Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1: Volume 1

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1

Language: English

v1.c1 Front matter — 122 parts
v1.c2 Preface — 6 parts
v1.c3 Credits — 10 parts
v1.c4 Section I India-China Cultural Exchanges — 2 parts
v1.c5 Section II Commercial Interactions Between India & China — 3 parts
v1.c6 Section III Science & Technology — 59 parts
v1.c7 Section IV Exchanges Based on Buddhism — 66 parts
v1.c8 Section VI Linguistics — 32 parts

Volume 1

Front matter

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The Public Diplomacy Division Ministry of External Affairs Room No. 255, 'A' Wing, Shastri Bhawan, New Delhi-110001, INDIA T: +91-11-23383316 F: +91-11-23384663 Website: www.indiandiplomacy.in

MaXposure Media Group (I) Pvt. Ltd. Unit No. F2B, 2nd floor Mira Corporate Suites, Plot No. 1&2 Ishwar Nagar, Mathura Road New Delhi - 110065, INDIA T: +91-11-43011111 F: +91-11-43011199 Email:info@maxposure.in Website: www.maxposure.in CIN Number: U22229DL2006PTC152087

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CONTENTS

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VOLUME I

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PREFACE . . . . . xi CREDITS . . . . . xii

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SECTION I

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INDIA-CHINA CULTURAL EXCHANGES . . . . . 1

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Timeline of Chinese Dynasties and Other Key Events . . . . . 2 General Introduction . . . . . 3

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SECTION II

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COMMERCIAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN

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INDIA & CHINA . . . . . 19

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Overview . . . . . 22

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A. Products . . . . . 30

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Bodhi Tree . . . . . 30 Sala Tree . . . . . 31 Asoka Tree . . . . . 32 Clover . . . . . 32 Cucumber . . . . . 33 Pepper . . . . . 34 Bhallataka . . . . . 35 Cotton . . . . . 36 Saffron . . . . . 38 Zebu . . . . . 39 Porcelain . . . . . 40 Silk . . . . . 40 Embroidery . . . . . 41 Cat’s Eye . . . . . 42 Fine Cloth . . . . . 43

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B. Early Modern Era . . . . . 43

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Opium Trade . . . . . 43 India-China Cotton Yarn Trade . . . . . 45 Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co . . . . . 46 E D Sassoon & Co . . . . . 46 Parsis . . . . . 47 Shikarpuri Financiers . . . . . 48 Ismaili Traders . . . . . 48 The Tatas . . . . . 49 The Harilelas . . . . . 50 Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy . . . . . 50 K R Cama . . . . . 51 H N Mody . . . . . 51 Paul Chater . . . . . 52 Ellis and Elly Kadoorie . . . . . 52

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SECTION III

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY . . . . . 55

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Overview . . . . . 58

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A. Mathematics and Astronomy . . . . . 71

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Ancient Indian Mathematics and Astronomy...... 71 *Terms, Items* . . . . . 75 Zero . . . . . 75 Portraits of Constellation Gods . . . . . 75 *Personalities* . . . . . 76 Zhen Luan . . . . . 76 Yixing . . . . . 77 Dharmacandra . . . . . 78 Kasyapa . . . . . 79 Gautama Siddhartha . . . . . 80 Kumara . . . . . 80 *Works* . . . . . 80 Kai Yuan Zhan Jing . . . . . 80 Jiuzhi Calendar . . . . . 81 Sardulakarnavadana . . . . . 82 Sardulakarnavadana, Pictures of Constellations . . . . . 83 Prince Shetoujian’s Twenty-Eight Constellations Scripture . . . . . 84 Constellation Scripture . . . . . 84 Brahman Siddhanta . . . . . 87

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B. Medical Sciences . . . . . 88

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Cikitsāvidyā . . . . . 88 Indian Medical Science and its Transmission to China . . . . . 89 *Personalities* . . . . . 93 Ge Hong . . . . . 93 Tao Hongjing . . . . . 93 Sun Simiao . . . . . 94 Wang Tao . . . . . 96 Li Shizhen . . . . . 96 George Hatem . . . . . 97 Tang Youzhi . . . . . 98 Nagarjuna - the Physician . . . . . 99 Buddhacinga . . . . . 99 Jīva . . . . . 100 Buddhasena . . . . . 101 Jīva Jīvaka . . . . . 101 *Works* . . . . . 102 Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency . . . . . 102 Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions . . . . . 103 Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library . . . . . 104 Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Treatise on Ophthalmology . . . . . 105 Sutra of Buddhist Medicine . . . . . 106 Bower Manuscript . . . . . 107 Siddhasāra . . . . . 108 Jivaka Pustaka . . . . . 109 Essentials of Prescriptions by Various Medical Scientists . . . . . 110

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C. Technological Exchanges . . . . . 111

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Qi Min Yao Shu . . . . . 111 Sugar Making . . . . . 111 Tea Cultivation . . . . . 112 Zhu Kezhen . . . . . 113

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SECTION IV

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EXCHANGES BASED ON BUDDHISM . . . . . 115

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Overview . . . . . 118

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A. Sects . . . . . 132

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Chinese Buddhism . . . . . 132 Tiantai School . . . . . 136 Faxiang School . . . . . 139

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Tibetan Buddhism . . . . . 141 rnying ma pa Sect . . . . . 142 sa skya pa Sect . . . . . 143 bkav brgyud pa Sect . . . . . 144 dge lugs pa Sect . . . . . 146 jo nang pa Sect . . . . . 147 thi byed Sect . . . . . 148 Theravada Buddhism in Yunnan . . . . . 149 Acharya Buddhism . . . . . 151

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B. Buddhist Sacred Places . . . . . 151

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Lumbini . . . . . 151 Kapilvastu . . . . . 152 Bodhgaya . . . . . 153 Vajrasana . . . . . 154 Gaya . . . . . 155 Mrigdava . . . . . 156 Sarnath . . . . . 156 Shravasti . . . . . 157 Rajgriha . . . . . 158 Griddhkuta Hill . . . . . 159 Vaishali . . . . . 160 Kushinagar . . . . . 161 Mahabodhi Vihar . . . . . 162 Nalanda . . . . . 164 Vikramasila Mahavihar . . . . . 165

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C. Monasteries . . . . . 166

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Mount Wutai . . . . . 166 Mount Putuo . . . . . 169 Mount E'mei . . . . . 171 Mount Jiuhua . . . . . 172 White Horse Temple . . . . . 173 Famen Temple . . . . . 174 Jianchu Temple . . . . . 175 Daxingshan Temple . . . . . 175 Asoka Temple . . . . . 176 Tanzhe Temple . . . . . 176 Lingyin Temple . . . . . 177 Caotang Temple . . . . . 178 Shaolin Temple . . . . . 178 Yongning Temple . . . . . 179 Jiming Temple . . . . . 180 Xiangguo Temple . . . . . 180 Fayuan Temple . . . . . 181 Dacien Temple . . . . . 181 Xingjiao Temple . . . . . 182 Kaiyuan Temple . . . . . 182 gtsug lag khang . . . . . 183 Potala Palace . . . . . 184 bsam yas dgon . . . . . 189 mtho ldings dgon . . . . . 189 Miaoying Temple . . . . . 190 bya khyung dgon . . . . . 191 Dabaoen Temple . . . . . 192 vbras spungs dgon . . . . . 193 se ra theg dgon . . . . . 193 bkra shis lhun po dgon . . . . . 194 sku vbum dgon . . . . . 195 dgon lung dgon . . . . . 196 chu bzang dgon . . . . . 196 gsar khog dgon . . . . . 197 dpal yul dgon . . . . . 197 Yonghegong Temple . . . . . 198 Eight Temples of Chengde . . . . . 198

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D. Personalities . . . . . 200

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Indian Personalities* . . . . . 200

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Sakyamuni . . . . . 200 Mahamaudgalyayana . . . . . 204 Asoka . . . . . 204 Asokan Inscriptions . . . . . 206 Kasyapamatanga . . . . . 207 Dharamaratna . . . . . 207 Nagarjuna . . . . . 208 Deva . . . . . 211 Dharmakala . . . . . 212 Dharmamitra . . . . . 213 Buddhabhadra . . . . . 214 Gunavarman . . . . . 215 Dharmaraksa . . . . . 216 Gunabhadra . . . . . 217 Punyatara . . . . . 218 Sanghadeva . . . . . 219 Dharmayasas . . . . . 220 Vimalaksa . . . . . 220 Buddhaysas . . . . . 221 Sanghavarman . . . . . 222 Asanga . . . . . 222 Vasubandhu . . . . . 224 Buddhajiwa . . . . . 225 Gunavriddhi . . . . . 225 Bhavaviveka . . . . . 226 Narendrayasas . . . . . 227 Paramartha . . . . . 228 Buddhabhadra . . . . . 229 Dignaga . . . . . 230 Ratnamati . . . . . 231 Bodhiruci . . . . . 231 Gautamaruci . . . . . 233 Bodhidharma . . . . . 233 Jnanagupta . . . . . 234 Prabhakarmitra . . . . . 236 Silabhadra . . . . . 237 Gunaprabha . . . . . 237 Dharmagupta . . . . . 238 Dharmakirti . . . . . 239 Candrakirti . . . . . 239 Divakara . . . . . 239 Cunda . . . . . 240 Subhakarasimha . . . . . 240 Atigupta . . . . . 242 Jnanaprabha . . . . . 242 Prajnanadeva . . . . . 243 Bhagavaddharma . . . . . 243 Nati . . . . . 243 Buddhatrata . . . . . 244 Vajrabodhi . . . . . 244 Buddhapala . . . . . 245 Jnanacandra . . . . . 246 Simharashmi . . . . . 246 Manicinta . . . . . 247 Pramiti . . . . . 247 Amoghavajra . . . . . 248 Santiraksita . . . . . 249 Prajna . . . . . 251 Bodhiruci . . . . . 252 Kamalasila . . . . . 252 Sarivarma . . . . . 253 Padma . . . . . 253 Padmasambhava . . . . . 254

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Vimalamitra . . . . . 255 Munisri . . . . . 256 Candragupta . . . . . 256 Dharmapala . . . . . 256 Danagupta . . . . . 257 Devasanti . . . . . 258 Manjusri . . . . . 259 Atisha . . . . . 259 Tilopa . . . . . 262 Naropa . . . . . 262 Dharmadeva . . . . . 263 pha damba sangje . . . . . 263 Maitrabhadra . . . . . 265 Niguma . . . . . 265 Sukha Siddhi . . . . . 265 Omkarasri . . . . . 265 kha che pan chen shaky shi . . . . . 265 Sudhasri . . . . . 265 Buddhasri . . . . . 266 Sunyadisya . . . . . 266 Sahajasri . . . . . 267 Devadasa . . . . . 267 Samghapala . . . . . 267 Sakyayasas . . . . . 268 Virupa (bir wa ba) . . . . . 268 ***Western Region Personalities*** . . . . . **269** An Shigao . . . . . 269 Lokaksema . . . . . 269 Kang Senghui . . . . . 270 Zhiqian . . . . . 271 Srimitra . . . . . 271 Kumarajiva . . . . . 272 She Gong . . . . . 276 Kalayasas . . . . . 276 Dharmanandi . . . . . 276 Dharmaruci . . . . . 277 Buddhavarman . . . . . 277 Dharmayasas . . . . . 278 Samgha . . . . . 279 Siksananda . . . . . 279 Jnanabhadra . . . . . 280 Li She . . . . . 281 Siladharma . . . . . 281 Wutitichanyu . . . . . 282 Purnacandra . . . . . 282 ***Chinese Personalities*** . . . . . **282** Liu Ying . . . . . 282 Zuo Rong . . . . . 283 Zhu Shixing . . . . . 283 Dharmaraksha . . . . . 284 Daoan . . . . . 285 Zhidun . . . . . 286 Fahe . . . . . 287 Faxian . . . . . 288 Huirui . . . . . 291 Baoyun . . . . . 292 Zhimeng . . . . . 292 Kang Falang . . . . . 293 Huisheng . . . . . 293 Fali . . . . . 294 Sengmeng . . . . . 295 Tanlang . . . . . 295 Zhiyan . . . . . 295 Daorong . . . . . 296 Xuanzang . . . . . 296 Yijing . . . . . 304 Fazang . . . . . 309 Huiri . . . . . 310 Shenhui . . . . . 310 Wukong . . . . . 311 yeshe tshogyal . . . . . 312 Virocana . . . . . 313 Li Chengmei . . . . . 314 lo chen rin chen bzang po . . . . . 314 Daoyuan . . . . . 315 Xingqin . . . . . 315 Cihuan . . . . . 315 Jiye . . . . . 315 Guangyuan . . . . . 316 Fayu . . . . . 316 Jiansheng . . . . . 316 Jicong . . . . . 316 Chongda . . . . . 317 Weijing . . . . . 317 vbrog mi shakya ye shes . . . . . 317 Huaiwen . . . . . 318 Jiquan . . . . . 318 Daoyuan . . . . . 319 vbrom ston pa rgyal bavi vbyung gnas . . . . . 319 nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba . . . . . 320 mar pa chos kyi blo gros . . . . . 320 Macig Labdron . . . . . 321 rngog blo ldan shes rab . . . . . 323 rngog legs pvishes rab . . . . . 323 rgya brtson vgrus seng ge . . . . . 324 cha pa chos kyi seng ge . . . . . 324 kun dgav rgyal mtshan . . . . . 324 Yuanyi . . . . . 325 klong chen rab vbyams pa . . . . . 326 red mdav ba gzhon nu blo gros . . . . . 326 tsong kha pa . . . . . 326 Zhiguang . . . . . 328 dge vdun rgya mtsho . . . . . 329 bson nams rgya mtsho . . . . . 329 pan chen blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan ... 330 ta ra na tha . . . . . 330 yon ldan rgya mtsho . . . . . 332 grags pa vod zer . . . . . 332 ngag dbang rgya mtsho . . . . . 332 blo bzang bstan pvi rgyal mtshan . . . . . 333 lcang skya ngag dbang blo bzang chos ldan . . . . . 333 si tu chos kyi vbyung gnas . . . . . 334 lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje . . . . . 335 vju mi pham vjam dbyangs rhamgyal rgya mtsho . . . . . 335

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E. Scriptures . . . . . 336

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Tripitaka . . . . . 336 Buddhist Canon in Chinese . . . . . 337 bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur . . . . . 338 Buddhist Canon in Mongolian . . . . . 339 Buddhist Canon in Manchu Language . . . . . 340 Buddhist Canon in Tangut Language . . . . . 341 Buddhist Canon in Dai Language . . . . . 341 Ullambana Sutra . . . . . 342 A Biography of Tripitaka Master . . . . . 342 Biographies of Eminent Monks of the Great Tang Seeking Scriptures in the Western Regions . . . . . 343

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A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago . . . . . 346 Bodhimargadipasastra . . . . . 349 Moksalankarasastra . . . . . 350 bu ston chos vbyung . . . . . 351 rgya gar chos vbyung . . . . . 352 chos vbyung dpag bsam ljon bsang . . . . . 352 thuvu bkwan grub mthav . . . . . 353 gu bkrvi chos vbyung . . . . . 353

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**F. Doctrines** . . . . . **354** grub mthav smra ba . . . . . 354 gzhung bkav pod lnga . . . . . 355 gzhan stong gi lta ba . . . . . 356 rgyud . . . . . 357 Way of Great Perfection . . . . . 360 lam vbras . . . . . 361 phyag rgya chen po . . . . . 361 sbor drug . . . . . 362 naro chosdrug . . . . . 362 smon lam chen mo . . . . . 362

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**SECTION V** **PHILOSOPHY** . . . . . **365** Overview . . . . . 368

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**A. Theory** . . . . . **375** Pancavidya . . . . . 375 Hetuvidya . . . . . 376 Hetuvidya of Tibetan Buddhism . . . . . 383 Collected Topics of Tibetan Buddhism ........... 383 Adhyàtma Vidyà . . . . . 384 Metaphysics of the Wei and Jin Dynasties ... 384 Neo Confucianism of Song and Ming Dynasties . . . . . 389 Jainism . . . . . 393 Six Orthodox Schools . . . . . 399 Samkhya . . . . . 402 Yoga . . . . . 407 Vaisheshika . . . . . 413 Nyaya . . . . . 418 Mimamsa . . . . . 424 Vedanta . . . . . 425 Six Stramana Masters . . . . . 432 Lokayata . . . . . 435 Ajivaka . . . . . 438

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**B. Concepts** . . . . . **440** Brahmatmaikya . . . . . 440 Samsara . . . . . 441 Vimukti . . . . . 444

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**C. Personalities** . . . . . **446** Laozi . . . . . 446 Confucius . . . . . 450 Ma Dexin . . . . . 455 Kang Youwei . . . . . 456 Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan) . . . . . 457 Zhang Binglin (Zhang Taiyan) . . . . . 460 Liang Qichao . . . . . 461 Swami Vivekananda . . . . . 462 Aurobindo . . . . . 466 Surendranath Dasgupta . . . . . 471 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan . . . . . 471 Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya . . . . . 473

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**D. Works** . . . . . **474** Lao Zi . . . . . 474 Analects . . . . . 476 Vedas . . . . . 477 Rig Veda . . . . . 481 Brahmanas . . . . . 482 Upanishad . . . . . 483 Yogasutra . . . . . 488 Vaisheshika Sutra . . . . . 491 Nyaya Sutra . . . . . 496 Brahma Sutra . . . . . 497 Bhagavadgita . . . . . 500 Hiran yasaptati . . . . . 501 Dasapadarthasastra . . . . . 502

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**E. Events** . . . . . **504** Debate between Buddhism and Daoism ........ 504

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**SECTION VI** **LINGUISTICS** . . . . . **509** Overview . . . . . 512 Ancient Chinese Translation . . . . . 515

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**A. Terms - Concepts** . . . . . **517** Shabdavidya . . . . . 517 Siksa . . . . . 518 Nirukta . . . . . 519 Vyakarana . . . . . 519 Brahmi Script . . . . . 520 Kharosthi Script . . . . . 521

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**B. Personalities** . . . . . **522** Xuanying . . . . . 522 Huilin . . . . . 523 Zhiguang . . . . . 524 Shouwen . . . . . 524 Panini . . . . . 525 Patanjali . . . . . 526

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**C. Dictionaries** . . . . . **526** Sanskrit-Tibetan Dictionary . . . . . 526 Nighantu . . . . . 527 Siddharastu . . . . . 527 Shabdavidya Sastra . . . . . 528

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VOLUME II

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**SECTION VII** **LITERATURE** . . . . . **531** Overview . . . . . 534

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**A. Literary Genre** . . . . . **547** Fictional Narratives of the Supernatural World . . . . . 547 The Legend of the Tang Dynasty . . . . . 548 Transformational Texts . . . . . 548 Stories of Gods and Demons . . . . . 549 Maudgalyayana Opera . . . . . 549 Indian Mythology . . . . . 550 Buddhist Literature in India . . . . . 555 Indian Folk Literature . . . . . 556

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**B. Personalities** . . . . . **557** Chen Duxiu . . . . . 557 Lu Xun . . . . . 559 Su Manshu . . . . . 561 Guo Moruo . . . . . 564 Xu Dishan . . . . . 565 Lin Yutang . . . . . 567

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Mao Dun . . . . . 568 Xu Zhimo . . . . . 569 Zheng Zhenduo . . . . . 570 Bing Xin . . . . . 571 Ba Jin . . . . . 573 Ai Qing . . . . . 575 Yang Shuo . . . . . 576 Wu Xiaoling . . . . . 576 Shi Zhen . . . . . 577 Mu Dan . . . . . 578 Asvaghosa . . . . . 579 Kalidasa . . . . . 581 Bana . . . . . 586 Rabindranath Tagore . . . . . 589 Thakur Gadadhar Singh . . . . . 596 Mahendulal Garg . . . . . 597 S C Chatterjee . . . . . 597 Muhammad Iqbal . . . . . 598 Amar Singh . . . . . 599 Munshi Premchand . . . . . 599 Jaishankar Prasad . . . . . 601 Yashpal . . . . . 601 Jainendra Kumar . . . . . 602 Mulk Raj Anand . . . . . 602 R K Narayan . . . . . 603 Agyeya . . . . . 604 K A Abbas . . . . . 605 Krishan Chander . . . . . 605 Maitreyi Devi . . . . . 606 V Akilan . . . . . 607

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C. Works . . . . . 607

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The Tale of the Procurement of Scriptures by the Tripitaka Master of the Great Tang . . . . . 607 The Investiture of the Gods . . . . . 608 The Drama of Journey to the West . . . . . 609 Journey to the West . . . . . 609 Expedition to the Western Oceans . . . . . 611 Mahabharata . . . . . 612 Ramayana . . . . . 615 Jatakamala . . . . . 620 Harsacarita . . . . . 620 Nagananda . . . . . 621 Pancatantra . . . . . 622 Puranas . . . . . 623 Padmavat . . . . . 627 Ramacaritamanas . . . . . 627 Sursagar . . . . . 628 Kabirgranthavali . . . . . 629

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SECTION VIII VISUAL AND PERFORMING ARTS . . . . . 631

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Overview . . . . . 634

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A. Music • Dance • Drama . . . . . 650

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Kucha Music . . . . . 650 Buddhist Music . . . . . 651 Indian Music . . . . . 652 Saptaswaras . . . . . 656 Tianzhu Music . . . . . 657 Indian Dance . . . . . 657 Bharatanatyam . . . . . 663 Indian Drama . . . . . 666

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B. Personalities . . . . . 668

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Wan Baochang . . . . . 668 Cao Miaoda . . . . . 668 Sujiva . . . . . 668 Cui Lingqin . . . . . 669 Nan Zhuo . . . . . 670 Duan Anjie . . . . . 671 Mei Lanfang . . . . . 671 Zhang Jun . . . . . 674 Uday Shankar . . . . . 676 Ravi Shankar . . . . . 677 Kamala Lakshman . . . . . 680

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C. Types of Songs and Dances . . . . . 680

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Lion Dance . . . . . 680 Triumphant March of Prince of Qin . . . . . 681 Nishangyuyi Melody . . . . . 683 Brahman Sangeet . . . . . 684 Natyashastra . . . . . 685

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D. Painting • Sculpture . . . . . 686

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Concepts and Schools* . . . . . 686

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Chinese Painting . . . . . 686 Cao Zhongda Technique . . . . . 688 Iron Line Drawing . . . . . 688 Ancient Indian painting Technique . . . . . 689 Gandhara Art . . . . . 690 Gupta Art . . . . . 691 Nimnonnata . . . . . 694

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Architecture* . . . . . 695

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Dunhuang Caves . . . . . 695 Binglingsi Caves . . . . . 696 Yungang Caves . . . . . 697 Qizil Caves . . . . . 699 Dayan Stupa . . . . . 699 Ajanta Caves . . . . . 700 Great Stupa of Kanishka . . . . . 701 Sanchi Stupa . . . . . 702

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Personalities* . . . . . 702

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Gu Kaizhi . . . . . 702 Dai Kui . . . . . 703 Zhang Sengyou . . . . . 704 Cao Zhongda . . . . . 704 Wu Daozi . . . . . 705 Yuchi Yiseng . . . . . 706 Yang Huizhi . . . . . 706 Zhang Yanyuan . . . . . 706 Qi Baishi . . . . . 707 Xu Beihong . . . . . 707 Zhang Daqian . . . . . 709 Ye Qianyu . . . . . 709 M F Hussain . . . . . 710 Abanindranath Tagore . . . . . 711 Nandalal Bose . . . . . 712

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E. Films . . . . . 712

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Chinese Films in India . . . . . 712 Indian Films in China . . . . . 713

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Personalities* . . . . . 717

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Bruce Lee . . . . . 717 Zhang Yimou . . . . . 718 Jackie Chan . . . . . 718 Sachindranath Sengupta . . . . . 719 Satyajit Ray . . . . . 719 Raj Kapoor . . . . . 720

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Works* . . . . . 721

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Awara . . . . . 721 Do Bigha Zamin . . . . . 721

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Jhansi Ki Rani . . . . . 722 Karwan . . . . . 723 3 Idiots . . . . . 723

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SECTION IX

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FOLK CUSTOMS, HEALTH & FITNESS ........... 725 Overview: Folk Customs . . . . . 728 Buddhism and Chinese Popular Beliefs ......... 733 Buddhism and Chinese Popular Festivals ...... 737 sa ga zla ba Festival . . . . . 742 zho ston Festival . . . . . 742 bcu bavi lnga mchod Festival . . . . . 742 Overview: Health & Fitness . . . . . 743 Concept & Terms . . . . . 749 Qigong . . . . . 749 Wushu . . . . . 750 Indian-style Massage . . . . . 751 Yoga . . . . . 751 Kalaripayattu . . . . . 757 *Works* . . . . . 758 Tendon-strengthening Sutra . . . . . 758

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SECTION X

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COMMUNICATIONS LINKS AND SITES OF INTERACTION . . . . . 761 Overview . . . . . 764 Silk Road . . . . . 771 India-China Transport and Communication Lines During World War II . . . . . 775

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A. Names of Places . . . . . 776

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China . . . . . 776 Chang’an . . . . . 776 Luoyang . . . . . 777 Kashgar . . . . . 778 Yarkand . . . . . 779 Turfan . . . . . 779 Shanghai . . . . . 780 Hong kong . . . . . 781 India . . . . . 782 Magadha . . . . . 783 Takshasila . . . . . 783 Pataliputra . . . . . 784 Kalinga . . . . . 784 Gandhara . . . . . 785 Kashmir . . . . . 786 Chola . . . . . 786 Tamralipta (now Tamluk) . . . . . 787 Uddiyana . . . . . 788 Kamarupa . . . . . 788 Kanchipuram . . . . . 789 Purushapura (now Peshawar) . . . . . 789 Kollam (Quilon) . . . . . 790 Bengala . . . . . 791 Kochi . . . . . 792 Varanasi . . . . . 792 Madras (now Chennai) . . . . . 794 Ladakh . . . . . 795 Bombay (now Mumbai) . . . . . 796 Calcutta (now Kolkata) . . . . . 797 Assam . . . . . 798

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B. Personalities and People . . . . . 799

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Zhang Qian . . . . . 799 Wang Dayuan . . . . . 800 Yang Dazhao (Atchew) . . . . . 801 Chinese Community in India . . . . . 801

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C. Works . . . . . 803

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Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang . . . . . 803

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SECTION XI

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DIPLOMATIC EXCHANGES . . . . . 807 Overview . . . . . 810

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A. Concepts . . . . . 817

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Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) . . . . . 817 Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai . . . . . 817

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B. Events . . . . . 818

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Visit of Chiang Kai-shek and his wife to India . . . . . 818 Chinese Army in India 1942-1945 . . . . . 819 Establishment of India-China Diplomatic Relations . . . . . 819 Visit of Indian Leaders to China Since the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations......... 820 Visit of Chinese Leaders to India Since the Establishment of India-China Diplomatic relations . . . . . 822 Rajiv Gandhi’s Visit to China in 1988 ......... 825 Chinese Cultural Delegation’s Visit to India in 1954 . . . . . 825

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C. Organisations, Institutions,

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Delegations . . . . . 826 China-India Friendship Association . . . . . 826 India-China Goodwill Mission . . . . . 827 Indian Residents Association, Tianjin ......... 827 The Ghadar Party . . . . . 828 Indian National Association of China ......... 828 Indian Youth League . . . . . 829 Indian Independence League . . . . . 829 India-China Friendship Society . . . . . 830 Indian Women’s Society for India-China Friendship . . . . . 831 Indian Medical Mission . . . . . 831 All India Dr Kotnis Memorial Committee ..... 832

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D. Personalities . . . . . 832

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Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty . . . . . 832 Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei Dynasty.... 834 Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty . . . . . 835 Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty .......... 837 Empress Wu Zetian . . . . . 838 Wang Xuance . . . . . 840 Li Yibiao . . . . . 842 Kublai Khan . . . . . 843 Yang Tingbi . . . . . 845 Emperor Chengzu of Ming Dynasty . . . . . 845 Zheng He . . . . . 846 Huang Maocai . . . . . 847 Ma Jianzhong . . . . . 848 Wu Guangpei . . . . . 849 Soong Ching-ling . . . . . 850 Mao Zedong . . . . . 851 Zhou Enlai . . . . . 852 Deng Xiaoping . . . . . 853

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Gupta King . . . . . 854 King Harsavardhana (Siladitya) . . . . . 854 Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha . . . . . 858 Chandrapida . . . . . 858 Luo Haoxin . . . . . 859 Rajendra Chola . . . . . 859 Devakara . . . . . 860 Tie Ge . . . . . 860 Qasar Qaya . . . . . 860 Ibrahim Sharqi . . . . . 861 Saifuddin Hamza Shah . . . . . 861 Jalaluddin . . . . . 863 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi . . . . . 863 Raja Mahendra Pratap . . . . . 868 M N Roy . . . . . 868 Benoy Kumar Sarkar . . . . . 869 Jawaharlal Nehru . . . . . 870 Subhash Chandra Bose . . . . . 871 Dr M Ramachandra Cholkar . . . . . 872 Dr Madan Mohanlal Atal . . . . . 872 Dr Dwarkanath Shantaram Kotnis . . . . . 873 Dr Bejoy Kumar Basu . . . . . 875 Dr Deben Mukherji . . . . . 875 K P S Menon . . . . . 876 K M Panikkar . . . . . 876 Bishambhar Nath Pande . . . . . 877 Bhakti Bhushan Mandal . . . . . 877

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SECTION XII

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MODERN ACADEMIC EXCHANGES . . . . . 879

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Overview . . . . . 882 India Studies in China . . . . . 884 China Studies in India . . . . . 887

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A. Organisations, Institutions . . . . . 890

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Peiping Lecture Association . . . . . 890 Sino-Indian Cultural Society . . . . . 890

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B. Personalities . . . . . 891

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Xu Chonghao . . . . . 891 Feng Chengjun . . . . . 892 Taixu . . . . . 892 Huang Chanhua . . . . . 894 Tao Xingzhi . . . . . 894 Hu shi . . . . . 896 Tang Yongtong . . . . . 897 Liang Shuming . . . . . 898 Lü Cheng . . . . . 899 Chen Hansheng . . . . . 900 Su Xuelin . . . . . 901 Wen Yiduo . . . . . 903 Zhou Shujia . . . . . 904 Xiang Da . . . . . 905 Shanti Tseng . . . . . 906 Chang Renxia (Chang Jen-hsieh) . . . . . 907 Fa-fang . . . . . 908 Chen Hongjin . . . . . 909 Dongchu . . . . . 909 Xu Fancheng . . . . . 910 Mi Wenkai . . . . . 911 Yu Yu . . . . . 912 Fang Hao . . . . . 912 Ji Xianlin . . . . . 913 Jin Kemu . . . . . 916 Wei Fengjiang . . . . . 918 Zhu Jieqin . . . . . 919 Yang Yunyuan . . . . . 919 Wei Guisun . . . . . 920 Jao Tsung-I (Rao Zongyi) . . . . . 920 Wu Yan . . . . . 921 W Pachow (Bazhou) . . . . . 921 Wu Baihui . . . . . 922 Yang Ruilin . . . . . 923 Wu Juncai . . . . . 923 Ran Yun-hua . . . . . 924 Yin Hongyuan . . . . . 924 Sun Peijun . . . . . 925 Huang Xinchuan . . . . . 926 Shih Shu-lu . . . . . 927 Li Zhifu . . . . . 928 Liu Anwu . . . . . 928 Jin Dinghan . . . . . 929 Liu Guonan . . . . . 930 Wang Huaiting . . . . . 930 Zhang Mantao . . . . . 931 Shan Yun . . . . . 931 Li Yuanshan . . . . . 932 Jiang Zhongxin . . . . . 932 Zhao Guohua . . . . . 933 Zhou Dafu . . . . . 934 Kshitimohan Sen . . . . . 934 Kalidas Nag . . . . . 935 Rahul Sankritiyayana . . . . . 935 Tan Yun-shan . . . . . 936 Prabodh Chandra Bagchi . . . . . 939 Dr Raghuvira . . . . . 940 Sujit Kumar Mukherji . . . . . 941 Pandit N Aiyaswami Sastri . . . . . 941 Prahlad Pradhan . . . . . 941 K Venkataramanan . . . . . 942 Amitendranath Tagore . . . . . 942 Vidya Prakash Dutt . . . . . 942 V V Paranjpe . . . . . 943 Lokesh Chandra . . . . . 943 Narayan Chandra Sen . . . . . 944 Rajesh Saran . . . . . 944 Tan Chung . . . . . 944 Biswadev Mukherjee . . . . . 946 Vimla Saran . . . . . 946 Haraprasad Ray . . . . . 946 Mira Sinha-Bhattacharjea . . . . . 947 Giridhar Dattatrey Deshingkar . . . . . 948 Govind Purushottam Deshpande . . . . . 948 Haridas Mitra . . . . . 949 Krishna Kinkar Sinha . . . . . 949 Satiranjan Sen . . . . . 949

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SECTION XIII

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OTHERS . . . . . 951

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Museums* . . . . . 953

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National Museum of China . . . . . 954 Quanzhou Maritime Museum . . . . . 954 Indian Museum . . . . . 955 National Museum of India . . . . . 955 Salarjung Museum . . . . . 957 Xuanzang Memorial Hall . . . . . 958

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APPENDIX . . . . . 960

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INDEX . . . . . 992

Preface

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In the last few decades there has been a significant momentum in India-China relations with both sides attaching increasing importance to the potential for cooperation in the area of Culture. On one hand, Culture has the ability to go beyond the restraining framework of state-state relations by focusing on more broad-based people-to-people relations, and on the other, it can also help to establish and develop a dialogue irrespective of and parallel to the political relationship. In recent years, both India and China have decided to take advantage of the strategic importance of Culture by designing new mechanisms of cooperation and integrating them into the policy framework of bilateral relations. Therefore, the idea of compiling an Encyclopedia of India-China Cultural Contacts was mooted in the Joint Communiqué of the Republic of India and the People’s Republic of China issued on December 16, 2010, during the Chinese Premier H. E. Mr. Wen Jiabao’s visit to India. This was a major and significant step forward. It was felt that compilation of the Encyclopedia would be a giant effort towards “revitalising cultural ties” by revisiting, reliving and reemphasizing our shared cultural experience. It is expected to not only make the history of many centuries of India-China cultural contacts easily accessible to people of both the countries, but it is also expected to build popular consciousness about our common cultural heritage.

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This Encyclopedia reinforces the approach of “connected histories” and seeks to identify encounters and linkages that have facilitated the mutual enrichment and growth of our two cultures and societies. Therefore its focus has been on Movement (of people/ ideas/ objects), Interaction (nature and sites of interaction), and Incorporation (processes of acculturation/ adaptation/reaction). In the context of the present, the backdrop of this shared experience will help us to fully understand and appreciate the truly boundless possibilities of continuing this journey together in today’s world.

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The year 2014 is the year of friendly exchanges between India and China. It is highly appropriate that the Encyclopedia of India-China Cultural Contacts is being compiled and published now, which is a precious gift dedicated to the celebration of this occasion.

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This has been an ambitious project with the objective of generating new ideas, new research as well as consciousness of the importance of the shared historical experience of India and China. In other words, it is a work in progress that hopes to benefit from constructive suggestions of scholars and interested readers alike. Needless to say, errors may have remained which we hope to rectify in future.

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*Joint Compilation Committee for the Encyclopedia of India-China Cultural Contacts*

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June, 2014

Credits

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Encyclopedia of India-China Cultural Contacts Joint Compilation Committee

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Editorial Committee & Expert Group

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Contributors

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Editorial and Research Assistance

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Dhriti Roy Severin Kuok Saheli Chattaraj

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Research Assistance

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Section I India-China Cultural Exchanges

Timeline of Chinese Dynasties and Other Key Events

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General Introduction

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India and China are both ancient civilisations and as close neighbours there has been friendly intercourses and cultural exchange between their people for more than 2,000 years. During this period, cultural exchanges between India and China have been carried out at various levels through different channels and with a rich content. There were political, diplomatic and people-to-people contacts, intercourse by land as well as by sea and material as well as spiritual exchange. It is a unique example in the history of cultural exchanges in the world and the story of this shared cultural journey must be spread far and wide.

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While the history of India-China cultural contacts has been extensively written about, most of the literature on it has been due to the efforts of individual scholars or groups of scholars who from time-to-time have been motivated by their academic and cultural legacy to embark upon these projects. Documentation of the ancient period has been more comprehensive on the Chinese side while there have been some very interesting and untold narratives of the colonial and modern period unearthed by some Indian scholars.

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The present project has tried to draw upon all that has been already done by Indian, Chinese and other scholars, while striving to fill some of the gaps that remain. This encyclopedia aims to highlight the depth and diversity of interactions between India and China through the ages. It will not only bring the history of many centuries of India-China cultural contacts into the public domain, making it easily accessible to people of both the countries, but it will also provide a much-needed boost to the effort to build popular consciousness about our shared cultural experience.

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By way of introduction, this essay gives a chronological survey of the development of cultural interactions between India and China from the most ancient times through to the present.

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Before the Christian Era: Early Contacts

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It is difficult to determine when cultural exchange between India and China actually began. However, it is accepted that ancient Indians had known China since no later than the 4ᵗʰ century BCE. Some Indian books such as *Mahabharata*, *Ramayana* and *Arthashastra*, had mentioned Cina (ie China) more than once. In the *Arthashastra*, which was composed in about 4ᵗʰ century BCE, Chinese silk was documented, indicating that silk trade between India and China already existed.

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In ancient times, Indians and Chinese both divided the sky into 28 constellations in the same order, demonstrating mutual exchanges in the field of astronomy.

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In the centuries before Christ, cultural exchange between India and China is characterised by a combination of trade and efforts to establish contacts with each other.

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According to *Shi Ji* (Record of History), Zhang Qian (unknown～114 BCE) started for the Western Regions in 135 BCE on a diplomatic mission and came back 13 years later. In Bactria (now Iran and Afghanistan), he found cloth produced in Sichuan and rods made of Qionglai bamboo. Local people said such articles were from merchants who came from Sichuan and were doing business in India. When the Emperor Wu of Han (Liu Che, 156 BCE～87 BCE) learned of this, he sent envoys time and again to southwestern China to look for the passage to India, but was obstructed by local people. They all returned without accomplishing anything.

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The passage through which Zhang Qian went to the Western Regions was called the ‘Western Region Road’ that is the ‘Silk Road’. With this road being opened, an increasing number of envoys were sent from China to India. According to *Da Yuan Biographies* of *Shi Ji* when Zhang Qian was on his second trip to the Western Regions, he sent his deputy envoy to India. After Zhang Qian, in the 1ˢᵗ century BCE, China on an average sent seven or eight missions to the Western Regions every year, with each mission consisting of more than 100 persons and taking eight or nine years to accomplish a round trip. Frequent contacts enabled Chinese to have a better knowledge of India. In the section on “Biographies of Western Regions” in *Shi Ji*, the geographical setting, products, traditions etc., of some Indian places and their relationship with the Han Dynasty, etc., were recorded.

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In southwestern China, the "Dian-Mian Road" (Yunnan-Burma) had existed for long as a route to India through which private trade activities had been carried out. Moreover, in the 2^nd century BCE, there was also a sea route between China and India, which was referred to as "South Sea Road". In the section on *Geography* in *Han Shu* (*Book of Han Dynasty*), a clear sea route from Guangdong to Kanci (now Kanchipuram in south India) as well as a specific shipping schedule was recorded. At that time, goods shipped to India mainly included gold and silk fabrics and those brought from India mainly consisted of gem, crystal and glassware.

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The 1^st ～ 6^th centuries CE: Extensive Interactions Driven by Buddhism

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This phase in history is characterised by a combination of material and spiritual exchanges and the entry of Buddhism into China.

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In the 1^st and 2^nd centuries CE, the Western Region route had been interrupted from time to time but the southern sea route was available. In 1^st - 2^nd centuries CE, the King of Kanci sent people to bring a rhinoceros to China, in the year 59, the King of Gandhara sent a white elephant to China, and in the year 87, the Kushan King offered lions.

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Around the beginning of the present era, Buddhism was introduced into China. This is the most significant event in the history of India-China cultural exchange. Initially, Buddhism won imperial recognition and was accepted by a few noblemen, who took Buddha as a god and worshipped him together with Lao Zi. Later on, the followers of Buddha began to increase. According to the 6^th century CE work *Eminent Monks*, the first Indian monks to come to China were Kasyapamatanga, Dharmaratna and then Anshigao (from Arsaces) and Lokaksema (from the Yuezhi). Other Indian monks then came to China and were engaged mainly in translating Buddhist sutras. In the 1^st century CE, China built its first Buddhist temple, i.e. White Horse Temple and the first sutras were translated into Chinese. In the 2^nd century CE, a man named Zhai Rong became a legendary figure in the Buddhist history of China. He was in charge of land and water transportation in Guangling (now Yangzhou of Jiangsu Province) and Danyang and spent a large amount of money and material to build copper Buddha statues and pagodas and temples. Within his jurisdiction, those listening to and studying Buddhist scriptures would be exempted from compulsory labour service and more than 5,000 families were converted into Buddhists. On the occasion of Buddha's Birth Festival, he would provide a grand feast along the road attracting nearly 10,000 people to dine and watch.

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Buddhist Intercourse

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From 220 to 580 CE, cultural exchange had greatly developed with increasing movement of people and trade between India and China. Both sides now had a better knowledge of each other. However, the most prominent feature of this period was the large-scale eastward movement of Buddhism which was associated with a great number of Indian monks coming to China to preach. According to *Eminent Monks*, there were as many as 30 or 40 such monks. They translated sutras, preached Buddhist teachings, and brought into China the knowledge and techniques related to Indian astronomy, calendar, medicine, architecture, painting, sculpture and so on.

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In the 3^rd century CE, Chinese began to go westward to seek the dharma. Zhu Shixing set out in 260 and crossed the Gobi Desert to arrive at Khotan which was near India and had many Indian residents. There Zhu Shixing found a sutra in Sanskrit and asked someone to bring it back to China, while he remained in Khotan. About 20 years later, Dharmaraksa went to the Western Regions for Buddhist sutras and there he visited various kingdoms and collected many sutras. He was said to have learnt as many as 36 languages. A number of years later, he took 165 Sanskrit sutras back to China and translated them and preached Buddhist doctrines in Dunhuang, Chang'an and other places.

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In the 4^th century CE, Kumarajiva was a representative of such pilgrims. At the age of nine, he went from Kucha with his mother to study dharma in India and began the return journey at the age of 12. In 385 CE, he arrived in Liangzhou (now Wuwei of Gansu Province). In 401 CE, Yao Xing, the Emperor of Later Qin (366～416 CE), invited him to Chang'an and gave him the status of Teacher of the State. Thereafter, Kumarajiva settled in Chang'an, translating sutras and setting up a translation workshop. He translated more than 300 volumes of sutras, accepted disciples and preached Buddhist texts, with 3,000 followers.

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Faxian went to India with nine other fellow students to seek the Buddhist Vinaya. Some of them returned midway, some fell sick and died in India and some settled in India. Faxian visited holy places in India, studied dharma and gathered and transcribed sutras. In 414 CE, he passed by Sri Lanka, Java and other places and came back to China by sea. Later, he wrote a memoir i.e. *A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms* (also called *Biography of Faxian*) and translated many *sutras*. This memoir which included what Faxian had experienced, seen and heard along the way to India as well as the state of Buddhism and local customs then prevailing in India has a significant value for studying the Indian history of that age.

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Political Contacts

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From the 3ʳᵈ to 6ᵗʰ century CE, more frequent contacts were made between Chinese and Indian states. In 428 CE, the Emperor Wen of Song (Liu Yilong, reign from 424 to 453 CE) received a letter of credence from Candrapria, the King of Kapilavastu (now in the valley of the Kaveri River in south India). In 502 CE, the Emperor Wu of Liang received an official letter from the Gupta King which was recorded in Chinese official documents. The southern dynasties in China mainly maintained contacts with kingdoms in the south of India via the southern or maritime route. According to *Wei Shu* (the Book of the Wei Dynasty), from 451 to 521 CE, envoys (including some merchants) from across India came to the Northern Wei, at least, 27 times and the Northern Wei also sent envoys to India time and again, mainly to the kingdoms in the north of India through the Western Region route.

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During this period, Indian envoys brought to China many rare objects and animals while the Chinese exported to India mainly silk and silk products.

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Technologies

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Along with the translation of a large number of sutras and the arrival of several Indian monks, Indian astronomy, calendar and medicine were also brought into China. *Sui Shu* (Book of Sui Dynasty) mentions a number of books on astronomy and the calendar, such as *Longshu Pusa Yaofang* (*Nagarjuna Prescriptions*) as well as books on medicine and fitness regimen, for example, *Longshu Pusa Yangxingfang* (*Nagarjuna Mind Cultivation*). These books were circulated in China and had an impact on Chinese astronomy, calendar and medicine.

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According to *Eminent Monks* (Volume IV), Yu Fakai "was a follower of Jivaka and a master of medical skill" and also good at acupuncture. He was the earliest one to combine traditional Chinese medicine with Indian medicine. Tao Hongjing also introduced Indian theories in his works on medicine.

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Translations

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Translation was necessary for Buddhism to be introduced into China. During this period, Chinese as well as monks from India were involved in sutra translation. From the 1ˢᵗ to 3ʳᵈ centuries CE among such translators were Dharmakala, Vighna, Zhu Luyan, Zhi Qian, Kang Senghui, Baiyan, Samghavarman, Tan Di, Dharmaraksa, Nie Chengyuan, Zhi Qian and others. Among them, Dharmaraksa was the most important translator. From the 4ᵗʰ to 6ᵗʰ centuries CE, there were Dao'an, Boyuan, Srimitra, Samghabhuti, Buddhabhadra, Dharmanandi, Samghadeva, Samgharaksa, Zhu Fonian, Dharmayasa, Kumarajiva, Punyatara, Dharmaruci, Vimalaksa, Buddhayawa, Buddhabhadr, Dharmaksema, Faxian, Gunavarman, Xie Lingyun, Zhimeng, Sanga Gendun, Gunabhadra, Paramartha, Bodhiruci and Narendrayasas. Among them, the most important were Dao'an and Kumarajiva who not only translated many classic volumes but also proposed their own translation theories.

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Architecture

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Between the 3ʳᵈ and 6ᵗʰ centuries CE, China built many temples. In 247 CE, during the reign of Sun Quan (182〜252 CE), the Jianchu Temple was built in Nanjing. Buddhist temples were built in Guangdong, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei and Sichuan while in the north, according to *Luoyang Jialan Ji* (Temples in Luoyang), in Luoyang alone, there were 42 temples in the 3ʳᵈ century CE. In the Northern Wei Dynasty, this figure rose to as many as 1367. Buddhist temples in China formed a unique school of architecture by combining the traditional Chinese style and artistic characteristics of Indian buildings. The pagoda was a form learned from India and later on, in China there were constructed various forms of pagoda. Cave temples originated in India and spread to the Xinjiang region in China in about the 3ʳᵈ century CE and then were introduced into the heartland of China, reaching the peak of development in the period from the 4ᵗʰ to 9ᵗʰ centuries CE. For instance, the Kizil Grottoes in Xinjiang, Dunhuang Grottoes and Majishan Grottoes in Gansu, Yungang Grottoes in Shanxi and Longmen Grottoes in Henan were all accomplished during this period. These grottoes were influenced by Indian architecture, sculpture, painting and so on.

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Temples then were a place for cultural activities as well as a seat of learning and practice by followers. Whenever there was a Buddhist event, a grand celebration would be held and there would be acrobatics, dancing and singing as well as a procession of Buddha figures. Such practices were learnt from India.

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Literature

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Between the 3ʳᵈ and 6ᵗʰ centuries CE, following the introduction of Buddhism into China, there appeared a quantity of "Zhi Guai", i.e. ghost stories, which were called "supplemental textbooks for Buddhism” by the famous modern Chinese writer Lu Xun. These stories not only introduced to Chinese people the Buddhist outlook on world, life and morality and a way of thinking but also testified to the rich imagination and literary creation of ancient Indians.

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Drawing and Painting

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Buddhism introduced new subjects and skills to Chinese painting. From the 3ʳᵈ to 6ᵗʰ centuries CE, there were a number of painters who were good at painting Buddhist pictures. For instance, Cao Buxing (3ʳᵈ century CE), a native of Wuxing (now Huzhou of Zhejiang Province), under the influence of Indian sculpture, drew vivid folds on the clothes of human figures, that came to be known as ‘coming alive’. Dai Kui (326～396 CE), a native of Suxian of Anhui, drew many figures of Buddha and carved a 60 feet tall wooden Amitabha. Gu Kaizhi (about 345～406 CE), a native of Wuxi, caused a great sensation by his painting of Vimalakirti on the wall of Waguan Temple in Nanjing. Zhang Sengyao (about mid-5ᵗʰ century CE～mid-6ᵗʰ century CE), a native of Suzhou, was good at painting Buddhist figures. He often went to temples to paint murals. He once produced a painting on the door of a temple, which, from the distance, appeared to be in relief, while from nearby it appeared smooth and even. This skill was introduced from India.

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Music and Dance

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During this period, Buddhist music emerged in China, largely due to Cao Zhi (192～232 CE), a man of letters during the Three Kingdoms. In 230 CE, he adapted and composed the Prince Ode and other pieces of music. In the 6ᵗʰ century CE, the Emperor Wu of Liang (02 to 549 CE) reformed the court music, added much Buddhist content and ordered the musician Shen Yue (441～513 CE) to compose Buddhist music and play it at the royal court.

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The 6ᵗʰ～10ᵗʰ centuries CE: Heightened Political, Cultural and Commercial Contacts

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In 618 CE, the Tang Dynasty was founded and a powerful and prosperous era was ushered into China. This dynasty adopted a policy of opening to the outside world. Many Indians came to China to trade, live or serve in an official capacity. This period was characterised by enthusiasm for both Buddhist and political contacts.

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Buddhism

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After Faxian, an increasing number of pilgrims went to India. This reached a peak during the Tang Dynasty. According to the *Buddhist Monk’s Pilgrimage of the Tang Dynasty* by Yi Jing, from 641 to 691 CE, more than 40 Chinese monks travelled to India. This did not include others such as the famous Xuanzang, Hui Ri, Han Guang, Wu Kong and Zhi Xuan.

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The rising passion for Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty promoted cultural exchange between China and India and quickened the fusion of the Chinese culture with the Indian culture. Chinese Buddhism became more mature and different sects arose e.g. *Three Sastras*, *Tiantai*, *Hosso Shu* (*Dharmalaksana*), *Avatamsaka*, *Vinaya*, *Dhyana*, *Pure Land* and *Esoteric Buddhism*. In particular, the emergence of Dhyana signalled that the sinicisation of Indian Buddhism had been basically accomplished.

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During this period, Buddhism was also introduced into Tibet. In the first half of the 7ᵗʰ century CE, Songtsan Gampo (617～650 CE) unified the greater part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and founded the Tubo Kingdom with Lhasa at the centre. He successively married the Princess Bhrukuti of Nepal and the Princess Wencheng of the Tang Dynasty and built Buddhist temples for them. In 755 CE, the young Trisong Detsen (742～797 CE) succeeded to the throne. When he grew up, he began to believe in Buddhism, inviting Santaraksita and Padmasambhava from India and building temples. To propagate Buddhism in Tibet, Trisong Detsen invited masters from India including, among others, Vimalamitra and Dharmakirti, to teach Buddhism and 12 Indian monks to preside over the Tibetans’ monastic ceremony. Trisong Detsen also twice sent monks to study in India. However, since the Tibetan Bon faith was still powerful, in 836 CE, some of its more powerful adherents began to eradicate Buddhism which consequently nearly became extinct in Tibet. This period was called the “first propagation” of Tibetan Buddhism.

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Linked texts (5)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Mānava Dharmaśāstra — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
Banbhore