature as Kshattrya’s pathams of the Karnâtik—are very popular; they consist of only asthayi and antâra. Of a similar form to ghuzals are Tappa, resembling the Karnâtik javadis, and consisting of two parts. There are also Thungri, Dadra, Hari; Gurbah, sung at the Dassera festival; and Palna, or cradle songs. Songs called Khyâls, somewhat like the Karnâtik kruthis, which display a great deal of grace, and have a slow time cadence, were introduced by Sultan Shirki of Jounpur; they consist of two parts only. Many Hindustani lavanis are very pretty, though most melancholy.

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The tuning of instruments used by Hindustani musicians differs from that employed by Karnâtik professors, in that the interval of the fourth is always admitted upon the open strings; the modulation therefore of these instruments is less confined; hence frequently, though the melody itself is less pleasing, accompaniments to Hindustani songs are preferred to the ordinary Karnâtik accompaniments, and music played in the Karnâtik style upon instruments tuned thus is much liked. Hindustani musicians practise singing more than do Karnâtik. They have better voices, and take more pains to cultivate them. Karnâtik singers, as has been said before, appear to have an idea that practice is hurtful to their voices, and from attempting to sing when too young, before the voice is formed, they are apt to ruin their singing entirely; while Hindustani singers practise much, and sing in a more manly style; hence Hindustani music is much admired in Southern India, chiefly as a variety—the softness of the language itself, and the ease with which it lends itself to singing, giving it an additional charm. A careful study of the Hindustani melodies given below will amply repay the time given up, and their great beauty and inherent passion can hardly fail to enchant one.

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The following examples, gathered principally from the Deccan, Guzerat, and Rajasthân, display some of the chief characteristics of these melodies. The names of their respective râgas have, in some cases, been omitted, the names of Hindustani râgas being different from Karnâtik. Several of them modulate into different râgas. Such technicalities are not of much general interest. Examples, however, may be found below. The ghuzal given is popular in Guzerat, and is sung quickly, but with great expression and varying tempo. It should be remembered that, in all cases in performance, the airs are much varied by grace, and rarely are sung in their naked form. All singers, both Hindustani and Karnâtik, make great use of a slide akin to the *portamento*.

Linked texts (4)

Saṅgītaratnākara — Śārṅgadeva, Sanskrit
Bhagavadgītā — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Hampi
Saṅgītapārijāta — Ahobilasūri 1600, Sanskrit

The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan c9: Chapter V

Contents

Chapter V