Elements of Hindu Iconography v1.c8: An Explanatory Description of the Technical Terms Employed in the Work

Elements of Hindu Iconography v1.c8

Language: English

An Explanatory Description of the Technical Terms Employed in the Work

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THE explanation of a number of technical terms which are usually employed in the description of images may well precede their systematic description. These terms relate first to the objects which images of Hindu Gods are shown to bear in their hands, such as weapons, musical instruments, animals, birds, etc.; secondly, to the various attitudes in which the hands of images are shown; thirdly, to the postures which the bodies of the images are made to assume; and lastly, to the costume, ornaments and head-gear in which they are represented. The most important among the weapons are:—

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Śaṅkha Khēṭaka Khaṭvāṅga Aṅkuśa Chakra Dhanus Ṭaṅka Pāśa Gadā Bāṇa Agni Vajra Khaḍga Paraśu Śūla Śakti Musāla Hala

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The sculpturing of the several objects shown in the hands of Hindu images differs from place to place; sometimes they are not alike even in the same place. The simple, yet striking, representations of these in the early Chālukya, Pallava, and other styles of sculpture are no less artistic than the minute and elaborate carvings of the later Chālukya-Hoysaḷa school. In the detailed description of these objects given below, only their important variations are noticed.

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Of these weapons śaṅkha, chakra and gadā are peculiar to Viṣṇu. In rare instances, the images of that deity are found carrying other weapons also, and this feature is noticeable in the representations of several of Viṣṇu’s avatāras; for instance, in images representing the Trivikramāvatāra, the image is shown to carry, in addition to the three weapons mentioned above, the dhanus, the bāṇa, the khaḍga and the kheṭaka. But paraśu, khaṭvāṅga, śūla and agni are generally associated with Śiva, while aṅkuśa and pāśa are held by Gaṇēśa, Sarasvati and other deities. Śakti, vajra and ṭaṅka are Subrahmaṇya’s characteristic weapons. Musala and hala are found in associa-

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DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OF TERMS.

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tion with Balarāma, Vārāhī and a few other deities. These are all briefly described in the order in which they have been mentioned above.

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*Śaṅkha* is the ordinary chank shell which is almost always found in one of the hands of the images of Viṣṇu. The *śaṅkha* of Viṣṇu is known by the name of Pāñchajanya, being supposed to have been derived from the body of the *asura* named Pāñchajana. It is declared to have been employed by Viṣṇu in war; by the blowing of this powerful conch-shell, he often struck terror into the hearts of his enemies. The conch represented in sculptures is either a plain conch, held in the hand with all the five fingers by its open end (Pl. I, fig. 1), or an ornamented one, having its head or spiral-top covered with a decorative metal cap, surmounted by the head of a mythical lion, and having a cloth tied round it so that portions of it may hang on either side (Pl. I, fig. 2). There are also tassels of pearls hanging on the sides. Curiously enough a *śaṅkha* of this description is shown so as to be held between the first two fingers, which is indeed a difficult task to perform. In a few instances, attached to the lower end of the *śaṅkha*, there is a thick jewelled ribbon which is made to serve as a handle. (Pl. I, fig. 3). Sometimes this ornamental variety of *śaṅkha* is shown with *jvālās* or flames of fire on the top and the sides.

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*Chakra* is also a characteristically Vaishnava weapon. It is also carried by Durgā, who is said to be the sister and as such the female form of Vishnu. It is shown in sculptures in two different forms. In the first variety, it is shaped like the wheel of a cart, with spokes, nave and all, and is meant to be grasped by the rim. But in the other form, it is highly ornamented, the spokes are made to resemble the petals of a lotus so that the internal parts appear like a full blown lotus in the *tout ensemble* (Pl. I, fig. 4). As in the case of the *śankha*, the *chakra* also has ornamentations on the top and sides and a jewelled ribbon running around it (Pl. I, fig. 5). It is in some cases held in the hand by means of this ribbon, and in other cases between the first two fingers. It is a weapon resembling the modern quoit and must have been used as a missile to be thrown against the enemy to cut him through and kill him.

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*Gadā* is the ordinary Indian club. It is held in the hand by the images with all the five fingers. In some cases, however, one of the hands of the image is placed upon the top of the *gadā* which rests on the floor. In the earlier sculptures, its representation is always plain; it has a tapering top and a stout bottom (Pl. I, fig. 6). In comparatively later instances, it is more or less elaborately ornamented (Pl. I, figs. 7 and 8). It is a weapon meant to strike the enemy at close quarters and does not therefore leave the hand of its owner.

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Fig. 1

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Fig. 2

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Fig. 12

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Fig. 11

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Fig. 4

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Fig. 7

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Fig. 8

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Fig. 6

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Fig. 5

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Fig. 9

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Fig. 10

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Fig. 3

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T.A.G.

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*Khaḍga* is a sword, long or short, and is used along with a *khēṭaka* or shield made of wood or hide. The *khaḍga* is either single-edged or double-edged and has a handle which is not different from the handle of swords seen in the pictures of the Crusaders and the early kings of Europe (Pl. I, figs. 9 and 10). *Khēṭaka* is either circular or quadrangular and has a handle at the back, by which it is held (Pl. I, fig. 11). Sometimes there are curious emblems and devices depicted on the face of the *khēṭaka* (Pl. I, fig. 12).

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*Musala* is the name of the Indian wooden pestle, which is an ordinary cylindrical rod of hard wood. It is quite capable of being used as an offensive weapon. There is no scope for the introduction of various shapes in relation to this plain weapon, and consequently it has remained unaltered in its form from early times (Pl. II, fig. 1).

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*Dhanus* is the bow. It has three different shapes. The first is like an arc of a circle, with the ends joined by a string or thong taking the place of the chord (Pl. II, fig. 2). In the second variety, it has three bends, the top and bottom bends being smaller and turned in a direction opposite to that of the middle bend which is the larger one (Pl. II, fig. 3). The third variety has five bends and belongs to a much later period in the evolution of this weapon (Pl. II, fig. 4).

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*Bāṇa* or the arrow is so represented as to appear to be made of wood, and is tipped with a metallic point, its tail-end having a few feathers stuck in it (Pl. II, fig. 5). The arrows are put into a quiver slung on the back. An arrow is extracted from it for use with the aid of the fore-finger and the middle-finger.

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*Paraśu* is the battle axe. The earlier specimens of this are light and graceful. The *paraśu* of the archaic type consists of a steel blade which is fitted on a turned, light, wooden handle. The handle is sometimes fixed in a ring which is attached to the blade of the axe. Sometimes, however, the blade is fixed in a hole bored in the handle (Pl. II, fig. 6). The later forms consist of a heavy club, closely resembling the *gadā*, into which the head of the *paraśu* is fitted. The blade is disproportionately small in these later forms (Pl. II, fig. 7), but is of proper proportion in the earlier types.

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Fig. 1

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Fig. 8

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Fig. 2

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Fig. 3

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Fig. 4

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Fig. 5

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Fig. 11

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Fig. 7

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Fig. 6

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Fig. 15

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Fig. 10

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Fig. 9

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Fig. 14

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Fig. 12

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Fig. 13

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*Hala.* This is the ordinary Indian plough, probably extemporised as a weapon of war (Pl. II, fig. 8).

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*Khaṭvāṅga* is a curious sort of club, made up of the bone of the forearm or the leg, to the end of which a human skull is attached through its foramen. (Pl. II, fig. 9). From this description it must be clear that this peculiar weapon comes from very remote antiquity. In the ornate style of the later Cālukya-Hoyṣaḷas, the osseous shaft of this old weapon is dispensed with and a well-turned wooden handle is substituted in its place (see Pl. II, fig. 10).

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*Ṭaṅka.* The small chisel used by the stone-mason is called the *ṭaṅka*. Its shape, as found in sculptures, is given in Pl. II, fig. 11.

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*Agni.* This is represented in two varieties according as it is used as a weapon of war or employed for the purpose of making offerings. In the first case *agni* is represented as in Pl. II, figs. 12 and 13; and this form of *agni* is commonly met with in the hands of Śiva. *Agni* used for the purposes of religious offerings is sculptured as in Pl. II, fig. 14.

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*Śūla* is the trident which is the favourite weapon of Śiva. It is represented in many forms; and the essential feature of all these is the triple metal pike ending in sharp points and mounted upon a long wooden handle (Pl. III, figs. 1 and 2).

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*Aṅkuśa* or the elephant goad is a weapon consisting of a sharp metal hook attached to a wooden handle (Pl. III, figs. 3 and 4).

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*Pāśa*. As the word indicates, it is a noose of ropes employed in binding the enemy’s hands and legs. It is represented in scupltures as consisting of two or even three ropes made into a single or a double loop (see Pl. III, figs. 5 and 6).

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*Vajra* is the thunder-bolt. This has a long history beginning from the Buddhistic period.[*] In later Hindu mythology, it is shown in almost the same form which it had in earlier times. It is made up of two similar limbs, each having three claws resembling the claws of birds; and both its parts are connected together by the handle in the middle (see Pl. III, fig. 7).

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*Śakti* is the name applied to the spear. It consists of a metallic piece, either quadrangular or elliptical in shape, with a socket into which a long wooden handle is fixed (see Pl. III, figs. 8 and 9).

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The second class of objects which are met with in the hands of the images of gods consist of certain musical instruments.

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Musical instruments.

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∗ See *Elura Cave Temples* by Burgess, p. 12.

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Fig. 1

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Fig. 2

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Fig. 16

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Fig. 3

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Fig. 4

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Fig. 5

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Fig. 6

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Fig. 15

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Fig. 12

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Fig. 10

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Fig. 11

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Fig. 7

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Fig. 19

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Fig. 13

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Fig. 14

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Fig. 18

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Fig. 17

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Fig. 8

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Fig. 9

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Some images, as, for instance, those of Dakṣiṇāmūrti and Sarasvatī, are shown with a vīṇā held in the left hand the right hand being made to play upon it. The Ḍamaru is another instrument generally found in the hands of the images of Śiva and of his manifestations such as Bhairava. Muralī, also called Veṇu is the flute peculiar to Kṛṣṇa. Śaṅkha is more properly a natural bugle than a weapon of war, and is treated as such in the representations of Viṣṇu. Ghaṇṭā or the bell is another musical instrument, which is generally found in the hands of Vīrabhadra and Kālī.

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Vīṇā. It consists of a long hollow semi-cylindrical body handle with a number of keys on its sides. From each of these keys proceeds a string or wire which is stretched over the long body of the instrument and tied at the lower end. At this lower end is a square sounding box, and to the upper end a hollow gourd is attached to serve as a resonator. It is played with the left hand by passing the fingers lightly over the strings and pressing them down a little in required positions. The right hand plucks the various strings periodically to suit the requirements of the musician (see Pl. III, figs. 18 and 11).

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Ḍamaru is a small drum with a hollow body open at both ends. Over each of the open ends of this hollow body is stretched a membrane which is held in position firmly by means of a string passing to and fro over the length of the body of the drum. By pressing these strings, the tension of the membranes may be altered at will so as to produce different notes by striking thereon, or by rubbing one of the membranes with a resined stick. Sometimes there is a string attached to the middle of the body of the drum; and to the end of this string is attached a bead. By holding the drum in the middle and shaking it suitably, this string with the bead may be made to strike against the membranes alternately and produce the required sound (see Pl. III, figs. 12 and 13).

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Murali or Veṇu is a flute made, as its name indicates, from a thin and hollow bamboo. In a piece of bamboo, suitably chosen holes are bored in proper places. By blowing in the hole which is near to the closed end and stopping one or more of the other holes with the fingers as required, music of a very high standard of perfection is often elicited from this simple instrument (see Pl. III, fig. 14).

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Ghaṇṭā is the common bell (see Pl. IV, figs. 1 and 2.)

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There are certain other objects shown as held in the hands of the images of Hindu gods.

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Among these are to be found the representations of certain animals and birds. Śiva is almost always shown as carrying a *mṛiga* or deer, and his son Subrahmaṇya is made to hold a *kukkuṭa* or cock in his hand. Parrots and beetles are represented as being carried in the hands of Durgā and other goddesses. The earliest known image of Śiva, that on the Liṅga at Guḍimallam, carries a ram. Later sculptures show a buck. In the case of the ram, it is held by the hind legs, with the head hanging downwards, whereas in the case of the buck though held by the hind legs, it is represented in the actual pose of "bucking" up (see Pl. III, figs. 15 and 16). We see, moreover, certain utensils in the hands of the images. The chief ones among them are the *kamaṇḍalu*, the *sru k*, the *sruva*, the *darpaṇa* and the *kapāla*. The *ājya-pātra*, or the vessel to contain ghee is sometimes found in association with the figure of Brahmā, who is, however, more generally seen to carry a *pustaka* or book in one of his hands. The book is also held as an emblem by his consort Sarasvatī.

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*Kamaṇḍalu*. This is an ordinary vessel to hold water and is of different shapes. It has in some cases a spout. The earlier specimens are simple in design, though not very handsome in appearance. The later forms are more symmetrical and beautiful in design and workmanship (see Pl. IV, figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6).

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*Sruk* and *sruva* are two different kinds of spoons, used to take out ghee from the ghee-pot and pour it out to the sacred fire in the sacrifices. The former of these has a hemispherical bowl, while the other is shaped very much like a modern spoon. A *sruk* of large proportion is generally carried by the goddess Annapūrṇā (see Pl. III, figs. 17, 18 and 19).

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*Darpaṇa* means a mirror. In ancient times, when glass was either unknown or was not employed for making mirrors, highly polished metal plates of various designs were utilised to serve as mirrors. It may be remarked by the way that this old speculum industry has not yet died out in India. In a place called Āramuḷa in Travancore, such mirrors are still manufactured; and the mirrors made by the workmen of this place are so true that they do not show distortion in reflection. Glass mirrors are not allowed to be used in temple service in Malabar, and it is not rare to find in wealthy temples in this part of the country speculum mirrors even as large as three feet by two feet. In sculptures the *darpaṇa* is either circular or oval in form, and is mounted on a well-wrought handle (see Pl. IV, fig. 7.)

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Fig. 1

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Fig. 2

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Fig. 3

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Fig. 4

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Fig. 5

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Fig. 6

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Fig. 7

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Fig. 9

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Fig. 10

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Fig. 14

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Fig. 11

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Fig. 12

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Fig. 13

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Fig. 8

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Fig. 20

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Fig. 25

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Fig. 26

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Fig. 21

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Fig. 22

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Fig. 23

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Fig. 24

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Fig. 19

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Fig. 16

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Fig. 15

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Fig. 18

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T.A.G.

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Fig. 17

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*Kapāla* denotes the human skull. It is used by Śiva as a receptacle for food and drink. Later on the word came to mean the cut half of an earthen pot, and then a basin or a bowl. In sculpture the *kapāla* occurs as a common spherical or oval bowl (see Pl. IV, fig. 8).

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*Pustaka* means a book. It is made up either of palm leaves or of paper, the latter variety being, however, comparatively modern. In older sculptures it is always a palm leaf book that is represented as being held in the hand by Brahmā and other deities (see Pl. IV, fig. 2).

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*Akshamālā* is the rosary of beads. The beads are either *rudrāksha* or *kamalāksha* in variety, and the rosary is found in the hands of Brahmā, Sarasvatī and Śiva, though rarely in association with other deities (see Pl. IV, fig. 10).

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Flowers, such as the *padma*, (lotus), and the *nīlōtpala*, (the blue lily) are to be seen in the hands of the images of goddesses in general, though more especially in the hands of the goddesses Lakshmi and Bhūmi.

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Figures of goddesses sculptured in company with their consorts are always represented as having only two arms. In one of their hands they hold a flower. However, when there are two Dēvis, one on either side of a god, the goddess on the right holds a *padma*, (see Pl. IV, figs. 11, 12 and 13), while the goddess on the left, holds a *nīlōtpala* (see Pl. IV, fig. 14).

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We next come to the terms used in connection with the various poses in which the hands of images are shown. Each pose has its own designation, and the most common *hastas* or hand-poses are the *varada*, the *abhaya*, the *kaṭaka*, the *sūchī*, the *tarjanī*, the *kaṭyavalambita*, the *daṇḍa* and the *vismaya*. There are also certain other hand-poses which are adopted during meditation and exposition. They are known by the technical name of *mudrā*; and those that are commonly met with are the *chin-mudrā* or the *vyākhyāna-mudrā*, the *jñāna-mudrā* and the *yōga-mudrā*.

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The *varada-hasta* shows the pose of the hand while conferring a boon. In this pose the palm of the left hand, with the fingers pointing downwards is exposed to the observer, either as fully opened and empty or as lightly carrying a small bolus (see Pl. V, figs. 1, 2 and 3).

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*Abhaya-hasta* means the protection-affording hand-pose. Here the palm of the hand, with the fingers pointing upwards, is exposed as if

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The pose of the hands.

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Fig. 1

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Fig. 2

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Fig. 3

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Fig. 7

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Fig. 8

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Fig. 4

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Fig. 5

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Fig. 6

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Fig. 13

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Fig. 12

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Fig. 11

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Fig. 15

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Fig. 18

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Fig. 10

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Fig. 14

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Fig. 9

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Fig. 17

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Fig. 16

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engaged in enquiring about the welfare of the visitor in the Hindu fashion (see Pl. V, figs. 4, 5 and 6).

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*Kaṭaka-hasta* or *siṃha-karṇa* is that pose of the hand wherein the tips of the fingers are loosely applied to the thumb so as to form a ring or, as somewhat poetically expressed by the latter name, so as to resemble a lion's ear (see Pl. V, figs. 7 and 8). The hands of goddesses are generally fashioned in this manner for the purpose of inserting a fresh flower every day in them. This is also the manner in which one of the hands of a standing or a reclining figure of Viṣṇu is fashioned.

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*Sūchī-hasta* has been misunderstood by some Saṃskṛit scholars to mean the hand that carries a *sūchī* or needle. For example, Mr. Nāgēndranātha Vāsu in giving a description of the goddess Mārīchī, as found in the *Sādhanamālātantra*, renders the expression *vajrāṅkuśa-śara-sūchidhāri-dakṣiṇakaraṃ* as "the goddess who holds in her right hands a *vajra*, a goad, an arrow and a *sūchī*." But, like the *tarjanī-hasta*, the *sūchī-hasta*, also denotes a hand-pose, in which the projected forefinger points to an object below (see Pl. V, fig. 9), whereas in the *tarjanī-hasta* the forefinger has to point upwards, as if the owner of the hand is warning or scolding another (see Pl. V, figs. 10).

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*Katyavalambita-hasta*. In this the arm is let down so as to hang by the side of the body, and the hand is made to rest on the loin, indicating thus a posture of ease (see Pl. V, fig. 11).

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*Daṇḍa-hasta* and *gaja-hasta* are terms which have misled scholars, some of whom have understood them to mean a hand that carries a staff. Literally, the word *daṇḍa-hasta* may have such a meaning, but in Sanskrit iconographic works, it is used to denote the arm and hand thrown forward and held straight like a stick or like the trunk of an elephant (see Pl. V, fig. 12).

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*Añjali-hasta*. In this hand-pose the palms of the hands are kept close to each other and the folded-hands are made to rest on the chest. This hand-pose is indicative of worship and prayerfulness (see the picture of Hanuman given elsewhere).

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*Vismaya-hasta* indicates astonishment and wonder. In this pose the fore-arm is held up with the fingers of the hand pointing up and the palm turned away from the observer (see Pl. V, figs. 13 and 14).

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Among the *mudras*, in the *chin-mudrā*, the tips of the thumb and the forefinger are made to touch each other, so as to form a circle, the other fingers being kept open. The palm of the hand is made to face the front. This is the *mudrā* adopted when an explanation or exposition is being given; hence it is also called *vyākhyāna-mudrā* and *san-darśanamudrā* (see Pl. V, fig. 15).

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In the *jñāna-mudrā*, the tips of the middle finger and of the thumb are joined together and held near the heart, with the palm of the hand turned towards the heart (see Pl. V, fig. 16).

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In the *yōga-mudrā*, the palm of the right hand is placed in that of the left hand and both together are laid on the crossed legs of the seated image (see Pl. V, fig. 17).

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*Sitting Postures and Seats.*—The Science of Yōga describes various postures of sitting, as suitable for meditation and mental concentration. These sitting postures are technically known by the name of *āsanas*; and the *kūrmāsana*, the *padmāsana*, the *bhadrāsana*, the *utkuṭikāsana* and the *makarāsana*, are some of the varieties thereof. A few of them occur in sculpture, as well. The names of some of these sitting postures have been interpreted to mean particular forms of seats, owing to the ambiguity of the word *āsana*, and such seats have been worked out in sculpture; as instances the *kūrmāsana*, the *makarāsana* and the *padmāsana* may be noted.*

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∗ See Pl. VI, figs. 1, 2, and 3. In fig. 1 the *padmāsana* is represented as a lotus, in fig. 2, the *makarāsana* as a mythical makara and in fig. 3, the *kurmāsana* as a tortoise.

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In the *padmāsana* the two legs are kept crossed so that the feet are brought to rest upon the thighs (see Pl. V, fig. 17). In the *kūrmāsana*, the legs are crossed so as to make the heels come under the gluteals, while the *vīrāsana* requires the left foot to rest upon the right thigh and the left thigh upon the right foot. In the *bhadrāsana* the legs are crossed as in the *kūrmāsana*, and the right and the left big toes are caught hold of by the right and the left hands respectively. In the *simhāsana* the legs are crossed as in the *kūrmāsana*; and the palms of the hands, with the fingers kept stretched out, rest supinely upon the thigh, while the mouth is kept open and the eyes are fixed upon the tip of the nose.*

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∗ चक्रं पद्मासनं कूर्म मायूरं कौक्कुटं तथा । वीरासनं स्वस्तिकं च भद्रं सिंहासनं तथा ॥ मुक्तासनं गोमुखं च मुख्यान्येतानि नारद । . . . . . ऊर्वोरुपरि संस्थाप्य उभे पादतले सुखम्॥ पद्मासनमिदं प्रोक्तं सर्वकिल्बिषनाशनम्। गुदं निपीड्य गुल्फाम्यां व्युत्क्रमेण समाहितः॥ एतत्कूर्माननं प्रोक्तं योगसिद्धि करं परम् । . . . . . पद्मासनमधिष्ठाय जान्वन्तरविनिस्तृतौ । करौ भूमौ निवेश्यैतद् व्योमस्थः कुक्कुटासनम् ॥ एकत्रोरुणि संस्थाप्य पादमेकमथेतरत् । ऊरुं पादे निवेश्यैतद्वीरासनमुदाहृतम् ॥ . . . . . सीविन्याः पार्श्वयोर्गुल्फौ निवेश्याग्रपदे दृढम् । बध्वा कराभ्यां तत्रोक्तं भद्रासनमघापहम् ॥ सीविन्याः पार्श्वयोर्गुल्फौ व्युत्क्रमेण निवेश्य च । करौ जान्वोर्निधायोभौ प्रसार्य निखिलाङ्गुलीन् ॥ नासाग्रन्यस्तनयनो व्यात्तवक्त्र ऋजुसुधीः । एतत्सिंहासनं प्रोक्तं सर्वदेवाभिपूजितम् ॥ (अहिर्बुध्न्यसंहितायां त्रिंशाध्याये ॥)

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PADMĀSANA (ELLORA) Fig. 1

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MAKARĀSANA (ELLORA) Fig. 2

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KŪRMĀSANA (2) (MALABAR) Top View Side View Fig. 4

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KŪRMĀSANA (1) ELLORA Fig. 3

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Fig. 5

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Fig. 6

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Besides the above *āsanas* there are some others also assumed by the images, such as the *āliḍhāsana* and *utkuṭikāsana*. Of these, the *āliḍhāsana* is defined as a particular attitude adopted while shooting, the right knee being thrown to the front and the left leg retracted. This attitude is assumed by Śiva as *Tripurāntaka* while destroying the three cities, and also by the goddess Mārīchi.∗ The *Utkuṭikāsana* is a peculiar posture in which the person sits with his heels kept close to the bottom and with the back slightly curved (see the figure of Kēvala Nārasiṁha elsewhere).

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∗ See fig. 49 opposite page xcii in Mr. Nagendranath Vasu's Arch. Surv. of Mayurabhanja.

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The word *āsana* means also a seat or a pedestal. In this sense *pīṭha* is often used as its synonym. Descriptions of some material *āsanas* of this kind are met with in Saṁskrit works treating of the make-up of images. *Suprabhēdāgama* mentions five different kinds of *āsanas*, namely, *anantāsana*, *siṁhāsana*, *yōgāsana*, *padmāsana* and *vimalāsana*. According to *Chandrajñāna*, *anantāsana* is a triangular seat, *siṁhāsana* rectangular, *vimalāsana* hexagonal, *yōgāsana* octagonal, and *padmāsana* circular. The same *Suprabhēdāgama* adds that *anantāsana* should be used as the seat for the image when it has to witness amusements, *siṃhāsana* when it has to be bathed, *yōgāsana* during invocation, *padmāsana* during the conduct of worship, and *vimalāsana* when the offerings are offered. The height of the *padmāsana* consists, according to the same work, of sixteen parts, of which two form the thickness of the lowest layer, five make up the lower lotus, two the intervening neck, and four the upper lotus and two more the uppermost layer (see Pl. VI, figs. 1 and 5).

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*Padmāsana* should always be circular or oval, but never rectangular. In the absence of authoritative information as to its length and breadth, it is left to the sculptor to choose them so as to suit his purpose. *Bhadrapīṭha* is another seat, the height whereof is also divided into sixteen parts, of which one forms the thickness of the *upāna* or the basal layer, four of the *jagatī* or the next higher layer, three of the *kumuda*, one of the *paṭṭika*, three of the *kaṇṭha*, one of the second *paṭṭika*, two of the broader *mahāpaṭṭika* and one of the *ghṛtavāri* the topmost layer (see Pl. VI, fig. 6). *Bhadrapīṭha* may be either circular or rectangular. A description of the wooden seat known as *kūrmāsana* is given in the Tamil work called *Śaivasamaya-neri*. The timber used for making this seat is the *iluppai*, *karuṅgāli* (ebony) or *bilva* (bael). The *kūrmāsana* must have the oval shape proper for a mirror (Pl. IV, fig. 7) The height of it has to be four *aṅgulas*, its breadth twelve, and it should be provided with the face and feet of a tortoise, these latter being one *muṣṭi* or seven *aṅgulas* in girth (see Pl. VI, figs. 3 and 4).* In the description of Chāmuṇḍā a *prēta* or a human carcass is mentioned as a seat for her. *Prētāsana* is the posture in which the *yōgi* lies flat on his back, with his arms outstretched; evidently this attitude is meant for the perfect relaxation of all the muscles of the body to secure complete ease in breathing, and in it one is certainly apt to appear as though he were dead. It may be surmised that this *yōgic āsana* has been materialised into the above curious carcass-seat. The *siṃhāsana* is a four legged seat, circular or rectangular in shape and one *hasta* or cubit in height. The four legs of this seat are made up of four small lions.

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* இருப்பைகருங் காலிவில் வாதியினாற் செய்க
தருப்பணம்போற் கூர்மா தனம்.
உன்னத நாலங் குலமென் றுணர்ந்திடுக
பன்னிரண்டென் றேவிரிவைப் பார்.
முகமும் பதநான்கு முட்டியள விற்செய்
யகமதனுக்குக்குழிபோ லாக்கு.
பருமைதா னேழங் குலம்பகர்ந்த முட்டிக்
குரிமைமா னாங்குலமென் றோர்.

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(Verses 57—60, பொதுவிலக்கணம், சைவசமயநெறி).

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Costumes, Ornaments and Headgear.

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Images are clothed in different materials, such as cotton and silk, the skin of the tiger or the deer. The cotton and silk clothings are dyed in various colours. The tiger's skin is worn over the silk or the cotton clothing, while the deer-skin is thrown over the body. One manner of wearing the deer-skin is what is known as the *upavīta* fashion. In it the skin goes over the left shoulder across the body, and below the right arm and comes again to the left shoulder right up the back. The head of the deer is made to hang in front over the chest as shown in fig. 18 on Pl. V. These costumes are shown distinctly in almost all castings and sculptures of images. Some of the sculptured images are even painted so as to show the intended colours of their chiselled costumes. In almost all the later representations of Hindu gods and goddesses we may see the *yajñōpavīta* running across the chest from left to right. In the Guḍimallam Liṅga, which is probably the earliest known Hindu sculpture, the *yajñōpavīta* is not found; and the image of Śiva is given only two arms instead of the usual four. At what stage of the history of Hindu sculpture the representation of the *yajñōpavīta* came into vogue is not quite clear; it is found in what, according to Mr. Vincent A. Smith, is known as the Gupta period, and also in the early Chālukya-Pallava period. It is represented in these later sculptures as a ribbon going round the body in the manner required and tied in front in a knot. It is obviously the sacred-thread of the higher castes among the Hindus. Hāra means a necklace and is seen in many different patterns. In the earlier periods, it is somewhat short and forms a broad band made up of several pieces. Kēyūra is a flat ornament worn on the arm just over the biceps muscle; the kaṅkaṇa or the bracelet is worn at the wrist. At the junction of the thorax and the abdomen also is worn a broad belt of good workmanship; it is called udara-bandha. The belt going round the hip is called kaṭibandha, and the zone employed to support and keep in position the breasts of feminine figures is called kucha-bandha. Hindus are forbidden by the rules of the Dharma-śāstras from wearing stitched clothes. Hence arose probably the practice of women employing this kucha-bandha. Bhujaṅga-valaya is an ornament worn at the wrist by Śiva. It is a bracelet shaped like a coiled snake. Its circumference has to be at least a fourth larger than that of the wrist on which it is worn; at the junction of the tail with the body of the snake, the hood rises; it has to be twelve aṅgulas high, seven in width and one in thickness. Two fangs have to be shown in the mouth so as to be visible outside.

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A very large number of ornaments are mentioned as useful for adorning the images of gods. There are ornaments for the ear, the neck, the shoulder, the forearm, the trunk, the breasts, the loins, the ankles and the fingers. Different kinds of head-gears are also described. These ornaments and headgears are noticed here as briefly as possible. The ear-ornament is known by the general name of kuṇḍala. At least five different kinds of kuṇḍalas are known, namely, the patrakuṇḍala, the nakra-kuṇḍala, which is the same as the makara-kuṇḍala, the śaṅkhapatra-kuṇḍala, the ratnakuṇḍala, and the sarpa-kuṇḍala. It appears to be probable that in the early periods of Indian civilization men and women considered it a beauty to have large ear-ornaments attached to the ear-lobes, which were often specially bored and dilated for the purpose. Even today we may see on the Malabar Coast ladies with specially bored pendant ear-lobes, in which there shine large, but light, golden discs. In the earlier stages of causing the dilatation of the lobes of the ear, cylindrical rolls of cotton cloth or flattened spirals of cocoanut-leaf or palmyra-leaf are thrust in to produce the required internal pressure. In course of time, these spirals came to

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be made of a thin sheet of gold in imitation of the leaf. This form of golden ear-ornament is known, rightly indeed, by the name of *patra-kuṇḍala* (see Pl. IV, fig. 15). Its Tamil name *ōlai* is interesting in this connection. Again conch shells were extensively employed in making ornaments for the ear as well as the forearm. When the shell is cut cross-wise, it produces a spiral ring which may be thrust into the distended ear-lobe. This *kuṇḍala* is called the *śaṅkha-patra* (see Pl. IV, fig. 16). A jewelled circular ear-ring is called a *ratna-kuṇḍala* (see Pl. IV, fig. 17). Ear-ornaments made in the form of the mythical *makara* and in the form of a cobra are called respectively the *makara-kuṇḍala* and the *sarpa-kuṇḍalas* (see Pl. IV, figs. 18 and 19).

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One or two ornaments are peculiar to Viṣṇu and they are the *śrīvatsa* and *vaijayanti*. We are aware that on the chest of Buddha there is the mark known as *śrīvatsa*; it is perhaps introduced here in the belief that Buddha is an incarnation of Viṣṇu. *Śrīvatsa* is a mark, a sort of mole, which is conceived to adorn the chest of Viṣṇu in association with the *kaustubhamani* which is a jewel. In sculpture this mole is represented by a flower of four petals arranged in the form of a rhombus, or by a simple equilateral triangle, and is invariably placed on the right side of the chest.

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The *vaijayanti* is a necklace composed of a successive series of groups of gems, each group wherein has five gems in a particular order; it is described in the *Vishṇupurāṇa* thus :—‘ “Vishṇu’s necklace called *vaijayanti* is five-formed as it consists of the five elements, and it is therefore called the elemental necklace.” Here *five-formed* points to five different kinds of gems, namely, the pearl, ruby, emerald, blue-stone, and diamond. The *Vishṇurahasya* also says, ‘From the earth comes the blue gem, from water the pearl, from fire the *kaustubha*, from air the cat’s eye and from ether the *Pushparāga*.” ’*

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Head-gear. The commonly known Sanskrit name for the head-gear is *mauḷi*.† There are

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* See Bhaskararaya’s commentary on Lalita-sahasra-nama.

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† देवानां भूपतीनां च मौलिलक्षणमुच्यते ।

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जटामौलिः किरीटं च करण्डं च शिरस्त्रकम् ॥
कुन्तलं केशबन्धश्च धम्मिल्लालकचूडकम् ।
मकुटं च इति ख्यातं तत्तदाकारमानतः ॥
पत्रपट्टं पुष्पपट्टं रत्नपट्टं त्रिधा मतम् ।
पितामहस्य रुद्रस्य जटामकुटयोग्यकम् ॥
किरीटमकुटं चैव नारायणस्य योग्यकम् ।
अन्यदा देवतानां च करण्डमकुटान्वितम् ॥
जटामौलिर्मनोमन्याश्चेन्दिरा कुन्तलं तथा ।
सरस्वत्याश्च सावित्र्याः केशबन्धश्च कुन्तलम् ॥

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various well-known varieties of head-gear such as *jaṭā-makuṭa*, *kirīṭa-makuṭa*, and *karaṇḍa-makuṭa*; and the minor varieties thereof are *śirastraka*, *kuntala*, *kēśabandha*, *dhammilla* and *aḷaka-chūḍaka*. In the formation of these minor varieties the plaits of hair are bound by what are called *patra-paṭṭa*, *puṣpa-paṭṭa* and *ratna-paṭṭa*.

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The *jaṭā-makuṭa* is, as the name indicates, made up of twists of matted hair done into the form of a tall cap. The *Uttara-kāmikāgama* gives the following rather long and somewhat unintelligible description of the *uṣṇīṣa* in which the *jaṭā*-

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अथवा सर्वशक्तीनां करण्डमुकुतान्वितम् ।
किरीटं सार्वभौमस्य (चातिराज्यस्य ?) चाधिराज्यस्य योग्यकम् ॥
नरेन्द्रस्य करण्डस्यात्पार्ष्णिकस्य शिरस्त्रकम् ।
चक्रवर्त्त्यादिभूपालैः करण्डं मुकुटं सदा ॥
पत्रपट्टं पट्टधरो रत्नपट्टं च पार्ष्णिकः ।
पट्टभाक् पुष्पपट्टं च चोक्तमेवं पुरातनैः ॥
प्रभाकरास्त्रग्राहौ च पुष्पमाल्य प्रकीर्तितः ।
चक्रवर्त्तमहिष्यस्य (?) कुन्तलं मुकुटं भवेत् ॥
अधिराजनरेन्द्रस्य महिष्याः केशबन्धनम् ।
पार्ष्णिकश्च पट्टधरो मण्डलेशश्च पट्टभाक् ॥
एतेषां च महिष्याश्च धम्मिल्लालकमाहतम् ।
प्रभाकरास्त्रग्राह्याभ्यां महिष्यालकचूडकम् ॥
(मानसारे ॥)

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makuṭa is included. “The *uṣṇīṣa-bhūṣaṇa** should be made so as to be of three *aṅgulas* in height. On its four sides there must be four *pūris*. In the middle of the *uṣṇīṣa* there must be a *makarakūṭa* with seven holes. On each side there has to be a *patra-kūṭa* and on the back, a *ratna-kūṭa*. The breadth of the *uṣṇīṣa* must be ten *aṅgulas* at the top, while at the base it has to be the same as that of the face of the wearer. A crescent of the moon has, in the case of the image of Śiva, to be attached to it either on the left or on the right side, and there is to be a cobra on the left side. The *jaṭā-makuṭa* is in fact as described below: five *jaṭās* or braids of matted hair are taken and tied into a knot three inches in height by coiling them into one or three loops, the remaining braids being bound and

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उष्णीषभूषणं कुर्यात्त्रिमात्रेण विशेषतः ।
पार्श्वयोः पुरतः पृष्ठे चतुष्पूरिसमन्वितम् ॥
मध्ये मकरकूटं स्यात्सप्तकोटरसंयुतम् ।
पार्श्वयोः पत्रकूटं स्यात्पृष्ठे स्याद्रत्नकूटकम् ॥
अग्रे दशाङ्गुलं तस्य मूले तु मुखविस्तरम् ।
तत्तत्त्रिगुणाऽहं तु वामे वामेऽर्धचन्द्रकम् ॥
वामे महापणिं (?) तस्य सर्वालङ्कारभूषितम् ।
जटाभिः पञ्चभिर्ग्रन्थिं त्रिमात्रेण विशेषतः ॥
एकधा तु त्रिधावृत्य शेषाभिः पार्श्वलम्बनम् ।
जटामुकुमेतद्धि सर्वालङ्कारमीरितम् ॥
(उत्तरकामिकागमेऽष्टचत्वारिंशत्तमपटले ॥)

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∗ उष्णीषभूषणं कुर्यात्त्रिमात्रेण विशेषतः । पार्श्वयोः पुरतः पृष्ठे चतुष्पूरिसमन्वितम् ॥ मध्ये मकरकूटं स्यात्सप्तकोटरसंयुतम् । पार्श्वयोः पत्रकूटं स्यात्पृष्ठे स्याद्रत्नकूटकम् ॥ अग्रे दशाङ्गुलं तस्य मूले तु मुखविस्तरम् । तत्तत्त्रिगुणाऽहं तु वामे वामेऽर्धचन्द्रकम् ॥ वामे महापणिं (?) तस्य सर्वालङ्कारभूषितम् । जटाभिः पञ्चभिर्ग्रन्थिं त्रिमात्रेण विशेषतः ॥ एकधा तु त्रिधावृत्य शेषाभिः पार्श्वलम्बनम् । जटामुकुमेतद्धि सर्वालङ्कारमीरितम् ॥ (उत्तरकामिकागमेऽष्टचत्वारिंशत्तमपटले ॥)

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Fig. 1.

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Fig. 2.

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Fig. 3.

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Fig. 1.

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Fig. 2.

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taken through to be left hanging on both sides” (see Pl. VII, figs. 1, 2 and 3). This *jaṭā-makuṭa* is prescribed for Brahmā and Rudra among the gods, and for Manōnmaṇi among the goddesses.

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*Kiriṭa-makuṭa* is a conical cap sometimes ending in an ornamental top carrying a central pointed knob. It is covered with jewelled discs in front or on all sides, and has jewelled bands round the top as well as the bottom. The *kiriṭa-makuṭa* should be worn exclusively by Nārāyaṇa among the gods. Among human beings the *kiriṭa* may be worn by *sārvabhauma cakravartins*[^ *] or emperors and by *adhirājas* or superior governors of provinces (see Pl. IV, figs. 20 and 21).

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For all the other gods what is called the *karaṇḍa-makuṭa* is prescribed. It is a crown made in the shape of a *karaṇḍa* which is generally a bowl-shaped vessel (see Pl. VIII, fig. 2). It is short in height and small in size, and is, as pointed out above, indicative of subordination in status. This is the headgear of all the various kinds of

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[^ *]: चतुस्समुद्रपर्यन्तं पृथिवीं यः प्रपालयेत् चक्रवर्ती समाख्यातःसप्त-राज्यं प्रपालयेत् अधिराजरसमाख्यातास्त्रिराज्यं यस्तु पालयेत् नरेन्द्रस्सत विज्ञेयस्त्वन्येपि बहवोमताः॥ He is a *cakravartin* whose rule extends to the shores of the four bounding oceans; he who holds sway over seven provinces is called an *adhiraja*, while one who reigns over three provinces is a *Narendra*.

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goddesses; it is prescribed, among human beings, to *adhirājas* also. Sometimes even *chakravartins* are seen to wear only the *karaṇḍa-makuṭa*.

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The remaining kinds of head-gear mentioned above are mostly modes of dressing the hair. The mode called *kēśabandha* is employed in relation to Sarasvatī among divine beings, and in relation to the queens of *adhirājas* among human beings, and the style known as *kuntala* is meant for the goddess Lakshmī and also for the queens of emperors and *adhirājas* and *narēndras*. (see Pl. IV, figs. 22, 23 and 24).

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*Śirastraka* is said to be meant for generals (*pārṣṇikas*) of kings. It is much like an ordinary turban.

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The wives of *maṇḍalikas* or appointed governors of small provinces should wear their hair done in the form of a knot which is technically known as *dhammilla*. But the women who carry torches before a king and the wives of the king’s sword-bearers and shield-bearers, had to wear their hair in a knot called *aḷaka-chūḍaka*. The different kinds of knots of hair as described above seem to have been bound by wreaths of flowers called *puṣpa-paṭṭa* or by strings of leaves like those of the cocoanut palm called *patra-paṭṭa*, or by a jewelled golden band called *ratna-paṭṭa*.

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From this somewhat minute description of the head-dresses and from the known assignment of particular forms of gear to particular classes of divinities and human beings, it is easy to make out without mistakes the status of the divinity or the human being having a particular head-gear; and to a knowing observer these head-gears form an instance of the definiteness which prevails in the conventional language of symbolism.

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*Chhannavīra* appears to be a flat ornament, a kind of jewelled disc, meant to be tied on the *makuṭa* or hung round the neck by a string so as to lie over the chest. This ornament is mentioned pretty frequently but what kind of thing it means is not quite easily understood.

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Sanskrit iconographic treatises insist that the *śiraśchakra*, or the halo surrounding the head of every divine being, is a necessary part of the image thereof. It should have the form of a circle or a full-blown lotus (see Pl. IX, figs. 4 and 5), eleven *aṅgulas* in diameter, and should be away from the head by a distance equal to a third of its diameter. This halo-circle is attached to the back of the head of images by means of a rod whose thickness is equal to one-seventh of the diameter of the *śiraśchakra*. The *śiraśchakra* has theoretically to be something which is aloof and unconnected (see Pl. IV, figs. 25 and 26) ; but in material representations, it is impossible to have a *śiraśchakra* which is not attached to the head ; hence the need for this connecting piece. This piece is covered with and hidden in wreaths of flowers, which appear to adorn the hair-knot of the image at the back, so as to make the *śiraśchakra* appear to be projecting distinctly behind the head. The *śiraśchakra* of the sculptures is considered to correspond to the *prabhāmaṇḍala* or the halo of light which surrounds all divine beings. In other words, it is intended to serve as a material representation of the glory or circle of light shining around the head of gods.

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The *prabhāvaḷi* represents something similar to the *prabhā-maṇḍala* ; the former is, however, a ring of light that surrounds the whole person of a god, while the latter is a circular halo that is shown close to the head. The *prabhāvaḷi* is an ornamental circular or oval ring, with a number of *jvālās* or protruding tongues of flame. Very often the special emblems of the god to whom the *prabhāvaḷi* belongs are sculptured on each side of it; for example, *śaṅkha* and *chakra* are found in association with the *prabhāvaḷi* of Viṣṇu, *paraśu* and *pāśa* with that of Śiva or Gaṇeśa. In some instances, the *prabhāvaḷi* of Viṣṇu contains his ten *avatāras* carved on it in the usual order from right to left.

Linked texts (7)

Ahirbudhnyasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Mānasāra — Sanskrit
Suprabhedāgama — Sanskrit
Lalitāsahasranāma — Sanskrit
Viṣṇupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Gudimallam
Viṣṇurahasya — Sanskrit