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Elements of Hindu Iconography v1: Volume 1

Elements of Hindu Iconography v1

Language
English

Contents

Volume 1

Front matter

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ELEMENTS OF HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

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WELLCOME HISTORICAL MEDICAL MUSEUM LIBRARY

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ELEMENTS

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OF

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HINDU ICONOGRAPHY

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BY T. A. GOPINATHA RAO, M.A. SUPERINTENDENT OF ARCHÆOLOGY, TRAVANCORE STATE.

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Published under the patronage of the Government of His Highness the Maharaja of Travancore.

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Vol. I—Part I.

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THE LAW PRINTING HOUSE MOUNT ROAD :: :: MADRAS 1914

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All Rights Reserved.

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PRINTED AT THE LAW PRINTING HOUSE, MOUNT ROAD, MADRAS.

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DEDICATED

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WITH KIND PERMISSION

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To HIS HIGHNESS SIR RAMAVARMA, Sri Padmanabhadasa, Vanchipala, Kulasekhara Kiritapati, Manney Sultan Maharaja Raja Ramaraja Bahadur, Shamsher Jang, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E., MAHARAJA OF TRAVANCORE, Member of the Royal Asiatic Society, London, Fellow of the Geographical Society, London, Fellow of the Madras University, Officer de L'Instruction Publique.

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By

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HIS HIGHNESS'S HUMBLE SERVANT

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THE AUTHOR.

Preface

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The tall spire of the Hindu temple is one of the first objects to arrest the attention of the observant foreigner and excite his curiosity as he travels through India. On going into the temple, he meets with a number of what may perhaps appear to him to be grim and meaningless images, in stone and bronze and other materials, some with two, others with four or more arms, holding a variety of weapons and other more or less curious articles in their hands. The man on the spot may tell him on enquiry that one of those images is the figure of Vishnu, the god of protection, another that of Śiva, the god of destruction, and so on, about the innumerable gods and goddesses comprised within the tolerant and all-inclusive fold of the Hindu religion. Some such foreigner, more curious than others of his kind, is sometimes tempted to study these images somewhat carefully, find out their number and characteristics, and gather the legends relating to them from the Purāṇas and other sources, as also from the learned natives of the country well versed in their religious and mythological lore. Then at last he may come out with his volume on the Hindu gods, on Hindu mythology and other kindred subjects. Such in fact are most of the books that have been written hitherto by foreign authors on topics relating to Hindu Iconography.

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It is exactly two hundred years since Ziegenbalg, the famous Danish missionary of Tranquebar, wrote his work on the "Genealogy of the South Indian Gods," with the aid of the information he gathered from some people of the Tamil land. In the year 1785 the book known as "Sketches of the Mythology and Customs of the Hindus" was brought out by George Foster. Moore's "Hindu Pantheon", with illustrations, was first printed in 1810, and then reprinted by Messrs. Higginbotham & Co., of Madras, in 1864, with notes from the pen of the Rev. W.O. Simpson. "Ancient and Hindu Mythology", a work written sympathetically and in defence of the views of the Hindus, with a large number of extracts from the Purāṇas and other Hindu scriptural sources, was thereafter brought out by Col. Vans Kennedy in 1831. Another work named "A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology" was published by John Dowson in 1879.

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The last among such works is W. J. Wilkins' "Hindu Mythology", illustrated with pictures, and explained with reference to the Purāṇas and other religious writings of the Hindus.

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It will thus be seen that books dealing with Hindu images and Hindu mythology are not altogether wanting. Nevertheless, Fergusson, who is an eminent authority on Eastern and Indian architecture, has justly remarked—" Whenever any one will seriously undertake to write the history of sculpture in India, he will find the materials abundant and the sequence by no means difficult to follow; but, with regard to mythology, the case is different. It cannot, however, be said that the materials are not abundant for this branch of the enquiry also; but they are of much less tangible or satisfactory nature, and have become so entangled, that it is extremely difficult to obtain any clear ideas regarding them; and it is to be feared they must remain so, until those who investigate the subject will condescend to study the architecture and sculpture of the country as well as its books. The latter contain a good deal, but they do not contain all the information available on the subject; and they require to be steadied and confirmed by what is built or carved, which alone can give precision and substance to what is written.....

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“It is remarkable that, with all the present day
activity in every branch of Sanskrit research, so
very little has been done for the illustration of
mythology, which is so intimately connected with
the whole literature. It would be a legitimate part
of the duty of the Archæological Surveys to collect
materials on a systematic plan for this object;
and the production of illustrations has now become
so easy and inexpensive that photographs from
original materials of a satisfactory class might
readily be published to supply this most pressing
desideratum. The details of the emblems and
symbols of the numerous divinities of the
pantheon could also be collected, along with the
delineations, by those familiar with such symbols.
All this could easily be accomplished, and it is
consequently hoped it may before long be
attempted.”

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It has to be said that the books by European authors referred to above do not contain the information, which is available in indigenous Sanskrit works on Iconography; nor do they give pictorial representations of the sculptures that are actually found in this vast country. On the other hand, some of those authors have given what might be well understood to be their own version of Hindu mythology, and in their descriptions of

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Hindu images, with here and there a pungent remark about what they consider an uncouth representation or an immoral legend, they seem to have cared to study neither the symbolism underlying the mythical stories nor the meaning of the images illustrating them. A book on the model suggested by Fergusson has indeed been a great desideratum.

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The first attempt to supply this want to some extent was made by that many-sided Bengāli scholar and author, Mr. Nāgēndranāth Vāsu, in his interesting volume on the Archæological Survey of Mayūrabhañja. Some years ago the idea occurred to me that I might try to bring out a book on the subject of Hindu Iconography to supply as far as I could, the desideratum noted by Fergusson. I was originally under the impression that it could be done without pressing much into service the information contained in original Sanskrit works of authority on the subject, even of the existence of which I was not then fully aware. Soon, the bewildering variety of images that were found in relation to one and the same god convinced me that to get at the details of their mythological meaning and moral aim without the help of the Sanskrit works bearing on them was almost an impossible task. Luckily, while touring in North Travancore, I had on one occasion the good fortune to get hold of a small manuscript work entitled *Śilparatna*; and on deciphering it with considerable difficulty, I found it to be a synopsis in Malayalam verse of a bigger treatise of the same name. Another small fragmentary manuscript, which came into my hands later on, was found to be, from the colophons at the end of the chapters, an *āgama* called *Amśumadbhēdāgama*. Some years previously, I had purchased eight or nine works on *Śaivāgama*; but, owing to want of time, I had not even taken the trouble to know what they contained. About this time I began to look into them, and what a mine of wealth they revealed themselves to be! They contained chapter on chapter of minute descriptions relating to most *Śaiva* images and to some *Vaishṇava* images as well. My search for more *āgamas* and *tantras* resulted in the collection of a large number of them, which in fact belong to all the various Hindu sects. From the materials thus acquired, I began first to pick up merely the descriptions of images, as they are given in them. The *āgamas* generally deal with many other topics than simple iconography. While engaged thus, I went on improving at the same time my collection of photographs of the sculptures and castings representing the various Hindu divinities.

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In the middle of 1912, I actually began the task of writing out a systematic description of the images, and soon finished the description of a number of minor deities.

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After having proceeded so far, it struck me that the chief difficulty in the way of the accomplishment of my undertaking was in securing the required financial aid for its publication. The work required photo-mechanical reproductions of a large number of images, the cost of which alone was quite enough to scare me away from the undertaking. As a matter of fact, I should really have been compelled, howsoever reluctantly, to abandon my cherished object, but for the opportune help and encouragement most generously offered by the enlightened Government of His Highness the Mahārāja of Travancore. The Dewan, Mr. Rājagōpālāchārya, readily perceived the value of the undertaking, and promised to sanction the amount required for the publication of the work. The sympathetic attitude of this highly cultured gentleman at the head of affairs in Travancore afforded a new stimulus and induced me to work with redoubled vigour and earnestness. The required Sanskrit texts were all quickly gathered, but the growth of the collection of the needed photographs did not proceed apace. I then approached the Dewan with the request that I should be permitted to go out on tour to places outside the State, in the Madras and the Bombay Presidencies and also in the Mysore State, to obtain the photographs. The tour was sanctioned; and my visit to these places not only enriched my photographic collection, but was also of a very highly educative value to me. It enabled me to study the various iconographic symbols and emblems directly from the sculptures themselves. Wherever photographing was impossible, there I indented upon my amateur knowledge of drawing and painting. I frequently took pen and ink sketches, and occasionally full-sized coloured drawings of mural paintings, although this latter work was extremely tedious.

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I consider it a duty to refer here to the unstinted help which I received from my friend, the late Mr. M. K. Nārāyaṇasāmi Ayyar, Vakil of the Madras High Court, who secured for my work as many photographs as he could take during his visits to various outside stations in the Madras Presidency on professional and other kinds of business, and thereby facilitated my work very considerably. Mr. Nārāyaṇasāmi Ayyar was a well read scholar, critic and philosopher, and was to have contributed to this work a learned article

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on Dēvi-worship. Unfortunately, however, the hand of death deprived me all on a sudden of the further help to which I had been looking forward with high hope; and the result is that this work has had to lose the advantage of an erudite and complete account of Dēvi-worship from the pen of a profound scholar well versed in the Śākta and other religious schools known to the sacred literature of the Hindus.

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I am only too well aware of the several defects which abound in this production of mine, but feel at the same time somehow confident that scholars will look upon them indulgently by taking into consideration the vastness of the material to be collected and digested, and also the fact that my official duties in Travancore have been so heavy as to leave little time for much extra work of this kind. Moreover, I have to state that this is in more than one respect the first attempt of its kind, and does not profess to be anything like a complete presentation of the subject. I shall certainly consider myself under the circumstances to be amply rewarded if this humble work of mine serves the purpose of simply breaking the ground and induces abler scholars to deal with the subject in a fuller and more satisfactory manner.

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I take this opportunity of again expressing my deep gratitude to the liberal Government of H. H. the Mahārāja of Travancore for their having made the publication of this work possible; and personally I am highly indebted to Dewan Bahadur P. Rājagōpālāchārya M.A., B.L., C.I.E., for the enlightened and encouraging interest he has all along taken in the production of this work. I cannot sufficiently thank Pandit V. Śrīnivāsa Śāstri, Smṛtiviśārada, but for whose willing co-operation and unceasing industry it would indeed have been very difficult for me to bring out this work. My best thanks are due also to Pandit T. Gaṇapati Śāstri, Curator of the Sanskrit Manuscripts Library, Trivandram, for his readily helping me with all the manuscripts I applied for from time to time in connection with this work. Mr. D. R. Bhaṇḍārkar, M.A., Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, showed me great kindness in lending me his copy of *Rūpa-maṇḍana*, which seems to be a comparatively late work on Hindu Iconography. I have, in conclusion, to say that I cannot sufficiently express my gratitude and indebtedness to my respected master, Rao Bahadur Prof. M. Raṅgāchārya, M.A., of the Presidency College, Madras, for the very great interest, which he has throughout evinced in the work and the parental care with which he has guided me at every

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stage of its progress. He was ever ready with his invaluable suggestions, and was to me a never-failing source of inspiration and encouragement. I therefore respectfully beg to tender to him here my most grateful thanks for all the trouble he has taken on my behalf.

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T. A. G.

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TRIPLICANE, MADRAS. September, 1914.

Contents

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| | | PAGES. |
| Preface | ... | ... | ... | vii—xvii |
| General Introduction | ... | ... | 1—59 |
| Explanatory description of certain technical terms. | 1—32 |
| Gaṇapati | .. | ... | ... | 35—67 |
| Viṣṇu | ... | ... | ... | 69—279 |
| (a) Dhruva-bēras or Fixed Images | ... | 71—115 |
| (b) Daśāvatāras or the Ten Incarnations of Viṣṇu | ... | ... | 117—223 |
| (c) Chaturviṁśati-mūrtayah | ... | 225—244 |
| (d) Minor Forms of Viṣṇu :— | ... | 245—279 |
| Purusha, Kapila, Yajñamūrti, Vyāsa, Dhanvantari, Dattātrēya, Hari-harapitāmaha, Vaikuṇṭha, Trailōkya-mōhana Ananta, Viśvarūpa, Lakshmī-Nārāyaṇa, Hayagrīva, Ādimūrti, Jalaśāyin, Dharaṇa, Varadarāja, Raṅganātha, Veṅkatēśa, Viṭhōbā, Jagannātha, Nara-Nārāyaṇa, and Manmatha. | | |
| Garuḍa and Āyudha-purushas | ... | ... | 281—296 |
| Ādityas, including the Nava-grahas | ... | 297—323 |
| Dēvī :— | ... | ... | ... | 325—400 |
| Śrīchakra, Dēvī, Durgā, Nilakaṇṭhī, Kshēmaṅkarī, Harasiddhi, Rudrāṁśa-Durgā, Vana-Durgā, Agni-Durgā, Jaya-Durgā, Vindhyavāsi | | |

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Durgā, Ripumāri-Durgā, Mahishāsuramarddani or Kātyāyani, Chaṇḍikā, Nandā, Nava-Durgās, Bhadrakālī, Mahākālī, Ambā, Ambikā, Maṅgalā, Sarvamaṅgalā, Kālarātrī, Lalitā, Gaurī, Umā, Pārvatī, Rambhā, Tōtalā, Tripurā, the eight Dvārapālākas of the Gaurī temple, Bhūtamāta, Yōganidrā, Vāmā, Jyeshṭhā, Raudrī, Kālī, Kalavikarnikā, Balavikarnikā, Balapramathani, Sarvabhūtadamani, Manōnmanī, Vāruṇī-Chāmuṇḍā, Rakta-Chāmuṇḍā, Śivadūtī, Yōgēśvarī, Bhairavī, Tripura-Bhairavī, Śivā, Kīrti, Siddhi, Riddhi, Kshamā, Dīpti, Rati, Śvētā, Bhadrā, Jayā, Vijayā, Kālī, Ghaṇṭākarṇi, Jayantī, Diti, Arundhatī, Aparājitā, Surabhi, Krishṇā, Indrākshī, Annapūrṇā, Tulasīdēvī, Aśvārūḍhadēvī, Bhuvanēśvarī, Bālā, Rājamātaṅgī, Lakshmī, Śrī, Mahālakshmī, Bhūmidēvī, Saraswati, Sapta-mātṛikās and Jyēshṭhādēvī.

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Appendix A—A description of the plan and of the disposition of *parivāradēvatās* in a Vishṇu temple of seven *āvaraṇas* ... ... 1—45

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Appendix B—A detailed description of the *Uttama-daśa-tāla* measure to be used in the making of images ... ... 1—71

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Appendix C—Sanskrit Texts relied upon for the description of the images ... ... 1—160

List of Illustrations

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| PLATE | | TO FACE PAGE. |
| A.—Yantras : A group of Śālagrāmas and an image of Rāma made of a piece of śālagrāma. | | 11 |
| B.—Śarādādēvī and Śaṅkarāchārya, Kālaḍi | ... | 32 |
| C.—Bust of Chennakēśava, Bēlūr. | ... | 36 |
| D.—Viṣṇu bathing Kachchhapēśvara, Conjee-varam (A. S. M.) | ... | 43 |
| E.—Śarabhamūrti, Tribhuvanam (A. S. M.) | ... | 45 |
| F.—Trimūrti with Śiva as the central figure, Tiruvottiyūr. | ... | 45 |
| Trimūrti with Viṣṇu as the central figure, Nāgalāpuram | ... | 45 |
| I—Weapons held by images | ... | 4 |
| II— Do. | ... | 6 |
| III—Other objects held by images | ... | 8 |
| IV—Headgears and ornaments of images | ... | 12 |
| V—Hand-poses of images | ... | 14 |
| VI—Seats of images | ... | 18 |
| VII—Head-gears and hair knots of images | ... | 28 |
| VIII— Do. | ... | 29 |
| IX— Do. | ... | 32 |

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∗ T. S. A = Trivandram School of Arts ; A. S. M. Archæological Survey of Madras. A. S. My = Archæological Survey of Mysore ; A. S. Bo = Archæological Survey of Bombay ; A. S. I = Archæological Survey of India ; I. M. = India Museum. The photographs and drawings which are not followed by any of the abbreviations given above belong to the author's collection.

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| PLATE | | TO FACE PAGE. |
| X—Fig. 1. Unmatta-uchchhishta-Gaṇapati, Kā- | | |
| laḍi. | | 49 |
| X—Fig. 2. Kēvala-Gaṇapati, Trivandram (T.S.A.). | | 49 |
| XI—Fig. 1. Lakshmī-Gaṇapati, Teṅkāśi (A.S.M.)... | | 53 |
| XI—Fig. 2. Uchchhishta-Gaṇapati, Kumbhakonam | | 53 |
| XII— do. Nañjaṅgōḍu ... | | 54 |
| XIII—Hēramba-Gaṇapati, front view, Negapatam | | |
| (A. S. M.) ... | | 56 |
| XIV— Do, back view. (A. S. M.) ... | | 57 |
| XV—Fig. 1. Prasanna-Gaṇapati, P a ṭṭi ś varam | | |
| (A. S. M.) ... | | 58 |
| XV—Fig. 2. Do. Trivandram (T. S. A.) ... | | 58 |
| XVI—Nṛitta-Gaṇapati, Haḷēbīḍu ... | | 59 |
| XVII—Madhyama Yōgasthānakamūrti, Mahābalipuram | | 80 |
| XVIII—Bhōgasthānakamūrti, Madras Museum ... | | 81 |
| XIX—Adhama Bhōgasthānakamūrti, Tiruvottiyūr... | | 82 |
| XX—Bhōgasthānakamūrti, Tāḍpatri (A. S. M.) ... | | 83 |
| XXI—Sthānakamūrti, Mathura Museum (A. S. I.)... Between | | |
| pages 84 and 85 | | |
| XXII—Bhōgasthānakamūrti, Madras Museum ... 84-85 | | |
| XXIII—Madhyama Bhōgasthānakamūrti, Madras Mu- | | |
| seum | | 84-85 |
| XXIV—Yōgāsanamūrti, Bāgaḷi (A. S. M.) ... | | 87 |
| XXV—Bhōgāsanamūrti, Bādāmi ... | | 88 |
| XXVI—Madhyama Bhōgāsanamūrti, Conjeevaram | | |
| Between pages 88 and 89 | | |
| XXVII— Do Ellora ... 88-89 | | |
| XXVIII—Bhōgāsanamūrti, Dāḍikkombu (A. S. M.) ... 88-89 | | |
| XXIX—Fig. 1. Do. Trivandram (T. S. A.) ... | | 90 |
| XXIX—Fig. 2. Yōgaśayanamūrti, Trivandram (T.S.A.) | | 90 |
| XXX—Adhama Vīrāsanamūrti; Aihoḷe (A.S.Bo.) ... 88-89 | | |
| XXXI—Madhyama Yōgaśayanamūrti, M a h ā b a l i- | | |
| puram ... | | 91 |
| XXXII—Madhyama Bhōgaśayanamūrti, D e o g a r h, | | |
| (I.M.) ... | | 110 |

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| PLATE | | TO FACE PAGE |
| XXXIII—Madhyama Yogaśayanamūrti, Aihole, (A.S.Bo.) | ... | 92 |
| XXXIV—Uttama Bhōgaśayanamūrti Raja-putana (A.S.Bo.) | ... | 93 |
| XXXV—The ten Avatāras of Vishnu (T.S.A.) | ... | 123 |
| XXXVI—Varāha panel, Mahābalipuram | ... | 138 |
| XXXVII—Bhūvarāhamurthi, Bādāmi | ... | 140 |
| XXXVIII—Varāha, Rajim, Raipur district, Cen. Prov., (A.S.Bo.) | ... | 141 |
| XXXIX—Fig. 1, Varāha, Nāgalāpuram | ... | 141 |
| XXXIX—Fig. 2, Do. Phalodi, Jodhpur district, Marwar (A.S.Bo.) | ... | 141 |
| XXXIX—Fig. 3, Do. Calcutta Museum (A.S Bo.)... | ... | 141 |
| XL—Do. Madras Museum | ... | 142 |
| XLI—Fig. 1, Lakshmī-Narasimha, Madras Museum | ... | 143 |
| XLI—Fig. 2, Varāha, Bēlūr | ... | 143 |
| XLI—Fig. 3, Lakshmī-Narasimha Madras Mesum. | ... | 143 |
| XLII—Kēvala-Narasimha, Haḷēbīḍu | ... | 150 |
| XLIII—Standing figure of Kēvala-Narasimha, Bādāmi | ... | 155 |
| XLIV—Sthauna-Narasimha, Ellora | ... | 156 |
| XLV—Do, Daḍikombu (A.S.M.) | ... | 157 |
| XLVI—Do. Do. (A.S.M.) | ... | 158 |
| XLVII—Do. Madras Museum | ... | 159 |
| XLVIII—Trivikrama, Rajim, Raipur Dt., Cen. Prov., (A.S.Bo.) | ... | 169 |
| XLIX—Do. Mahābalipuram | ... | 170 |
| L—Do. Bādāmi | ... | 172 |
| LI—Do. Ellora | ... | 174 |
| LII—Fig. 1, Do. Chatsu, Jaipur Dt., Marwar (A.S.Bo.) | ... | 175 |
| LII—Fig. 2, Do. Nāgalāpuram | ... | 175 |
| LII—Fig. 3, Do. Bēlūr | ... | 175 |
| LIII—Do. Nuggehaḷḷi (A.S.My.) | ... | 177 |

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| PLATE | | TO FACE PAGE. |
| LIV—Raghu-Rāma, Shērmādēvi, (A.S.M.) | ... | 189 |
| LV— Do. Rāmēśvaram, (A.S.M.) | ... | 193 |
| LVI— Do. Mahābalipuram | ... | 194 |
| LVII— Do. (T.S.A.) | ... | 195 |
| LVIII—Kṛiṣhṇa and Rukmiṇī, Madras Museum | ... | 205 |
| LIX— Do. Shērmādēvi, (A.S.M.)... | ... | 206 |
| LX—Fig. 1, Navanīta-nṛittamūrti, Madras Museum | ... | 206 |
| LX—Fig. 2, Do. Madras Museum | ... | 206 |
| LXI—Gāna-Gōpāla, Haḷēbīḍu | ... | 208 |
| LXII—Fig. 1. Gāna-Gōpāla, (T. S. A.) | ... | 209 |
| LXII—Fig. 2, Do. , (A. S. M.) | ... | 209 |
| LXIII—Madana-Gōpāla, Teṅkāśi | ... | 210 |
| LXIV—Kālīyāhimardaka Kṛiṣhṇa, Madras Museum. | ... | 213 |
| LXV—Gōvarddhana-dhara Kṛiṣhṇa, Nuggehaḷḷi, (A. S. My.) | ... | 214 |
| LXVI— Do. Haḷēbīḍu | ... | 214 |
| LXVII—Fig. 1, Bālakṛiṣhṇa | ... | 215 |
| LXVII—Fig. 2, Do. | ... | 215 |
| LXVII—Fig. 3, Vaṭapatraśayin | ... | 215 |
| LXVIII—Buddha, Borobudor, (Dr. A. K., Theosophist). | ... | 221 |
| LXIX—Chennakēśavasvāmin, Bēlūr | ... | 228 |
| LXX—Fig. 1, Mādhava, Bēlūr | ... | 229 |
| LXX—Fig. 2, Gōvinda, Bēlūr | ... | 229 |
| LXX—Fig. 3, Madhusūdana, Bēlūr | ... | 229 |
| LXXI—Fig. 1, Hari, Bēlūr | ... | 231 |
| LXXI—Fig. 2, Śrī Kṛiṣhṇa, Bēlūr | ... | 231 |
| LXXII—Fig. 1, Hari-hara-pitāmaha, Haḷēbīḍu | ... | 252 |
| LXXII—Fig. 2, Dattātrēya (A. S. Bo.) | ... | 252 |
| LXXIII—Dattātrēya, Bādami | ... | 254 |
| LXXIV—Hari-hara-pitāmaha, Ajmere, Rajaputana Museum | ... | 253 |
| LXXV—Vaikuṇṭhanātha, Bādāmi | ... | 256 |

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| PLATE | | TO FACE PAGE. |
| LXXVI—Lakṣmī-Nārāyaṇa, Bēlūr | ... | 259 |
| LXXVII—Hayagrīva, Nuggehaḷḷi, (A. S. My.) | ... | 261 |
| LXXVIII—Ādimūrti, Nuggehaḷḷi, (A. S. My.) | ... | 262 |
| LXXIX—Jalaśāyin, Haḷēbīḍu | ... | 264 |
| LXXX—Fig. 1, Varadarāja, (A. S. My) | ... | 268 |
| LXXX—Fig. 2, Do. , Dāḍikkombu, (A.S.M.), | ... | 268 |
| LXXXI—Viṭhōbā and Rukmābāyī, Paṇḍharipura | ... | 273 |
| LXXXII—Fig. 1, Manmatha and Rati, Haḷēbīḍu, | ... | 277 |
| LXXXII—Fig. 2, Do. , Āṅgūr, (A. S.M.) | ... | 277 |
| LXXXIII—Fig. 1, Do, , Nuggehaḷḷi (A.S.My.) | ... | 278 |
| LXXXIII—Fig. 2, Manmatha, Teṅkāśi | ... | 278 |
| LXXXIV—Garuda Do. , Bādāmi | ... | 287 |
| LXXXV—Fig. 1, Garuda, Pālūr | ... | 288 |
| LXXXV—Fig. 2, Sudarśana-Chakra, (A.S.M.) | ... | 288 |
| LXXXV.A.— Do. Obverse and Reverse, Dāḍikkombu, (A.S.M.) | ... | 291 |
| LXXXVI—Sūrya, Guḍimallam | ... | 312 |
| LXXXVII—Do. Mēlchēri | ... | 311 |
| LXXXVIII—Fig. 1, Madras Museum | ... | 313 |
| LXXXVIII—Fig. 2, Do. Ellora, (Cave temples of India) | ... | 313 |
| LXXXVIII—Fig. 3, Sūrya, Rūpnagar, (A. S. Bo.) | ... | 313 |
| LXXXIX—Sūrya, Chitōrgarh, (A. S. Bo.) | ... | 314 |
| XC—Sūrya, Ajmere, etc., (A. S. Bo.) | ... | 314 |
| XCI—Sūrya, Havēri, (A. S. Bo.) | ... | 315 |
| XCII—Sūrya, Nuggehaḷḷi, (A. S. My.) | ... | 316 |
| XCIII—Fig. 1. Sūrya, Mādeyūr | ... | 316 |
| XCIII—Fig. 2. Sūrya, Ajmere, (A. S. Bo.) | ... | 316 |
| XCIV—Fig. 1. Sūryanārāyaṇa, Bēlūr | ... | 316 |
| XCIV—Fig. 2. Sūrya, Madras Museum | ... | 316 |
| XCV—Tōraṇa of a Sūrya temple, Junagarh Museum, (A. S. Bo.) | ... | 317 |

v1.c4.7

--- | --- XCVI—The Nava-Grahas, Sūryanārkōyil, (A. S. M.) | ... 323 XCVII—Śrīchakra | ... 330 XCVIII—Do. Śringēri Maṭha | ... 331 XCIX—Fig. 1. Durgā, Ōṇakkūr | ... 341 XCIX—Fig. 2. Do. Mahābalipuram | ... 341 C—Durgā, Mahābalipuram | ... 342 CI—Durgā panel, Mahābalipuram | ... 343 CII—Fig. 1. Kātyāyanī or Mahishāsura-marddanī, Madras Museum | ... 344 CII—Fig. 2. Durgā, Conjeevaram | ... 344 CIII—Kātyāyanī or Mahishasura-marddani, Gaṅgaikoṇḍaśōlapuram, (A. S. M.) | ... 345 CIV—Do. Ellora, (A.S.Bo.) | ... 345 CV—Do. Mahābalipuram | ... 347 CVI—Standing figure of Bhadrakāḷī, Tiruppālatturai, (A. S. M.) | ... 357 CVII—Fig. 1. Mahākāḷī, Mādeyūr | ... 358 CVII—Fig. 2. Do. Madras Museum | ... 358 CVIII—Fig. 1. Pārvatī, Ellora | ... 360 CVIII—Fig. 2. Annapūrṇā, Trivandram, (T S. A.) | ... 360 CIX—Śrīdēvī, Mahābalipuram | ... 372 CX—Do. Ellora, (A. S. Bo.) | ... 373 CXI—Fig. 1. Lakshmī, Mādeyūr | ... 373 CXI—Fig. 2. Śrīdēvī, Trivandram, (T.S.A.) | ... 373 CXII—Kollāpura Mahālakshmī | ... 375 CXIII.—Sarasvatī, Gadag (A. S. Bo.) | ... 377 CXIV.—Sarasvatī, Gaṅgaikoṇḍaśōlapuram (A.S.M.) | ... 377 CXV.—Sarasvatī, Bāgaḷi (A.S.M.) | ... 377 CXVI.—Fig. 1. Sarasvatī with a vīṇā, Haḷēbīḍu | ... 377 CXVI.—Fig. 2. Sarasvatī ḍancing, Haḷēbīḍu | ... 377 CXVII.—Fig. 1. Śāradādēvī, Trivandram | ... 378 CXVII.—Fig. 2. Vārāhī and Vaishṇavī, Tirunandikkarai | ... 378 CXVIII.—Fig. 1. The Saptamātṛikā Group, Ellora | ... 383

v1.c4.8

| PLATE | | TO FACE PAGE. |
| CXVIII.—Fig. 2. The Saptamātṛikā Group, Bēḷūr | ... | 383 |
| CXIX.— | Do. | Kumbhakōṇam. | 384 |
| CXX.—Piṭhas of Sapta-Mātṛikās | ... | 386 |
| CXXI.—Jyēshṭhādēvī, Mylapore, Madras | ... | 391 |
| CXXII.— | Do. | Madras Museum | ... | 394 |
| CXXIII.— | Do. | Kumbhakōṇam | ... | 395 |

v1.c4.9

Plan of a Viṣṇu temple with seven āvaraṇas and the disposition of the parivāradēvatās in it. To face page 9 of Appendix A.

v1.c4.10

Plate 1. App. B.—A figure of Viṣṇu drawn in accordance with the uttamadaśa-tāla measure, To face page 9 of Appendix B.

v1.c4.11

Plate 2. App. B.—Foot, palm and ear. Do. 15 of Appendix B.

v1.c4.12

Plate 3. App. B.—Front and side view of a face Do. To face page 20 of Appendix B.

List of the Important Works Consulted

v1.c5.1

Ādityapurāṇa. Agnipurāṇa. Ahirbudhnya-saṃhitā. Aṃśumadbhēdāgama. Ānandalaharī. Āmnāya Archæological Survey of Mayūra-bhañja by Nagēndranāth Vāsu. Bhāgavata-purāṇa. Bhāvōpanishad with the commentary of Bhāskararāya. Bhavishyat-purāṇa. Bōdhāyana-gṛihya-sūtras. Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa. Bṛihad-Brahma-saṃhitā. Bṛihat-saṃhitā of Varāhamihira. Brahma-purāṇa. Brahmavaivarta-purāṇa. Chaṇḍikalpa. Chūḍāmaṇi-nighaṇṭu of Maṇḍalapurusha (Tamil). Dēvibhāgavata. Dēvīmahātmya. Divākara-nighaṇṭu of Śendaṇār (Tamil). Garuḍa-purāṇa. Hindu Mythology by Vans Kennedy. Hindu Pantheon by Moore. Indrākshīkalpa. Kāmikāgama. Kāraṇāgama. Kriyākramadyōti. Kumāratantra. Lakshaṇa-samuchchaya. Lalitāsahasranāma with Bhāskararāya’s commentary. Liṅga-purāṇa. Mahālakshmīratnakōśa. Mahōpanishad. Maitrēyyupanishad. Mantramāharṇava. Matsyapurāṇa. Mānasāra. Mārkaṇḍēya-purāṇa. Mayadīpikā. Nālāyiraprabandham (Tamil). Nārada-Pāñcharātra-saṃhitā. Nārada-purāṇa. Nāradasaṃhitā. Nirukta of Yāska. Nṛisiṃhaprāsāda. Original Sanskrit Texts by Muir. Padma-purāṇa. Pāñcharātra. Piṅgala-nighaṇṭu (Tamil).

v1.c5.2

Rājamātaṅgikalpa. Rāmāyaṇa Rūpamaṇḍana. Śāṇḍilyōpaniṣad. Sāttvata-saṃhita. Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa. Śarabhatantra. Śāradātilaka. Sarva-siddhānta-saṅgraha. Saundaryalahari. Saura-purāṇa. Siddhānta-sārāvaḷi. Siddhārthasaṃhitā. Śilparatna. Śivapurāṇa. Skanda-purāṇa. Śrītatvanidhi. Sudarśana-śataka. Suprabhēdāgama.

v1.c5.3

Tantra-sāra of Ānandatīrtha. Tripurasundarīkalpa. Tulasīmahātmya. Vamāna-purāṇa. Vaikhānasāgama. Varāha-purāṇa. Vātulaśuddhāgama. Vāyu-purāṇa. Vicissitudes of Aryan Civilization by Kuṇṭhe. Viṣṇudharmōttara. Viṣṇu-purāṇa. Viṣṇusahasranāma. Viśvakarma-śilpa. Vritakhaṇḍa of Hēmādri. A work found along with the manuscript of Śilparatna and whose name is unknown.

Addenda and Corrigenda

v1.c6.1

The following were discovered shortly after the book was printed :—

v1.c6.2

*Karttari-hasta.* In the *Karttari-hasta* pose the arm is lifted so that the middle finger of the hand reaches to the height of the *hikkā-sūtra*: the ring-finger and the thumb are bent so as to meet near the middle of the palm of the hand; the last or the smallest finger is also slightly bent; the fore-finger and the middle finger are stretched out and kept like the legs of the letter V. The palm of the hand faces the outside. This pose of the hand is meant for holding the *śaṅkha*, *chakra* and other weapons.* (See Pls. XX and XXII).

v1.c6.3

*Chhannavira.* Chhannavira is an ornament which may be rightly called a double *yajñōpavīta*. In this, two *yajñōpavītas* thrown one on each shoulder, pass through the middle of the chest, where they are connected with the *urassūtra* or the chest-band, and reach as far below as the *yōni* or the public region, from which they turn to the back and thence to the shoulders.† (See the figures of Rama and Lakshmaṇa on Pl. LV and of Varaha in figure 1, Pl. XXXIX).

v1.c6.4

* हिक्कासूत्रसमं मध्यमाग्रमूर्ध्वाननं करम् ।
बहिर्मुखं कर्त्तरी सा शङ्खचक्रादिसंयुता ॥
वक्रौ त्वनामिकाङ्गुष्ठौ तलमध्यगतौ पुनः ।
किंचिद्वक्रा कनिष्ठा सा द्वावन्यावप्युजुक्रियौ ॥
उरस्सूत्रं समालम्ब्य स्तनादधःकुलान्तरे ।
† यज्ञोपवीतवत्कार्य स्कन्धयोरुभयोरपि ॥
पार्श्वयोश्चैव योन्यूर्ध्वं [च्छ*] न्वीरमिदं विदुः ।

v1.c6.5

Page X—Line 6. *For Archælogical read Archæological.* ,, XVI—,, 1. *Omit of.* ,, 9—,, 14. *Omit handles.* ,, 11—Margin of 3—5. *For heads read hands.* ,, 13—Line 14. *For Pl. IV. Fig. 2 read fig. 9.* ,, 14—,, 24. *For Pl. V, figs. 1, 2 and 3 read Pl. V, figs. 4, 5 and 6.* ,, 15—,, 3. *For Pl. V, figs. 4, 5 and 6 read Pl. V, figs. 1, 2 and 3.* ,, 44—,, 20. *For sacrifices read sacrifices.* ,, 45—,, 21. *For s read is.* ,, 48—,, 7. *For circuit read or circuit.* ,, 53—,, 22. *Omit colour.* ,, 55—,, 4. *For great read a great.* ,, 65—,, 17. *For back and front read front and back.* ,, 83—5,9,26, *For will read would.* ,, 84—,, 1. *For will read would.* ,, 100—,, 11. *For mangoloid read mongoloid.* ,, 104—,, 1. *For case read the case.* ,, 113—,, 26. *For Pl. read Pls.* ,, 114—,, 11. *For from by which read from which.* ,, 115—,, bottom *For 15 read 115.* ,, 125—,, 12. *For extarcts read extracts.* ,, 133—,, 1. *For his read this.* ,, 138—,, 19. *Omit which are.* ,, 149—,, 6-7, *Substitute for in the day or in night, inside house or out.*

v1.c6.6

Pls. XLIX, L, LI. *For Trivikrama : Panel Stone : read Trivikrama panel : Stone.*

v1.c6.7

Page 211—Line 14. *For skillfully read skilfully.* ,, 247—,, 3. *For circuit read circuits.* ,, 248—,, 11. *For alloted read allotted.* ,, 249—,, f.n.5. *For svana read savana.* ,, 249—,, f.n.5. *For pratasvana read pratassavana.*

v1.c6.9

Page 249—Line f.n.5. For madhyandinasvana read madhyandina-savana.

v1.c6.10

,, 249— ,, f.n.6. For tritīyasvana read tritīyasavana.

v1.c6.11

,, 261— ,, 12. For XXVII read LXXVII.

v1.c6.12

,, 274— ,, 21. For Dambhōdhava read Dambhōdbhava.

v1.c6.13

,, 275— ,, 26. For Nārāyaṇa to read Nārāyaṇa are to.

v1.c6.14

,, 277— ,, 23. For anxiously forward read anxiously looking forward.

v1.c6.15

,, 279— ,, 6. Omit of.

v1.c6.16

,, 279— ,, 19. For latter read later.

v1.c6.17

,, 286— ,, 15. For two other read other two.

v1.c6.18

,, 287— ,, 12. For his read its.

v1.c6.19

,, 291— ,, 6. For Pl. LXXXVI read Pl. LXXXV-A.

v1.c6.20

,, 295— ,, 21. For iconoclastic read iconoplastic.

v1.c6.21

,, 295— ,, 25. For is more read is a more.

v1.c6.22

,, 306— ,, 9. For suprabhēdāgama read Suprabhēdā-gama.

v1.c6.23

,, 313— ,, 4. For Pl. LXXXVIII read Pl. LXXXVII.

v1.c6.24

Facing page 316. For Pl. CIV read Pl. XCIV.

v1.c6.25

Facing page 331, Pl. XCVIII. For Śrichakara and Pleti: Śringāri read Śrīchakra and Plate: Śringēri.

v1.c6.26

Page 323—Line 3 from below. For central and read central shrine and.

v1.c6.27

,, 331— ,, 11. For of ten read often.

v1.c6.28

,, 332— ,, 16. For of person read of the person.

v1.c6.29

,, 367— ,, 2. Omit full-stop after desired.

v1.c6.30

,, 369— ,, 20. Omit so.

v1.c6.31

,, 373— ,, 1. For consort read consorts.

v1.c6.32

,, 376— ,, 23. For Śīta was read Śīta is.

v1.c6.33

,, 390— ,, 10. For conferor read conferrer.

v1.c6.34

,, 396— ,, 17. For Mārkaṇḍēya read by Mārkaṇḍēya.

General Introduction

v1.c7.1

THE origin of image worship in India appears to be very ancient and its causes are not exactly known. Many believe it to be the result of the followers of Gautama Buddha adoring their master and worshipping him in the form of images on his apotheosis after death. However, there are indications of the prevalence of image worship among the Hindus long before the time of Gautama Buddha. The employment of an external object to concentrate the mind upon in the act of meditation in carrying on the practice of *Yōga* is in India quite as old as *Yōga* itself. Patañjali defines *dhāraṇa* or fixity of attention as "the process of fixing the mind on some object well defined in space." This process is, as he says, "of two kinds, in consequence of this defined space being internal or external. The external object, defined in space consists of the circle of the navel (the nabhi-chakra), the heart and so on. The fixing the mind thereon is merely directing its existence to be there.” There is indeed ample evidence to show that the practice of *Yōga* is in this country much older than the time of Patañjali. Vāchaspati Miśra, a commentator on Vyāsadēva’s Bhāshya on Patañjali’s *Yōga-Sūtras*, mentions a great sage Hiraṇyagarbha as the founder of the *Yōga* doctrine, which, he adds, was simply improved upon and promulgated by Patañjali, as evidenced by the use of the word *anuśāsanam* in Patañjali’s first aphorism *Atha yōgānuśāsanam*. This old sage Hiraṇyagarbha and his successor Vārshagaṇya Yājñavalkya are alluded to by Rāmānuja and other later teachers of Vēdānta; and Śaṅkara actually quotes some *Yōga* aphorisms which are not found in the work of Patañjali, but look older than his time. It is therefore clear that image worship among the Hindus was contemporaneous with, if not older than, the development of the *Yōga* system, which, as we have seen, dates from before the age of Patañjali, who has been assigned by scholars on good evidence to the second century before Christ. There is no doubt that the *Yōga* system is even older than the time of Buddha, because Buddha himself is declared to have been initiated into its practice in the earlier stages of

v1.c7.3

his search after enlightenment and truth; and it may be taken that this fact is evidenced by sculptured representations of Buddha in the style of the Gāndhara school as an emaciated person almost dying under the stress of the austerities he practised.[*]

v1.c7.4

Again, Pāṇini, to whom certain Orientalists assign a date somewhere about the sixth century before Christ, mentions in one of his grammatical aphorisms (v. 3,99) that "likenesses not to be sold but used for the purpose of livelihood do not take the termination *kan*." The word he uses to denote an image in a nearly preceding (v. 6, 96) aphorism is *pratikṛiti*, the literal meaning whereof is anything made after an original. Commentators on this aphorism understand these unsellable reproductions to be divine images. Evidently then, there were images of gods and goddesses in the days of Pāṇini, which were apparently not sold in the bazaars, but were, nevertheless, used for the purpose of making a living. This would indicate that the possessors of these images were able to utilise them as religious objects which were so sacred as to justify the gift of alms to those who owned and exhibited them. Finally, images of gods, as they laugh, cry, sing, dance, perspire, crack and so forth are mentioned in the *Adbhuta-Brāhmaṇa*, which is the last of the six chapters of the *Shaḍviṁśa-Brāhmaṇa*, a supplement to the *Pañchaviṁśa-Brāhmaṇa*.[*]

v1.c7.5

∗ See fig. 61, on p. 110 of V. A. Smith's *History of Fine Arts in India and Ceylon*.

v1.c7.6

As regards the existence or otherwise of image worship in the Vēdic period in the history of India, opinion is divided among European savants. Prof. Max Muller, (*Chips from a German Workshop*, I. 35), answers the question, ‘Did the Vēdic Indians make images of their gods,’ in the negative. He says, “The religion of the Vēda knows no idols. The worship of idols in India is a secondary formation, a later degeneration of the more primitive worship of the ideal gods.” On the other hand Dr. Bollenson finds in the hymns clear references to images of the gods, (*Journ. of the Germ. Orient. Soc.* xxii, 587, ff). “From the common appellation of the gods as *divō naras*, ‘men of the sky’, or simply *naras* (later?), ‘men’ and from the epithet *nṛipēśas*, ‘having the form of men’, *R. V.* iii, 4, 5 we may conclude that the Indians did not merely in imagination assign human forms to their gods, but also represented them in a sensible manner.”

v1.c7.7

[*] Macdonell’s *Sanskrit Literature*, p. 210.

v1.c7.8

Image worship seems to have become common in the time of Yāska. In his *Nirukta* he says, “We are now to consider the forms of the gods. One mode of representation in the hymn makes them resemble men; for, they are praised and addressed as intelligent beings. They are also celebrated with limbs such as those of men.”

v1.c7.9

Later on Patañjali even gives in a casual manner an idea as to the images which were then commonly in use: he says in the *Mahābhāshya* “What about such likenesses as of Śiva, Skanda and Viśākha, which are known as Śiva, Skanda and Viśākha, and not Śivaka, Skandaka and Viśākhaka?”

v1.c7.10

In the Rāmāyaṇa, we see mention of temples in Laṅka, (Bk. VI. 39, 21), clearly evidencing the fact that there existed at least in S. India the worship of images enshrined in temples.

v1.c7.11

Thus there appears to be evidence enough to suggest that image worship was probably not unknown even to the Vēdic Indian; and it seems likely that he was at least occasionally worshipping his gods in the form of images, and continued to do so afterwards also. Such is the evidence as to image worship to be found in early Sanskrit Literature. It is desirable to direct our attention to actual sculptures and to references to images occurring in ancient inscriptions.

v1.c7.12

The oldest piece of sculpture, in South India distinctly Hindu in character, is, as far as it is known now, the Liṅga at Guḍimallam. From the features of the figure of Śiva carved thereon in half relief, from the ornaments worked out on the figure, from the arrangement of the drapery, from the battle-axe upon the shoulder, and many other characteristics, it may be put down to belong to the period of Bhaurhat sculptures, that is, to the second century before Christ. This remarkable piece of sculpture is interesting in two ways; it at once assures us of the exact nature of early Liṅga worship and also affords us a lower limit of time in relation to the worship of Śiva in the form of a Liṅga. From this Liṅga we may safely conclude that Liṅga worship is at least as old as the 2nd century B.C.

v1.c7.13

Then again, the inscription on a Garuḍa-stambha discovered in Besnagar quite recently, states that Heliodoros, the son of Dion, a Bhāgavata, who came from Taxila in the reign of the great king Antalkidas set up that Garuḍa-dhvaja in honour of Vāsudēva. For this king Antalkidas various initial dates have been fixed, which range from B.C. 175 to 135. This is about the earliest known inscription mentioning Viṣṇu as Vāsudēva; and from this we are in a position to assert

v1.c7.14

that the worship of Vāsudēva in temples in India cannot be later than the 2nd century B.C.

v1.c7.15

The following are some of the noteworthy references to the iconographic aspect of the Viṣṇu cult in inscriptions :—The Udayagiri Cave inscription of .......ḍhala, son of Viṣṇudāsa, grandson of Chhagala and vassal of the Gupta king, Chandragupta II, dated the Gupta Era 82 (A.D. 401-2), records the dedication of a rock-cut shrine to Viṣṇu. The undated inscription of the Bhiṭāri stone pillar, belonging to the reign of Skandagupta, mentions that an image of the god Śārṅgin was set up and a village was allotted for its worship. Certain repairs to the lake Sudarśana by the governor Parṇadatta's agent Chakrapālita is said to have been made in the Gupta year 138 (A.D. 457-8). The same person also built a temple to Chakrabhṛt (Viṣṇu). The Gaṅgdhar inscription of Viśvakarma, dated A.D. 423-4, records that a person built a temple for Viṣṇu and the Sapta-Mātṛikās and dug a well for drinking water. Iran stone pillar inscription of the time of Budhagupta, dated Gupta Era 165 (A.D. 484-5), informs us that a Mahārāja Mātṛiviṣṇu and his younger brother Dhanyaviṣṇu erected a dhvaja-stambha for the god Janārddana. The Khoh copper-plates of Mahārāja Samkṣōbha dated G.E. 209 (A.D. 528-9), begins with the famous ‘twelve-lettered mantra’, *Ōm namō Bhagavatē Vāsudēvāya* of the Bhāgavatas.

v1.c7.16

The following are similar references to the Śiva cult in inscriptions:—Udayagiri Cave inscription of the reign of Chandragupta II, records the excavation of a shrine for Śambhu; while another in Bilsad, belonging to the reign of Kumāragupta, and dated G.E. 96 (A.D. 415-6), makes mention of the erection of a number of additional buildings attached to the temple of Svāmi Mahāsēna.

v1.c7.17

The facts disclosed by the inscriptions quoted above clearly show that the two Hindu cults of Śiva and Vishnu were in an advanced condition in the 5th century A.D., so as to indicate that they must have had behind them many centuries of developement.

v1.c7.18

II.

v1.c7.19

The objects worshipped by Hindus are images, of gods and goddesses, *śalagrāmas*, *bāṇa-liṅgas*, *yantras*, certain animals and birds, certain holy rivers, tanks, trees and sepulchres of saints. Besides these, there are several minor objects of local importance and personal predilection, which are also used as objects of worship.

v1.c7.20

The Hindu images of gods and goddesses are broadly divisible into two classes as the Vaishṇava

v1.c7.21

and the Śaiva. In this classification may well be included, for the sake of convenience, the images of Dēvī, Gaṇēśa, and other such deities since they are, according to the Purāṇas, related in some manner or other to Viṣṇu or Śiva. As a matter of fact, the goddesses associated with, Viṣṇu and Śiva represent their various divine powers and energies.

v1.c7.22

The images of gods and goddesses are worshipped by the Hindus not only in temples as public places of worship but also in private households. Since the regular worship of images requires attention to a great many details in respect of ceremonial purity and piety, such worship is only occasionally conducted in many house-holds, even though the rule is that it should be conducted every day. Every Hindu household possesses its own images of the family deity (*iṣṭa-dēvatās* and *kula-dēvatās*) ; and worship is offered to them in many families only occasionally. On all other days a *śālagrāma*, a *bāṇa-liṅga*, a *sphaṭika-liṅga* or some such small object is worshipped, since nothing can be eaten by a pious Hindu which has not been offered in worship to his deity. A *śālagrāma* is generally a flintified ammonite shell, which is river worn and thus rounded and beautifully polished. The river Gaṇḍaki, which is one of the well-known tributaries of the Ganges, is

v1.c7.23

Salagrama.

v1.c7.24

famous in India for its deposits of *śalagrāmas*. Each of these has a hole, through which are visible several interior spiral grooves resembling the representation of the *chakra* or discus of Viṣṇu; and these are in fact considered by the people to be the naturally produced representations of the discus of Viṣṇu. The *śalagrāma* is in consequence looked upon as a representative of Viṣṇu. Remarkable virtues are attributed to it and fabulous prices are often offered to some particular specimens of it. There are treatises on the subject of the examination and evaluation of *śalagrāmas*; and there are also, here and there, a few experts to be found even in these days for estimating their value. The number as well as the disposition of the spirals visible through the holes is utilised in ascertaining which of the many aspects and *avatāras* of Viṣṇu a given specimen represents and what the value of it is to the worshipper.∗ The *Varāha-purāṇa* states that YANTRAS.

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∗ A good or auspicious *śalagrāma* is one which has a *chakra*, which resembles a *nāga* (cobra) reposing in a spiral; the spirals of the *chakra* in the *śalagrāma* should have in them delicate traceries running across them. Those *śalagrāmas* which are of the size of an *āmalaka* fruit or smaller, are very efficacious. *Śalagrāmas* may be of the following colours: brownish black, green, white, red, blue, dark brown, jet-black, yellow or multicoloured. They are said to belong respectively

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A group of śālagrāmas and an image of Rāma made of a piece of śālagrāma.

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the river-goddess of the Gaṇḍaki requested Viṣṇu to be born in her womb, to which Viṣṇu acceded and came to be born in the river as *śalagrāmas*.

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It is a fairly common sight to find a large collection of *śalagrāmas* in many important temples, in monasteries called *mathas* and even in certain old households. They are worshipped by Vaiṣṇavas and also by persons of the Vaidik Śaiva persuasion; but the Āgamic Śaivas and the Vīra-Śaivas do not worship them.

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to Narasimha, Vāmana, Vāsudēva, Saṃkarṣaṇa, Dāmōdara and Aniruddha, Nārāyaṇa, Kṣētra-Vaiṣṇava (?), and Śrīdhara. A *śalagrāma* with three *chakras* is said to belong to Lakṣmī-Nārāyaṇa. Fine spiralled ones grant all the desires of the worshipper, whereas black ones would give fame (*kīrti*); white *śalagrāmas* destroy sin, and yellow ones confer sons. *Śalagrāmas* of blue, etc., colours grant peace and wealth, while red bestows enjoyment (*bhōga*). Even pieces of the auspicious *śalagrāmas*, might be worshipped. The following specimens must be avoided: badly mutilated, and rough surfaced ones, those having a large number of holes or pits, or scarred with many lines, porous, unusually large sized, those having too many spirals, or having only one loop in the spiral (?), big mouthed or large spiralled, down-looking and burnt ones, very red ones, ill looking ones, and those with a number of *chakras* in a line; worshipping these brings only misery to the worshipper.

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Bāṇa-liṅgas mostly consist of quartz and are egg-shaped pebbles. They are described in the *Siddhānta-sārāvaḷi* of Trilōchana Śivāchārya:—" Bāṇa-liṅgas are liked by Īśvara and may be in sizes ranging from the eighth of an *aṅgula* (inch) to one *hasta* (cubit). They may be of the colour of a ripe *jambu* fruit, of honey, of a black beetle, or of the touch-stone, or may be blue, deep-red or green. The *pīṭha* should also be of the same colour as the *bāṇa-liṅga*. They have to be either like the teat of a cow or like an egg in shape, and must be highly polished. These *bāṇa-liṅgas* are said to be found in Amarēśvara, on the Mahēndra mountain, in Nepal, in the Kanyātīrtha and Āśrama near the same place. It is considered that each of these places contains a crore of *bāṇa-liṅgas*, and that there are three crores of *bāṇa-liṅgas* in each of the following places of Śaiva pilgrimage, namely, Śrīśaila, Liṅgaśaila and Kāligarta.

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Yantras are certain mystic and magical diagrams engraved upon metallic plates, or, sometimes drawn on paper, with certain mystic letters in association. These diagrams are supposed to have the power to protect the worshipper from ills due to the influence of evil deities or evil spirits, and to bestow on him happiness, wealth and eventually even liberation from births. Sometimes they are worn about the person of the worshipper in small cylindrical gold or silver cases. The most important of the *yantras* and the holiest among them is the Śrīchakra. (For an extensive treatment of this *yantra*, see under "Śrīchakra"). It is held generally in very high esteem, but is especially adored by the worshippers of Dēvī.

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Cow. The pious Hindu regards the cow with the reverence due to a divine being; and to him she is as dear as a goddess-mother. Worship is offered to her by some Hindus regularly on all Fridays. On certain important occasions, she is specially worshipped, as for instance, on the day following the Makara-saṅkrānti in South India. In North India, one often sees cows being freely fed in front of temples by visitors going there to worship. Every cow is to the pious Hindu an *avatāra* of Kāmadhēnu, the mythical all-bestowing cow of the god Indra.

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Birds. Among the birds, Garuḍa, the brahmany kite, is the most sacred; and when a pious Hindu happens to see one of these birds hovering in the sky, he invariably offers obeisance to it. It is considered to be a very good omen, if one of these birds happens to be seen when one goes about on any important business.

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Worship is also offered to holy rivers like the Ganges, the Gōdāvari, the Kāvēri, etc. The Ganges is considered to be holy throughout the year; even in the case of this river, certain specific places along her course and certain times in the year are held to be very sacred; and bathing in the river in those times and places and doing *pūja* to her is esteemed very meritorious. Various other rivers and even certain tanks are considered holy during particular periods and on special occasions; for instance, the river Kāvēri in South India is especially worshipped in the month of Tulā (October-November), and pilgrims from various parts of India go to Talakāvēri, Śrīraṅgam and Saṅghamukha, which are holy places situated at the source, the middle and the end respectively of the river Kāvēri. In a similar manner, a large sacred tank at Kumbhakōṇam, generally held in very great veneration, is considered to become specially sacred on the occasion of the *Makha-nakshatra* in the month of Māgha once in twelve years; and this occasion is celebrated as the Mahāmakha. The various *mēlas* in North India in relation to sacred rivers and tanks correspond to the things described above.

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Tree worship is also a common feature in popular Hinduism. The *aśvattha* tree (*Ficus religiosa*) is always sacred to the Hindu. The sacredness of this tree to the Buddhist is due to the fact of Buddha having obtained his religious enlightenment while meditating under it. On those mondays, on which the new-moon falls, circumambulations and offerings of various things are made to the *aśvattha* tree by many Hindu women. In South India, each Śiva temple has some particular tree which is peculiar to that temple and goes by the name of *sthala-vriksha* or the tree of the place. For instance, the *kadamba* (*nauclea kadamba*) tree is the *sthala-vriksha* of the famous Mīnākṣī-Sundarēśvara temple at Madura; the *jambu* tree is the *sthala-vriksha* of the temple of Jambukēśvara at Tiruvānaikkāval near Trichinopoly. The *tuḷasi* plant (*ocimum basilicum*) is held in high esteem in association with Vaiṣṇavism, and regular *pūja* is daily offered to this plant in many Hindu homes even to-day. The leaves of this plant are as sacred and pleasing an offering to Viṣṇu as those of the bael tree are to Śiva.

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Another object of adoration to the Hindu is the sepulchre of saints. Places hallowed by the presence of such sepulchres, or associated otherwise with the memory of saints and sages, are venerated all over the country. For instance, the birth places of Śaṅkarāchārya, Rāmānujāchārya and Madhvāchārya, and also the places where these great teachers passed away, are held in high reverence by their respective followers. The temple of the famous Vaiṣṇava devotee Puṇḍalik near Paṇḍharipūr is visited by all pilgrims who go there to worship Paṇḍharināth, the tradition being that this god appeared at Paṇḍharipūr in response to the dutifulness and devotion of Puṇḍalik.

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