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Vastu-shastra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v2.c78.s2: Section B: Literary Evidences of Early Indian Painting

Vāstu-śāstra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v2.c78.s2

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English

Section B: Literary Evidences of Early Indian Painting

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The very fact that there was literature, there must have been painting also. Muses of Fine Arts (Literature and Painting included) did not arrive one after another. They descended on Earth together and so the origin of painting must be syncronous with the origin of poetry, music, drama, sculpture, architecture; etc., etc. Moreover, the cultivation of fine arts started with the rise of civilisation, the rise of cities and citizenship. One of the most material form of a civilisation is its ways of living as well as those of doing (bodily and mentally both, and hence thinking also comes here). If the savages could work sculpture and build branch houses, prepare implements, paint the cave-walls (their refuge) and do many other things, painting and allied art must have been the time-honoured companions in the progress of civilisation throughout the ages.

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**Vedic Litcrature.**—The earlist literary documents the Vedas also offer a clear clue to the conceptions of pictorial art in a good many hymns. In the Upaniṣads— "Let a man with firmness separate the spirit, the inner soul, from his own body, as from a painte’s brush a fibre"—this expression which is curiously technical one, may indicate that the early painters did not employ hair for the manufacture of their brushes but might have made them of fine vegetable fibre.

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Similar references may be found abounding in so many other scriptural texts. In the Chāndogya (VI. 4) “Red, white and dark neither designate nor describe, brilliance, wateriness and solidity. They are one with these qualities. They are spoken of as ‘Rūpa’ intrinsic form. This intrinsic quality invests with substance the colours in paintings.”

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**Pali Buddhist canonical literature.**—An instance of early illusions to the art of painting, the Vinaya Piṭaka, a Pālī Buddhist work has already been referred to (cf. Pleasure House of King Pasenada i.e. Prasenajit containing picture-halls cittāgāras adorned with painted figures and decorative patterns.) Its date is pre-Christian (3rd or 4th century B.C.). In Samyuttanikāya P. III p, 132 V. II, paintings of male and female figures on wooden boards, walls and cloth are discussed. This is the earliest known reference to all the three time-honoured backgrounds of painting. Similar instances can be multiplied from several other early works on Buddhism among which the Jātaka literature is very very informative on this score.

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**Epics.**—In the Rāmāyaṇa, no description of a palace or lofty superstructure of vimāna, saudha or prāsāda is complete without reference to the pictorial decoration. Pictorial halls are a familiar paraphernalia of a palace establishment. In the Mahābhārata also these references abound (cf. one hundred, etc. Coomaraswamy). A Tibetan historian in the seventeenth century of the name of Tārānāth, in a summary account of Indian Buddhist art from the earliest times to the author’s day, ascribes a great antiquity to all the crafts of India, ‘dating even from the remote age prior to the disappearance of the Teacher (480 B.C.). He specially alludes to the superlative excellence of the earliest wall paintings, which he attributes to the gods. This work was subsequently carried on by the ‘Yakṣas’ (puṇya-Yanas), literally ‘the good people’, divinely inspired artists employed by Asoka (250 BC) and next by the semi-human Nāgas, under the control of Nāgarjuna (circa A. D. 200).

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**Purāṇas**-—Reference to paintings in Purāṇas simply abound and the Citra-sūtra of Viṣṇudharmottara, forming supplement or Appendix to the Viṣṇupurāṇa, is Paurāṇic par excellence compendium on this art—a detailed notice of which has already been taken.

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**Śilpa-Śāstra.**—Śilpa-Śāstra is of hoary antiquity. It is one of the auxilliary sciences of the Vedas themselves. Sthāpatya is an Upaveda as Gandharva Veda is one. Some of the Āchāryas of the science are Vedic Ṛṣis and a reference to them has already been given in the first chapter, vide Dr. Raghvan's quotation—some Sanskrit texts on Painting. Among the other notable treatises important mention has also been made in the writer's 'Hindu Science of Architecture' treating this subject.

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**Kāvyas.**—Here the interesting reference forming the bulk of the section will be coming forth from the classical Sanskrit literature—the Kavyas of Kālidāsa, of Bāṇabhatta and Śrīharṣa, etc.—and without going into details of comments on them, they are being arranged here with short tabulations of the topics to facilitate a general understanding of the reader not acquainted with Sanskrit. It may, however, be further pointed out as this class of literature itself is simply very very vast and there is no dearth of pictorial references in practically each and every class of work Mahākāvyas, Khaṇḍakāvyas, Dramas, Campūs, Kathās, Ākhyāyikās, Prose-romances, Historical Kāvyas, etc., etc. therefore, a very judicious selection has to be made and only representative writers are to be selected to bring home to the reader only subject-in-hand namely wide appeal of the art and its culture as well as its training among not only the refined citizens of the day but also among the eminent writers, poets, and story-tellers. Accordingly Kālidāsa, Bāṇabhatta and Śrīharṣa may be selected, as they represent three broad periods of Indian history, early, early medieval and medieval and these were also the three broad periods of the development of Sanskrit Kāvya literature—adolescence, youth and maturity. For completeness' sake, however, a brief reference will also be made to the other classes of classical literature unattended in this general purview.

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**KALIDASA.**—Let us begin with Kālidāsa, the sweetest bard of India's mellifluous tongue, a typical cultured citizen, Nāgarika (as Vātsyāyana would have him) and an expert in the three well known arts—dancing, painting and music—as evident from his three dramas (where equal prominence is given to each of them). 'The Mālavikāgnimitra opens us a leaf of the chapter on Dancing. Painting is given sufficient importance in the Śākuntalam. The music of today is preserved for us in the Vikramorvaśīyam'. As the universe of our discourse being delimited to the Fine Art of Painting, let us, therefore, see what Kālidāsa says on Painting.

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Sivarāmamūrti's significant remark in this connection is noteworthy—(cf. his paper 'Kalidās and Painting' ·J O. R. Madras Vol. VII 1933): “From the Citraśālās, decorations of houses with picture, portraits and imaginary pictures drawn on board and painting of creepers on the human body, the colour decoration of the elephant, down to the comparatively insignificant border decoration of garments, there was nothing so trivial as not to give scope for the expression of the enthnsiasm of the time for this noble art. It was not the professional artist that was the only store-house of this knowledge. Painting was a part of the polite education of the day and was freely practised by both sexes. Portrait-painting appears to have been very popular; memory and imagination were also given stimulus by paintings being executed even in the absence of models. The latter Kālidasa styles Bhāvagarnya citra."·

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Now a very brief tabulation of the references of painting from Kalidasa's works is sumarised here. The numericals indicate the quotations to be arranged accordingly in the appendix.

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**Citraśālās.**—All the three kinds of Citraśālās—the Royal Art gallery (1), the Public art gallery and Private Picturehouses (2) are mentioned in Mālavikāgnimitra, Raghuvamsa and Meghdūta.

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**Citrācāryas.**—They are referred to in Mālavikā (3). The references to Citrācāryas abound in so many other dramas and Kāvyas like Uttara-Rāmacarita of Bhavabhūti, Tilakamañjarī of Dhanapāla, etc. 'Like the Naṭyācāryas, they appear to have held some important place in the royal courts of the old'—Sivarāmamūrti.

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**Pictures.**—Portaits (4) were more prominent. 'The portraits of Agnimitra—not one, many perhaps—in different postures, hung everywhere on all sides in the big hall of the Samudragṛha' (5). References to Bhāvagarnya Citra (6) are many, viz. the painting of Yakṣa and and Yakṣiṇī in Meghdūta and that of Śakuntalā and her companions by Duṣyanta in Sākuntalam. 'The high relism achieved in the field of painting is best exhibited in the words of Sānumatī:

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'अहो राजर्षेर्वर्त्तिका‌निपुणता ! जाने मे सखी अग्रतो वर्तत इति; अभि० चतु०

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As regards perspective and landscape a very beautiful illustration will be found in Abhi S. Act VI, (7), where Duṣyaṇtā describing a grand scenery introduces the landscape as background in the portrait, hh visualises of Sakuntalā. “Natural scenes were favourite themes with the artists of India. Animal painting was also quite common. The realistic pictures of elephants painted on the walls of mansions in Ayodhyā are an example of it. In the Vikramorvaśīya we have a reference to a monkey in a picture. This animal was a favourite subject of study at the time and the monkeys of Ajaṇṭā given such a prominence by Dr. Vincent Smith in his History of India are sufficient evidence for it. Of conventional pictures the Saṅkha and Padma painted near the doorway of the Yakṣa's mansion are examples".

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**Backgrounds.**—The slab of त्वामालिख्य (8) may stand well for a board where we have a rough sketch in mineral chalks—something like a pastel drawing—on a stone slab. Similarly Raghu. (9) gives us some idea of the fresco or wall-paintings of the day. "Portrait painting on board and canvas was very common and we have types of it in the pictures of Indumatī, Daśaratha, Śakuntalā, Mālavikā, Agnimitra, Irāvatī, Urvaśī, the drawings of dancing girls executed by Agnivarṇa's and the like. Patrālekhana, *i. e.* painting of creeper designs on the body of both man and beast generally the elephant in the latter case—is very often stated. In the lines....

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रेवां द्रक्ष्यस्युपलविषमे विन्ध्यपादे विशीर्णाम् ।
भक्तिच्छेदैरिव विरचितां भूतिमङ्गे गजस्य ॥ [मेघ दूतम्]

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we have a description of Sindūra-painting on the elephant's body".

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Drawing designs on the arms and cheeks of both the sexes was a common practice as is evident from Raghuvamśa (10).

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**Process.**--One of the most popular pictorial ornamentation in those prosperous days was Patrālekhana—drawing lines with a dark colour on a light background and the background was generally white sandal paste smeared lightly over the body—and our poet fully mirrors this process in the Raghu. (11). Again the background process as well as the paste in this process varied also, *i. e.* Śuklāguru for the background and Gorocana and Dhāturāga for drawing the lines. Further again from the Sākuntalam (12), we get an evidence that the most important factor in drawing a picture is the conception of it what is called here ‘Manasākṛtā’. The use of Vartikā in drawing the picture is also there--vide Agnivarṇa's sketches of his amorous dancing girls. Kumārasambhava (13), further provides a very valuable information of the final touches in picture-drawing what is technically called ‘Citra-unmīlan’ like ‘nayanonmīlana of an image (vide Mānasāra) and it was done with a very delicate brush known as Tūlikā.

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Delineation of light and shade in colours known technically as chiaroscuro is also illustrated in Śākuntalam (14) and in this connection Sivarāmamurty's significant observation is worth quoting: ‘The general notion of some art-experts of today that artists of ancient India were ignorant of chiaroscuro can easily be dismissed by the volume of evidence from Sanskrit literature. We have, for instance, Dhanapāla, the author of Tilakamañjarī, talking of light and shade in colours—cf. description of

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चक्रवर्तिकन्यका राजनीतिरिव यथोचितमवस्थापितवर्ण मुदाया दिनकरप्रभेव प्रकाशितव्यक्त निम्नॊ न्नत विभागा—ति०मं०१३५.

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For light and shade we have such an ancient authority as a statement of the Mahābhārata :

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अतथ्यान्यपि तथ्यानि दर्शयन्ति विचक्षणा : । समनिम्नोन्नतानीव चित्रकर्मविचक्षणाः ॥

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Śākuntalam further informs us some of the most important fundamental and advanced rules of the technique of pictorial art like Rekha:—

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‘तथापि तस्या लावण्यं रेखया किञ्चिदन्वितम्’

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‘Vartikānipuṇatā; (15) a powerful dexterous weilding of the pencil or brush; ‘Vartikocchvāsa’ (16), a loose sweep of the brush, etc. were simply on his finger-tips.

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**Materials.**—All the artists’ materials were known to Kālidāsa. Colour-brushes are already referred to in Sākuntalam; there is also a reference to Varṇikākaraṇḍa (17), a colour box to preserve colours in it.

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**Colours.**—The latter half of the Kumārasambhava (18) bears an evidence that four mountain-born colours, red, yellow, black (blue) and white were taken by the poet as the primary the colours, compound colours or diversity of tints by mixtures were also known. “The favourite colours of Kālidāsa’s time appear to have been water-colour of the type of tempera. The Meghdūta (19) has a verse in which the clouds are described as slyly sneaking away in the form (guise) of smoke through the window apertures of the lofty mansions of Alakā being ashamed of their conduct in having caused damage to the beautiful pictures printed there by allowing water particles to settle on them. In the Sākuntalam we have another reference. The verse

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‘स्विन्नाङ्गुलिविनिवेशो रेखाप्रान्तेषु दृश्यते मलिनः ।
अश्रु च कपोलपतितं लक्ष्यमिदं वर्तिकोच्छ्वासात्’ ।।

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shows that the colour is easily spoilt by water; and this accounts for the lines in colour being blurred by the perspiration of the fingers, It is this same idea that Bāṇa echoes in his Kādambari when he writes—

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‘अङ्गुलीगलितस्वेदपरामर्शभीतेव चिन्तया लिलेख, न चित्रतूलिकया’

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thus pointing out the continuance of the same colour (tempera) even in his day. Further the ‘Vartikocchvāsa’ caused by tears settling on the picture is possible only when the colour is a kind of tempera. A better elucidation of the nature of colours is to be had from Daṇḍin’s Daśakumāracarita wherein he tells us that they are a kind of ‘Niryāsa Kalka’.

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Niryasa is a kind of exudation or gum of some tree and ‘Kalka’ is a viscous preparation obtained from substances or drugs ground or powdered. Colours are mixed with glue or Vajralepa for additional strength and the process of such a preparation is given in almost all the works of Śilpa. The Vajralepa is a medium of animal origin. The Niryāsa stated by Daṇḍin is of vegetable origin. Media of both kinds appear to have been used for water-colour and tempera.” “By the use of the phrase— प्रत्यग्रवर्णरागाम् in चित्रशालां गता देवी प्रत्यग्रवर्णरागां चित्रलेखामाचार्यस्यावलोकयन्ती तिष्ठति—Kalidasa tells us that colours are fresh and beautiful when new, and to maintain this freshness for a longer duration has been the endeavour to every great artist. This is sought to be achieved by a proper use of durable colours as opposed to fugitive ones that fade or disappear after a time”.

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“It is this question of proper choice of pigments that induces the artist to study that particular branch of knowlede in art-chemistry of colours—a result of great experience. Any way the fading of pictures by sheer age is inevitable and it is all the more hastened by dust, smoke and such other spoiling agencies. It is of this that Rājaśekhara speaks in his verse in the Bālabhārata when he refers to pictures being dimmed by time and smoke :

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निर्यद्वासरजीवपिण्डकरिणं कुर्वन् कवोष्णैः करै-
र्मञ्जिष्ठं रविबिम्बमम्बरतलादस्ताचलं चुम्बति ।
किं च स्तोकतयःकलापकलनश्यामायमानं मना-
ग्धूमश्यामपुराणचित्ररचनारूपं जगज्जायते ॥

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**Bodily poses and postures of legs, etc.**—One of the fundamental canons of art-painting and sculpture (iconography) is the depictation of various hand-poses, the poses of the body and the postures of the legs what are called the mudrās and sthānas. They simply bring life and animation in the picture. Besides the conventional poses (20) referred in his works Kālidāsa has the knack of creating some very charming yet complex poses like Kaṇṭhasūtra, Kaṇṭhaśleṣa, etc. (21), found depicted in the paintings of Ajaṇṭā.

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A painter must be fully conversant with anatomy of human body and Kālidāsa was a master anatomist---vide the descriptions of physical features of Dilīpa, Pārvatī, Mālavikā (22).

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A word on propriety in painting, that is, how to paint a particular subject, may also be said. This technique is also fully borne out his works, *e. g.*, the ornamentations and dresses in case of hermit girl Śakuntalā (23) and other types of women like Abhisārikā (24) and Virahiṇī (25) as well as swan designs in the garments of a bride and a young king Atithi, (26) etc., etc. Kālidāsa was also fully conversant with the conventions of representations of superhuman beings. Airāvata, the divine elephant with four tusks (27) Yakṣas as youths (28) Siddhas always in pairs, with Vīṇās in their hands (29), kinnaras with the face of a horse (30).

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The place of painting in the cultural life of ancient Indians, i. e., the manifold purposes which this fine art used to cater to the service of men and women are also recounted by this greatest of great genii of India. Mālavikāgnimitra (31) gives out the picture as coming the to rescue of a lady in love to see the protrait of her lover in portrait maintaining her bashfulness. Pictures were also very useful in giving the wider knowledge of the world. Śakuntalā could be depicted in polished ornaments by her hermit girl companions sheerly because of having observed them in pictures (32). Pictures of beautiful princesses were sent round to princes to win their hearts (33). The most universal element of the utility of the pictorial art is the pleasure 'Vinodasthāna' what is acclaimed by Duṣyant in the Śākuntalam (Act. vi.).

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In the end a word may also be added on the philosophy of fine arts, which perhaps nowhere better hinted at than in the Śākuntalam in the following verses :

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‘यद्यत्साधु न चित्रे स्यात्क्रियते तत्तदन्यथा । तथापि तस्या लावण्यरेखया किञ्चिद-न्वितम्, really meaning यद्यत्साधु न; चित्रे तत्तदन्यथा स्यात् क्रियते (स्यात् क्रियते in the sense of क्रियेत meaning that whatever is not beautiful can be made different in picture—Mahāmahopādhyāya Kuppuswāmi Sāstri's interpretation—cf. Śivaramamurty's paper ‘Kālidasa and painting’ J. O. R. Madras Vol 7. 1933.

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“Kalidasa holds the view that a good deal of Samādhi (34) or concentration is the first requisite for producing a good picture. Fully aware of the nobility and greatness of the fine arts, he, in a general way, gives out that they shine properly only when imparted to the proper person (35)”—Śwarāmaivmūrti.

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**Bāṇabatta:** The celebrated prose-writer, the author of the celestial Kādambarī and magnificient Harṣacarita, Bāṇṇbhatta, for whom it is an eloquent tribute to have exhausted everything worth describing in three words—वणोच्छिष्टं जगत्सर्वम्—has equally excelled all in his mastery of the pictorial art, the scope of which, as we have already seen, is the depiction of all the three world (cf. Śilparatna जङ्गमाःस्थावरा etc.) It was, therefore, not in vain that as a youth he moved in the company of friends and companions of various professions including an artist and a sculptor अभवंश्चास्य वयसा समानाः सुहृदः सहायाश्च—चित्रकृद्वीरवर्मा...पुस्तकृत्कु मारदत्त : H. C.

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Every palace and mansion described by Bāṇa is full of citraśālā or art gallery. Every city abounds in picture galleries. The big citraśālās were built in the style of Vimāna and this characteristic of a Citraśālā has a tradition in the Śilpa-texts. Narada śilpa (cf. first chapter and Dr. Raghavan’s observations on ‘Sanskrit Texts on Painting’), describes a citraśālā building as ornamented by a small gopura in the front and having Śikhara-kalaśas, etc., thus satisfying the description of ‘Vimāna’ given by Bāṇa (1). As regards the decorations of the palaces, reference is made in H. C. (2) to great Śilpis being invited from various countries to do the job before the marriage of Rajyaśri, and they also received the usual honours and rewards as per the time honoured tradition of the texts like Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra (cf. H. S. A. Vol. I—Preliminaries before the building operations).

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With this general introduction to the status of pictorial are in the times of Bāṇa, let us proceed with the canonical knowledge of the poet in relation practically to all the canons, the types of pictures, the backgrounds, the materials and the process (including sketch, colour, anatomy and pose, etc.).

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**Types of pictures.**—We are familiar with the universal scope of painting, as echoed in Śilparatna perhaps got from Bāṇa—vide Kā (3), the town illustrating the picture of the universe, the Royal household displaying the manifold and wonderful features of the inmates of the three worlds through pictorial lines (pictures in art galleries) and picture houses are adorned with paintings of leaves (foliage decorations) and birds of various hues.

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On the special occasions like delivery of a prince child (queen of Tārāpīḍa) and marriage of a princess (Rājyaśrī) expert painters from far and wide used to be called to work on the walls (4).

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This was the mural painting. Now come the portraits. Departed souls (5) (Prabhākarvardhana) were painted on a suitable surface. Yamapaṭas are another set of pictures and were in vogue in ancient India. This is borne out by numerous references in Sanskrit literature.

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It was held an ominous picture and Bāṇa echoed it when Prince Harṣa is hurrying to meet his father and he sees it as one of the various omens that perturbed his mind—vide H. C. (6). Kāmadevapaṭa was still another variety of pictures, a populer picture of the bed-room—vide Kā (7). Cupid’s picture had almost an exclusive privilege in the Vāsabhavana—vide H. C. (8). Palace walls had paintings of Cāmaragrāhiṇīs, H. C. (9). Chowries being an important insignia of royalty, Cāmaragrāhins were common in royal house-holds. Other pictures adorning the royal mansions were the portraits of princes (10) both defeated princes and renowned ones of other royal houses. ‘Another picture of the aristocratic household is the Cakravāka painted usually to amuse women in the harem,’ H. C. (11).

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**Backgrounds.**—Bāṇa was conversant with all the three pictorial backgrounds Paṭṭa, Paṭa and Bhitti—the wooden board, the canvas and the walls of buildings. “It was not an uncommon practice in India to draw and paint creepers, dragons and such things on the body to heighten the beauty of the particular spots which on that account fromed the ground. This practice was not restricted to the human body alone. Majestic elephants of royal courts were profusely decorated with designs of creepers. Drawing and painting on vessels is an age-long custom in our land. Another and a more natural ground is the floor or the bare ground, giving ample scope for clever women to draw fine free-hand-drawings in colour powders. All these are too well known to Bāṇa and what is more, he is very well aware that any ground is alright for a good drawing provided one has cleverness of excution; and the stone salb that served the purpose of a canvas or board when neither was procurable to gladden the heart of a lover by a picture of the beloved one is not overlooked.” (12).

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**Meterials.**—Bāṇa refers to separate brushes for separate colours and the most popular brushes of the poet’s day seem to be Vartikā, Kālāñjana-vartikā and Kūrcaka (13) (cf. also the Ś.S’s prescriptions Chap. 77) (exclusive brush for applying black), Varṇaśuddha Kūrcaka (for the use of white). The third variety of the brush, tūlikā (in the sense of Lekhani of the Śilpa texts) used for final touches was also known to him, H. C. (14). The alābu or gourd in the present context (used by Bāṇa) might have been used in those days for stocking colours and other essential artist’s requisites.

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**Method of painting on various surfaces:**—The H. C. (15) gives us somewhat elaborate accounts of how walls were made fit for pictorial decorations perfectly tallying with those prescribed in the Śilpa manuals like Ab. C. and Śilparatna (vide ‘Vartikā and background’, Chap. IV).

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Bāṇa also more often than not talks of highly polished walls mirror--like in their splendour. The walls of the palace of Vilāsvati are perfectly white and are resplendent with fresh pictures painted on them.

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The surface prepared, the artist has to visualise the picture he was going to paint. What Bāṇa calls it Saṁkalpalekha, which is what Kālidāṣa has called Bhāvagamyacitra. Then come the general proportions---the Sūtrapātalekh—called by Bāṇa (Āambhasūtrapātalekha) (16). ‘These sūtras or lines ‘like Brahmsūtra, Pakṣasūtra and Bahissutra vary and fall at particular points on the canvas cutting particular parts of the from according as the sthāna or pose is front, profile or three-quarter-view and so forth’-Śivarāmamurti. Thus we are convinced how Bāṇā was perfectly conversont with the technical language of the artists. The word Citronmilana (17) (cf. Kalidāsa’s. उन्मीलित etc. used by Bāṇa convinces us of the unbroken tradition of the high skill of our artists in the ptctorial art. When the artist simply infuses life in to the picture, what is called ‘unmilan’ it becoms our object of highest admiration.

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Process of the types of pictures like those painted on cloth or on board slightly differs as per the dictum of Śilparatna : and so the portraits generally were drawn on what Bāṇa calls citra-phalakas (18) Kadambari (19) refers to so many other types of pictorial decorations, the elaborate drawing of the floor, drawing designs of creepers and flowers (vide also H C 20), etc., etc. as mainly accomplished by housewives. Clever artistic work on pots and plates, picture decorations drawn by women muslins and silks, flowery drawings of human figures on the canopy and curtains reflected on the glossy cheeks of Queen Yaśovat asleep on her Royal couch are also borne out by the abundant refrences in Bāna’s works. Miniature drawings on human frame was a favourite pastime in India. Women used to adorn their faces and breasts with lovely drawings of undulating creepers and quaint dragons in which the curvature of the line and the colour of the form were marvellously exquisite-Śivarāmamūrti. Accordingly this is brone out in many of the references in Kā. (21) ‘In his sports, King Tārāpīḍa’s white upper garment gets a print of the dark foliage painted on the breasts of the ladies of his harem with Krṣṇāguru paste. The King questions his queen, on another occasion, why she did not adorn her breasts with drawings of creepers. The wonderous person that comes from the moon to take away the lifeless body of Puṇḍarīka has his shoulders marked with crimson of the creepers painted on his beloved’s breasts. Thus there are two materials for painting on the body Kuṅkuma and Krṣṇāguru to which a third Kastūri which is to be mentioned presently is to be added. Generally sandal-

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‘सुधालेपो न कर्तव्यश्चित्रार्थं फलकादिषु’

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paste served as the ground paint in such cases. Not content with painting themselves the women went to the extent of even decorating dolls with such drawings. Thus we have one of the maidens in the palace of Kādambarī exhorting one of her companions to paint the breasts of a doll. That even youths delighted in this, of decorating the body with paintings, is proved by the reference in Harṣacarita of young Dadhīca smelling sweet with creepers marked on his body with Kastūrī. The artistic figures of swans painted with Kastūrī on the border of the fine fabric covering the shoulders of King Śūdraka show the highly developed aesthetic taste of the time.—Śivarāmamūrti.

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**Colours :** Bāṇa is fully conversant with the five primary colours of the Śilpa texts like the V. D. and as regards secondary ones, they have an inexhaustible store of our poet's works. On every page you will find mention of some colour or other. The following tabulation will give a vivid, interesting and informative colour-scheme of Bāṇa :

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**Primary colours and their varieties :** In these varieties the subtle differences are noteworthy :—

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Varieties of white (21) ;

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| 1. | Haritālaśaila white. | 7. | Ivory white. |
| 2. | Swan ,, | 8. | Foam. ,, ) |
| 3. | Lotus ,, | 9. | Milk ,, ) Identical. |
| 4. | Sinduvāra a different pattern of white. | 10. | Conch. ,, ) |
| | | 11. | Petals of full blown Ketakī white-yellowish. |
| 5. | Karṇikāra ,, | | |
| 6. | Campaka ,, | | |

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Varieties of red (22) ;

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| 1. | Bandhūka flower, | 5. | Sindūra, |
| 2. | Kuṅkumpiñjara, | 6. | Mandāra fllowers, |
| 3. | Kusumbharāgapaṭala, | 7. | Māñjiṣṭha, |
| 4. | A bunch of Ghātakī flowers (Blood red), | 8. | Piñjara, |
| | | 9. | Rosy colour of dove's leg. |

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Varieties of green (23)

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| 1. | Parrot green, | 3. | Emerald green, |
| 2. | Plantain leaf, | 4. | Dark green (Tamāla type). |

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Varities of Gray (24) ;

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1. Smoke colour,

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| 2. | Ass skin colour, | 4. | of pigeon’s neck, |
| 3. | of the doves, | 5. | Śaphara’s belly. |

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Varities of brown (25) ;

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| 1. | Gorocana, | | |
| 2. | Yellowish. | 4. | of the Camel’s hair, |
| 3. | of the red palm fruit, | 5. | of Godhūmå (wheat). |

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Black.—Its various degrees and grades (26) ;

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| 1. | Light black of buffalo, | 3. | The pitch dark night resembling the wing of the bird cāsa. |
| 2. | The darker shade on the face of the Golāngūla monkey and | | |

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**Varieties of Śära of Śabala—The versi-coloured hue :—**Our tradition recognised a separate variegated hue. A number of colours variegate the rainbow and the bean seed (of mottled colour) also. Two tints yellow and black account for the variegation in the tiger’s skin and white and blue for that in the eyes (27).

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Varieties of Mixed colours (28):

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1. Grey of smoke from blue and white. 2. Green from yellow and blue, 3. Purple from red and blue.

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‘Bāna’s knowledge of the infinite variety of colour in nature and his singling out the beautiful natural tints of flowers and fruits so often chosen with great delicacy by expert artists for the execution of excellent still-life compositions is remarkable. Some of the descriptions in Bāṇa’s works simply represent the commentaries on Citra-śāstra especially those noteworthy paragraphs wherein colours, all from nature, play the part. The following descriptions illustrate the truth of the statement :

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| (1) | Jambu fruit | (5) | Colour picture of a country (janapada) |
| (2) | Amalaki fruit | | |
| (3) | Forest fires | (6) | Multi-coloured nature of the ground |
| (4) | Colorific nature of the forest | (7) | Colour imagery in the description of Elephant Gandhamādana |

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Thus these descriptions of Flaura and Fanna illustrate Bāna’s artistic insight. Anatomical knowledge (29) of Bāṇa was also remarkable. He however excells equally in the beauty of the limbs and its opposite ugliness—vide his descriptions of Drāvida Dhārmika, the Śabaras, Bhairavācārya and his disciple. Bāṇa also gives us lakṣaṇas of some demigods (30). Technical descriptions of the animals like the horse and the elephant are of popular knowledge. Bāṇa is quite aware of the tremendous potentialities of pose. 'As an expert in pose Bāṇa knows enough of Aṅgabhaṅga. There is a variety of Aṅgabhaṅga in the limbs of the Vāravilāsinīs surrounding Harṣa. With a definite knowledge of Aṅgas and Pratyaṅgas he gives the names of separate bhaṅgas like the Grīvābhaṅga mentioned by Kālidāsa—one such is the Madhyabhāgabhaṅga (31). A great aesthete conversant with the principles of Nāṭya (dance) Bāṇa informs us of a charming pose—Karaveṇikā (32), in which two women stand with their hands inter-locked.—Sivarāmamūrti.

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**ŚRĪHARṢA.**—A profile writer, an erudite scholar and a great poet as Śrīharṣa was, it is but natural that his Naiṣadhīyacarita, a Mahākāvya teeming with encyclopaedic learning, must present a sufficient evidence to his knowledge of pictorial art, fully advanced by his time, the medieval Period of Indian history (11th or 12th century A. D.). Paintings on various mediums on diverse grounds is the traditional depiction, but mosaic decoration of the floor and a host of similar innovations are our additional information on the subject.

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**Letter painting.**—The art of examining the form and shape, the peculiar characteristics of the letters of the alphabet from a decorative point, may be seen in his descriptions—N. C. (X) 85-86—where 'the letter ‘OM’ is taken up and its various parts, i. e. the two dalas, the bindu and ardhacandra are compared to the eyebrows, the tilaka, and vīṇā-koṇa (lute-bow) of Damayantī, respectively. Verses (X) 85-86 (1) give us the shape of ॐ and the visarga which are compared to eyebrows, the tilaka, vīṇākoṇa and to the rounded breasts of Damayantī (who was still a Bālikā.) cf.

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श्रृङ्गवद्भालवत्सस्य वालिकाकुचयुग्ममवत् । नेत्रवत्कृष्णसर्पस्य स विसर्ग इति स्मृतः ॥’

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**Types of pictures.**—There are double portraits on the same canvas—the miniature portraits on board or canvas as well as bigger ones on the wall. The princes who come to Damayantī’s Svayamvara amuse themselves by gazing at the pictures of the beautiful princess executed on the walls of the various mansions in the city (2). The themes thereof are the important incidents from the life of Damayantī. Pictures describing life incidents appear to have been common in ancient India. Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti and Rājaśekhara also give out their representations.

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There were also picture stories from contemporary life. Group pictures were also not wanting. As regards the pictures of general character like the paintings of women near the doorway, etc., are amply illustrated in N. C. (3). We are familiar with the dictum of the V. D. forbiding painting of pictures for one's own use and accordingly Bhaimī got a typical pair of lovers, painted by Kāruvara (4).

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Śrīharṣa, a gifted genius of a very bold nature and freedom loving scholar is credited to have violated the rules of painting, gone astray from the conventions as set out in the standard Śilpa-texts like Śilparatna (though later than Srīharṣa nevertheless echoing the tradition) which forbids naked tapasvilīlā in the human dwellings vide N. C. XVIII (5).

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**Process.**—In drawing of the outline of a picture the first thing, to go through, is fixing up the general proportions by preliminary indicative lines what are called the sūtrapāta-lekhā and Śrīharṣa makes mention of the artistic device of determining sketch in VII and XV (6).

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Even preliminary to Sūtrapāta-rekhā is the Hastalekha, or the experimental sketch and this is mentioned by Śrīharṣa thrice—twice in VII and once in XXI (7).

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**Colours.**—After the sketch is laid out, colours take their turn. Śrīharṣa gives only four primary colours (8). As regards the variegated hue ‘citra-varṇa’, the mosaic floor that Srīharṣa mentions in VIII (9) satisfies it. According to Śrīharṣa propriety of colouring—colour to be laid in its proper place in a picture—is the first pre-requisite (10). That is, for the effect of one colour over the other, the contrast, the balance, the tone and such other details, it is an essential prescription. Touching and blending may be attended also in due course.

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**Anatomy.**—‘Of the so many factors that constitute a picture the one thing that is dealt with at great lenth by Srīharṣa is anatomy and that too feminine, i. e. of the woman. It is the description of Damayantī's beauty that lends itself as a proper medium for the artist poet's detailed delineation of anatomical rules. There is nothing of the brawn and the bone in it. The graceful portrayal in verse of the delicate curvatures and subtle beauty spots that make up the lovely form of the princess is all that we get from the pen of Srīharṣa. This in fact is the true and correct anatomy of the Indian artists"—Sivaramamurti.

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Let us now refer to Śrīharṣa's anatomical details (11) in a tabular form, of the important limbs and sub-limbs, the facial description showing the very minute observation and artistic insight of the poet:

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Face.—(*i*) *Lips* with lines is compared to the Bandhūkapuṣpa VII. 37, 41.

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(*ii*) *Nose*.—like Tilapuṣpa VI. 36. wherein, front and threequarters view are both fully comprehended.

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(*iii*) *Chin* with a dimple VII. 51. is a beautifying factor.

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(*iv*) *Ear*.—its curvature proceeding and vanishing in the cavity—VII. 62.

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(*v*) *Eyes*.—Compared with deer—VII. 53. Sivarāmamūrti observes : “The width and beauty of the eye of the fawn is proverbial. But the one thing to be noted in this comparison is that Śrīharṣa closely observes and dismisses the long streak proceeding from the root of the eye nearest the nose of the deer as unworthy of the beauty of King Nala and tells by means of a clever pun that this streak distinguishes the eyes of the fawn from his.”

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(*vi*) *Neck*.—Its rotundity and extreme grace being enhancd by the three lines, the creases—III. 66.

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(*vii*) *Hair*.—‘Damyanti’s long tresses are given as black and curly, while Nala’s locks are extremely fine and of a thick growth’—VII 21 and 67.

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OTHER PARTS:

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(i) **Nitamba**.—Resembling as a wheel (VII. 89) and nails resembling moons are conventional but—

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(ii) **Gūlpha**.—Ankle should not be prominent in the artistic insight of Śrīharṣa VII 98.

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(iii) **Heel**.—Fully developed is a mark of beauty—VII. 102.

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(iv) **Fingers**.—Lovely only when they are long and wiry—VII. 105.

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With these bits of references and illustrations thereof, the pictorial depth in the Naiṣadhīyacaritam, let us close this in the words of that gifted and talented art-critic in our Indological Researches, Sri Śiva rāmamūrti, who is really the pioneer to have taken up these studies from quite a new angle in the contemporary studies in Indian culture and literature:

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“Sri Harṣa has some artist’s notes in his diary, so to say, and this is best brought home to the reader’s mind by a peep into the XVIII canto of Naiṣadha. Here the palace of Nala is penned in all its glory. The mosaic floor is noteworthy feature (cf. न्यस्य मन्त्रिषु,etc). We have the usual Citraśālā of the royal household. (12). Here we have perhaps the lengthiest description of the Citraśālā in Sanskrit literature. The subjects of frescoes and the pictures in the gallery are all given out in detail.

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“Inventive skill accounts for originality and variety of design (13). The designs like Makara (a figure something like a quaint dragon) are given a prominent place in Patrabhaṅga (14). Designs of letters, that form a feature of the two interesting branches of artistic science, Illumination and Calligraphy, is indicated sufficiently as has been noted before. This art of lettering is today an important force and the greatest forte of the artist designer and poster worker and serves best for advertisements. Old scripts are explored and hunted and new fantastic types created; books are every day coming into field on the subject and we have such books as ‘Alphabets’, ‘How to letter’, ‘The art of Lettering’, etc. We have the Black letter and the alphabet of the twelfth century serving very well the purpose of decorative artists. No wonder the Nāgarī script ॐ is specially chosen by Śrīharṣa as a .typically artistic letter lending itself to design.

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“Little need be said of pose. It is an all-accepted important factor in a picture. Śrīharṣa knows technicalities of various poses as is evident from his references to such minor details like the Vṛkṣādhirūḍha and Latāveṣṭitaka (15) types of embraces described in the Kāmasūtra. The commentary explains these two as two different varieties of graceful embrace. For the fine pose described in the verse.-इति स्फुटं तद्वचसस्तयादरात् सुरस्पृहारोपविडम्बनादपि कराङ्कसुप्तैककपोलकर्णया श्रुतं च तद्द्वासितमश्रुतं च we have the nearest approach in the figure of Madālasā in Ravi Varm’s charming picture of Madālasā Ṛtudhvaja.” In the end let us close this account with his personal experience of a genuine artist (16).

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**Other poets.**—Like Kālidāsa, Bāṇa and Śrīharṣa, other poets can also be worked out from this angle. The pioneering lead has already come from an eminent scholar and so to tackle up the subject, there no dearth of guidance. Paucity of space forbids me to dwell at length on this topic, nevertheless a few words may be added on the stray references to pictures by other writers like Bhavabhūti, Srī Harṣa, Māgha, Someśvarasūri, Rājaśekhara and Dhanapāla. These names are only barely touched here and it does not mean they exhaust the list.

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**Bhavabhuti’s Uttara-Rāma Carita** gives us a very vivid knowledge of the principles of perspective which for the landscape artists was an essential pre-requisite. The picture of Iṅgudīpādapa near Sṛṅgaberpura ; of the Gaṅgā ; of the Vaṭavṛkṣa called Syāma on the way to Citrakūṭa ; of the Praśravaṇa mountain in all its glory ; the picture of parleying of Śūrpaṇakhā with Pañcavaṭī as background ; of Pampā lake and its surroundings—all show that painting natural scenery was a common feature implying knowledge of perspective.

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**Śrī Harṣadeva**—is accredited with three very popular stageable dramas—Ratnāvalī, Priyadarśikā and Nāgānanda. We have seen Bāṇa's alābu for holding colours and Kālidāsa's varṇikākaraṇḍaka, a box for holding brushes ; Śrī Harṣadeva speaks of ‘Samudgaka’ cf. गृहीत-समुद्गकचित्रफलकवर्तिका in the Ratnāvalī hinting practically at all the accessories of painting, colour box (Samudgaka), picture board (phalaka) and brush (vartikā).

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**Daṇḍī.**—In his Daśakumāracarita corroborates this meaning of Samudgaka as colour box—vide ucc. II. p. 99—मणिसमुद्गकात् वर्णवर्तिकामुद्धृत्य etc. where also are given some very important clues of the technique of painting like ‘Niryāsa’ and ‘Kalka’ (already explained in the body of this book) (cf. also ‘Vartikā and Background’ chap. IV). These are related to the elucidation of the nature of colours also—cf. under Kālidāsa.

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**Māgha.**—Is a versatile genius and his knowledge of the different branches of learning is a jealous tribute. In the 3rd canto of Siśupālavadha, there is a reference to the Ālekhya-karma though not elucidating directly any pictorial technique or convention, nevertheless, he simply voices forth the opinion that too shining and too smooth a surface is not always quite convenient for drawing a picture :

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यस्यानतिश्लक्ष्णतया गृहेषु विधातुमालेख्यमशक्नुवन्तः ।
चक्रुर्युवानः प्रतिबिम्बताङ्गा सजीवचित्रा इव रत्नभित्तीः ।। शिशु० ३-३६

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**Rājaśekhara**—also evinces his great interest in this art. He seems to be fully conversant with the chemistry of colours. In his Bālabhārta, there is a reference to a particular aspect of this side-branch namely the causes for dimming the colours cf. निर्यद्भासर, etc.

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**Dhanapāla.**—The author of Tilakmañjarī shows his mastery of light and shade, the dexterity of only expert painters :

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राजनीतिरिव, etc . . . . .

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He also refers in some of the passages of his Tilakmañjarī, to Citropādhyāyas and townsfolk well-versed in the theory of painting as critics of art and pictures.

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**Someśvarasūri's Yaśastilaka Campū** also abounds with pictorial references giving an evidence not only of his depth of knowledge of the art but also that of the flourishing condition of this fascinating art. A very advanced, popular and interesting side-development of the pictorial art has been Patrālekhana, i. e. painting of creeper designs on the body of both man and beast. In Kālidāsa's Meghduta, we have already seen a description of Sindūra painting on the elephant's body. In Somadevasūri's Yaśastilaka is a passage describing the bhūti of the elephant consisting of Bahkticcheda—Drawings of festoons (flags), conch, discus, swastikā, Nandyāvarta and the like make up the elephant's artistic decoration. This information is rare.

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In painting of the bodily limbs (so popular in ancient India among the ladies), fingers and nails must have been more popular in the Aṅgaprasādhana served as Sṛngārāṅga and Śri Sūri does refer to it, simply echoing the practice :

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ऊर्ध्वनखरेखालिखितनिखिलदेहप्रसादम् । Y. T. p. 463

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Needless to multiply the further references to other poets and their works. Coomaraswamy (as already referred to, cf. Chap. I) has also gathered many allied references in his monograph 'One hundred references to Indian Painting and further reference to Painting in India'—Artibus Asiac IV. pp. 41 and 126—and there is still a very fine scope for further researches in this hitherto unattended branch of profitable learning.

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Book Illustration :—

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In the end a third current of pictorial tradition may also be touched just to point out universal cultivation of this art and its appeal thereof 'चित्रं हि सर्वशिल्पानां मुखं लोकस्य च प्रियम्' . It is the Indian pictorial art as developed in *Book-Illustrations*. Its vogue though quiet common in other parts of India, Western India, however, may be credited to have taken higher strides in this direction as per the finds in our collections, a reference to one of these (cf. Illustrated Jain Manuscripts) has already been made. 'Gujarat possesses a large numer of illustrated manuscripts mostly Jain which are preserved in the bhandāras at Ahmedabad, Patan and other places. The pictures found in these works appear to be the outcome of a special technique which obtained in Gujarat long before the advent of Mughals. The examples reproduced in the works of Dr. Coomarswamy and in the copiously illustrated volume of the *Jainachitrakalpadruma* furnish ample evidence of the existence of such a school'. Hirānanda Sāstri's monograph 'Indian Pictorial Art as Developed in Book-Illustrations' has brought out all these evidences to prove this exuberance in the development of India Painting and the reader is referred to glance at this work for necessary and interesting information.

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