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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7: Section IV Exchanges Based on Buddhism

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7

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English

Contents

Section IV Exchanges Based on Buddhism

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Both India and China are ancient countries in world civilisation. The Chinese have always called India Tianzhu or Shendu. Volume 118 of the *Hou Han shu* (*History of the Later Han*) says : “*Tianzhu*, also called *Shendu*, is located thousands of miles southeast of the Yuezhi. Its customs are the same as those of the Yuezhi. Its terrain is low and the weather is hot.” Much before the beginning of the Christian era, during the time of the Han Dynasty, India and China had established commercial exchanges. In the first year of Yuanshou of the Han, the Imperial Court sent Marquis Zhang Qian to Daxia (Bactria) to forge an alliance with Daxia and to stop the harassment by the Xiongnu. When Zhang Qian saw fabrics from Shu and bamboo being traded in the markets of Bactria, he asked where the goods had come from. The answer was: “They come from *Shendu* in the southeast, several thousands of miles from here. They were traded by merchants from Shu.” Volume 116 of the *Shi ji* (*Record of the Historian*) informs us that more than 2,000 years ago, there already were commercial exchanges between these two nations. The fabrics of Shu and the bamboo, seen by Zhang Qian in Bactria, were from present-day Sichuan in China and they had been sent to the Indian market and then on to Europe. But the most unique aspect of exchanges between India and China was not commercial but religious and cultural. In this respect, Buddhism played the most important role.

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I.

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Buddhism originated in India. During the Han Dynasty, the Chinese knew about Indian Buddhism. Volume 118 of the *Hou Han shu* (*History of the Later Han*) records: “(India) is a country near by the sea where soldiers do battle on elephants. Its people are weaker than the Yuezhi. They practice the Buddhist path of non-violence, and that has become their custom. Buddha is named *Fo* (*in Chinese*).” Buddhism has been the bond in the religious and cultural exchanges between the two countries. Dominating international communication of religion and culture, it was the most important basis for foreign relations between the peoples of ancient India and China. It has also influenced the lives of Chinese people for more than 2,000 years and still plays an important role. In the two-way communication of Buddhism and culture between the two countries, the main aspect is the transmission of Indian Buddhism to China. The Chinese traditional culture and thought also to some extent were once transmitted to India.

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Kāśyapa Mātaṅga Memorial and Dharmaratna Memorial at the White Horse Temple, Luoyang, Henan Province, China

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In 3rd century BCE, Indian Buddhism began to expand to other areas. It was transmitted to Sri Lanka via southern India where it was called “Southern Buddhism”. In China, one stream entered via Thailand and Myanmar and spread to the frontier minorities in Yunnan such as the Dai and Achang. This is known as “Yunnan Theravāda Buddhism”. “Northern Buddhism” was the section which moved from northern India and finally entered China through Central Asia. It was further sub-divided into two main sub-systems. One primarily spread in the region of the Han ethnicity. The second one, known as Tibetan Buddhism, spread among the Tibetan and other nationalities. There are four main northern transmission routes of Indian Buddhism. The first one is the ancient Silk Road which goes via Jibin (present Kashmir region) and reaches Central Asia. It enters the Western Regions, ie, the Xinjiang region of China and finally arrives in the interior mainland area. The second one goes via Myanmar along the ”Yangchuan ancient path” to Dali in Yunnan. It then enters the interior area. It is called “*ācārya* Buddhism.” The third one goes via Nepal enters the Tibetan region and reaches Mongolia and Qinghai. It then enters mainland China. It is called Tibetan Buddhism. The fourth one goes via the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean and the islands of the Southeast Asia and finally arrives in Guangzhou, and then spread to the interior area.

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The area of Xinjiang in the Western Regions was incorporated in China as early as the Han Dynasty. The central government installed a governor to administer the Western Regions. Indian Buddhism was transmitted to the Western Regions, ie, to Xinjiang in China before the Christian Era. This can be seen in the archaeology of the Western Regions. Volume II of the *Gaoseng zhuan* (*Biographies of Eminent Monks*) explains that Taizu of the Liu Song once sent the *Śramaṇa* Daopu with 10 scribes to the West to search for Buddhist sutras. Daopu “travelled through the countries of the Western Regions. He witnessed worshipping of the venerable images and the carrying of the Buddhist alms bowl. He also saw four pagodas and trees along the road as well as (hallowed) footprints and images; there was none he did not meet with. He was versed in Sanskrit and equipped with writings in languages of different countries. He travelled through different areas.”

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Daopu travelled thoroughly and explored the Western Regions and found Buddhism widespread there. In the region of Xinjiang, two great centres of Buddhism were formed in Qiuci and Hotan. In the land of Qiuci, both the greater and lesser vehicle (Mahāyāna and Hinayāna) were developed. In *Da Tang Xiyu ji* (*Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions*), Volume 12, master Xuanzang of the Tang thus describes Qiuci: “More than a hundred temples and more than 5,000 monks. They practice Sarvāstivāda, Buddhism of the lesser vehicles. The teachings of the sutras and the rituals of the *vinaya* come from India and what they read is in their own language…”. The *You fang ji chao* (*Abstract of Travel Records*) mentions– “In this land of Qiuci, there are many temples and many monks. They practice the law of the lesser vehicle. They eat meat and shallots etc. The Han monks practice the law of the greater vehicle.” Buddhism developed vigorously under the protection of the king of Qiuci. Buddhism of the greater vehicle spread to Hotan. In *Faxian zhuan* (*Biography of Faxian*) it is written that: “he reached Hotan on the fifth day of the first month on his way (to India). This country was rich and the people prosperous. They all practiced the law (*dhamma*). They entertained each other with the joy of the law. The *saṅgha* counted over 10,000 people. They mostly studied the greater vehicle and all had plenty of food. The people of that country live scattered and in front of each home, there always is a small stupa. The smallest can be about a *zhang* high. They have made square rooms for guest monks. Their temples are called *qumodi*. They are temples of the greater vehicle. Three thousand monks eat together. When they enter the dining hall, they are dignified and orderly and they sit down in the proper order. They are all silent and their bowls do not make a sound. The pure eat more. They may not call each other but they make hand gestures.” Because the Western Regions were far away from China’s Central Plain, the influence of Chinese culture was less. Buddhism, which is prevalent there, mainly reflects the influence of the Indian religion and culture.

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During the period of the Eastern Han, Indian Buddhism began to enter China’s interior area. The Chinese saw India as the “Buddhist country in the West.” There is a famous legend about the entry of Buddhism in China. It tells that one night in the seventh year of Yongping of Emperor Ming of the Han (64 CE) was keeping vigil at his mother’s ancestral tablet in his palace in Luoyang. In a dream he saw a spirit who came flying in the sunlight in front of his palace. The next morning he gathered his important ministers in front of the palace and he held a meeting inquiring which spirit was the spirit of his dream. Great minister Fu Yi bravely stood up and explained: “I have heard it said that someone who has obtained the path in India in the West, is called “Buddha”. He can fly in the sky and his persona has the light of the sun. I am afraid that the spirit in your dream was “Buddha”!” When Emperor Ming heard this, he was very glad. He decided to send the envoys, Cai Yin and Qin Jing, to India. The envoys met eminent Indian monks She Moteng (Kāśyapa Mātaṅga) and Zhu Falan (Dharmarājan/Dharmaratna) in the country of the Greater Yuezhi in Central India. They returned together with them to Luoyang using white horses to carry Buddhist scriptures and a Buddha image. Four years later, Emperor Ming ordered the construction of the Baima (White Horse) Temple in the capital Luoyang, bringing worshippers to the Buddha image and to the eminent monks. Furthermore, in Luoyang they translated the first Buddhist scripture, the *Sishier zhang jing* (*Sutra of 42 Sections*). Introduced to China because of the dream of Emperor Ming of the Han, Buddhism to a great extent, transformed the spiritual and the cultural lives of the Chinese.

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*Photo of the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters*

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Buddhist cultural exchange between the two countries was carried out by Buddhist monks who went East or who came from the West. From ancient times, the Silk Road has been an important passage for relations of China with the outside world and for trade. She Moteng and Zhu Falan were the precursors for Buddhist exchanges between India and China. Buddhists have been following the caravans of merchants on this road. The Shijia Fangzhi records: “Before Qin and Zhou people were still simple. They did not go far away. That is why they sent envoys to engage. They were limited to the Divine Land. After Han and Wei, the literacy was widespread. Talents were well-developed and their learning reached farther. Therefore, premises for interpreters were built in Gao street. They went beyond Kongsang and crossed the Kunlun Mountains. They went beyond Jitian and passed Niaoxue. Beyond their region, they could still pursue Lungwen blood-sweating thoroughbred horses. The treasures of bright jewels and of blue kingfisher feathers were brought forward from the horizon. They exhausted their troops and engaged in war. They truly made their troops suffer in Dayuan. They upheld moderation and filled up lakes. They trusted that the king’s commands were without abuse. When Xianzong felt it was auspicious, he established the source of kindness. They served their faith and cherished the path. From then on, it gradually became prosperous. Or noble-mindedness arose in the borderlands and they cast away their lives in the four directions. Or they spread conversions with the law, bringing their policies to the eastern spaces. Or they opened up the teaching track themselves, not going far to look for scriptures. Or they personally went to peruse divine signs and established customs. While this was quite frequent, they also turned to the teaching of Śākyamuni. And so, making a general distinction, the opening up of the spirits generally began during the former Han. Up to the great Tang, several envoys went and came back in succession, about 20 times. Zhang Qian went in search of the source of the Yellow River, something ordinary, but he established the name of the Buddha and then Buddhism began its gradual conversions.”

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The meaning of this passage is that before Qin and Zhou, the teaching of Buddhism had not started yet in China. Exchanges were limited just to the Divine Land. After Han and Wei, the horizon gradually broadened. In their pursuit of the blood-sweating precious horses and rare treasures, people went searching in the four directions. Then they gradually undertook to expand their military operations

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Memorial in commemoration of Faxian’s return to the shore of China at Laoshan, located at Qingdao in Shandong Province

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abroad. But seen from the angle of culture, the spread of the Buddhist teaching was the beginning of the journey of the conversion to kindness and propriety. Believers were willing to lay down their life for their belief, looking for scriptural texts and sending delegations. For example, tradition says that Xianzong of the later Han, Emperor Xiaoming, dreamed about a golden person one night. When he sent his senior secretary Cai Yin and the scholar Qin Jing, to India in search of the teachings of Buddha and when he invited the ‘*śramaṇas*’ Jiaye Moteng (Kāśyapa Mātaṅga) and Zhu Falan (Dharmarājan/Dharmaratna) to China, Buddhism began its spread in China. Zhu Fahu (Dharmarakṣa), a ‘*śramaṇa*’ from Dunhuang during the Eastern Jin, travelled through 36 countries in the West and along the way he translated the *Da ji Hu jing* (*Great Sutra presented by the West*). In Chang’an, he erected a temple outside of the Qing gate. Shi Baoyun, a *śramaṇa* from Liangzhou during the Eastern Jin, and Shi Faxian, Shi Zhiyan, etc, entered India and understood the meaning of their sounds. They returned to Chang’an and to the region south of the Yangtze River and they carefully translated their scriptures. Shi Zhimeng, a *śramaṇa* from Jingzhao, went with 15 companions to the West from Liangzhou, to the countries of Shanshan and reached Jibin (Kashmir). He met five hundred *arhatas*, explored the local customs and returned. Most famous, of course, is Xuanzang, the *śramaṇa* from the Great Zhuangyan Temple in the capital of the Great Tang. In the third year of Zhenguan, he went by himself to the West in search of Buddha’s original teachings. He crossed 150 countries on his way. He translated scriptures by imperial command and he wrote the *Xi yu ji* (*Record of the Western Regions*).

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In the history of the interactions of ancient China with the outside world, Buddhism plays an important role. During the long period of more than a thousand years from the Han Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty, more than a thousand people have travelled one after another along this road. Chinese and foreign monks have travelled back and forth in order to propagate Buddhism. This has without any doubt promoted religious and cultural exchanges between the two countries.

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The Han, Jin, and the Northern Dynasties, up to Sui and Tang is the period when Chinese and Indian Buddhist interactions peaked. Apart from the eminent Chinese monks – Zhu Fahu, Shi Baoyun, Shi Faxian, Shi Zhiyan, Shi Zhimeng, and others – master Faxian was the earliest one. At the advanced age of 60, he left the country all by himself. On his way, he passed through shifting sands, he crossed natural barriers and he went West without stopping. It is recorded that “He followed his path, forgetting about his own body and yielding to fate he propagated the law”. In the history of Chinese Buddhism, he was the first monk who went all the way to India and studied there a heroic undertaking in search of scriptures. When he finally reached India, he became the first Chinese Buddhist monk to appear at the main Buddhist sites. He also recorded with brush in hand, the situation in India at that time in his *Fo guo ji* (*Record of Buddhist Countries*). He left valuable historical material for the later generations. Jiumo Luoshi (Kumārajīva) was another famous scholar who had studied in India. After returning to China, he dedicated himself to the propagation of Buddhism. Buddhist monks during the Northern Dynasties went one after another to India, either alone or as a group. The eminent monk from Youzhou, Tanwu Jie, led a group of 25 people and went West in the first year of Yongchu of the Liu Song (420 CE). Twenty people died on the way, one after another, and those who were left, visited many places in India. They brought back the belief in Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara) which would later become widespread in China. The *śramaṇa* of the Former Wei, Daoyao, the *śramaṇa* of the Chongli Temple, Huisheng and Songyun from Dunhuang travelled with the support of the court to different countries in northern and central India. During the Northern Qi, a group of 10 monks, *śramaṇas* Baoxian, Daosui, Sengtan, Zhizhou, Sengwei, Fabao, Zhizhao and others went in search of the *dharma* in India for seven years and they made pilgrimages to the holy places. In short, these pioneering eminent monks and groups “who had all passed beyond the hindrance of the desert and crossed dangers or who

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*Statue of Xuanzang, Yuhuagong Palace, Tongchuan, Shaanxi Province, China*

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had crossed passes gazing into the mist, or who met together and investigated, and who had probably lost eight or nine out of 10”, already had produced a base and a foothold on Chinese territory, thus exerting their influence. At the same time, the appearance of Chinese monks in India attracted the attention of the Indian courts. The great king, Shili Jiduo (Śrīgupta), had great respect for the Chinese monks and he ordered the donation of land and the construction of a “Zhina (Chinese) Temple”. There the Chinese monks could stay. He further allocated 24 great villages to them. Therefore, the Wei Shu recorded: “Śākyamuni has passed away but he has left his traces, his nails and teeth in India. They now still exist. As the Middle Regions come and go, they do call to see them”.

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During this period, apart from Chinese monks going to India in search of the law and to obtain scriptures, there were even more Indian monks who came to China to transmit the scriptures and to bring precious objects. She Moteng and Zhu Falan had set an example for those who came later. They came in succession, uninterruptedly. During the period of the Western Jin, the Indian monk Qiyu reached Guangzhou, the area of Xiangyang etc, by sea. He further cured people in Luoyang. During the period of the Eastern Jin (317-420 CE), the number of Indian monks who came to China steadily increased. They carried many scriptural texts and they transmitted the Buddhist teachings then flourishing in India. All these monks arrived either over land or by sea in Chang’an in China, or in the big city of Guangzhou. After they had arrived in China, they actively translated Buddhist scriptures in cooperation with Chinese monks. They accepted students and resolved their doubts. They discussed Buddhist studies and while the monks of both countries worked together, Buddhism in China prospered. The ideas of the greater and of the lesser vehicle were introduced and *vinaya* was instituted. Moreover, the Dilun (*Daśabhūmikasūtraśāstra*/*Daśabhūmivyākhyāna*) school which had characteristics of different schools, the Shelun (‘Mahāyānasaṅgraha’) school, the Sanlun (Madhyamaka) school, and other Buddhist schools appeared too. Out of respect for the monks, the Imperial Court built temples especially for them. For instance, the Indian *dhyāna* master Fotuo (Buddhabhadra) was paid a great honour by Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei. He built the Shaolin Temple for him on Mount Song. The *dhyāna* master from southern India, Puti Damo (Bodhidharma), landed in Guangzhou and later arrived in the Shaolin Temple. He was honoured as the first patriarch of the Chan School in China. The Indian monk, Damo Bore (Dharmaprajñā), was appointed as the clerical official "Governor Zhaoxuan" by the Court of the Northern Qi.

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II

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The Sui-Tang period saw the summit of Buddhist exchanges between India and China. The coming and going of monks of both countries also reached its climax. Master Xuanzang was the most famous and most successful monk during that period. In the third year of Zhenguan (629 CE), he went from Chang’an to the West. He arrived in the highest institution of learning in central India, in the monastery of Nālandā and studied with bhadanta Śīlabhadra. He studied Yogācāra and every treatise of the greater and of the lesser vehicle. He compiled the *Hui zong lun* (*Treatise about the Teaching of the Community*) and the *Zhi e jian lun* (*Treatise about the Establishing of Wrong Views*). Because his scholarship was outstanding, he was honoured as one of the 10 most virtuous monks in the monastery. He further participated in the great religious gathering without restrictions (pañcavārṣika) in the city of Kanyakubja organised by the Indian Buddhist world. In the gathering, he debated heretics. He obtained the titles of “Divinity of the Greater Vehicle” (Mahāyānadeva) and of "divinity of deliverance" (Mokṣadeva). Meanwhile, he was requested by King Śīlāditya to translate the *Da sheng qi xin lun* (*Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra*) and the *Dao de jing* (*Canonical Text about the Way and its Power*) of Laozi from Chinese to Sanskrit. This was the first translation of Dao djing in a foreign language for transmission to India. He specially wrote the *Da Tang Xiyu ji* (*Record of the Western Regions during the Tang*), 13 volumes, about Buddhism and the historical and geographical conditions in 138 countries of India and of the Western Regions which he had crossed and about which he had information. He provided authentic basic materials for the writing of early Indian history. Later, during the colonial period in India, his work became a significant basis for conducting numerous archaeological excavations. Xuanzang studied and lived in India for 17 years and was successful in achieving his aims. Declining various offers to stay back in India, he returned to China via over the land route.

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Yijing, succeeding Xuanzang, went to India in the second year of Xianheng (671 CE) and he studied for 10 years. He returned to China with many scriptural texts via the maritime road. He compiled *Nanhai ji gui zhuan* (*Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas*). He left precious geographical and historical materials about Buddhism and many countries in India and Southeast Asia. Besides them, there were Huiri a disciple of Yijing, Wukong-a *śramaṇa* from Jingzhao during the Tang, Xuanzhao - a *śramaṇa* from Taizhou, Daoxi and Shibian - *śramaṇas* from Qizhou, Daofang and Daosheng - *śramaṇas* from Bingzhou, Modi Senghe - a *śramaṇa* from Jingzhao, Xuanhui - a *śramaṇa* from Chang’an, Mingyuan, Yilang and Yixuan - *śramaṇas* from Yizhou, Daolin and Wuxing - *śramaṇas* from Jingzhou, Lingyun - a *śramaṇa* from Xiangyang, Sengzhe - a *śramaṇa* from Lizhou, Zhihong - a *śramaṇa* from Luoyang and numerous other *śramaṇas* and devout descendants from unknown places studied in India for many years and ultimately returned home. Their studies and experiences enriched the content of Buddhist and cultural exchanges deepening further the relationship between India and China. They compiled works about the study of India, eg, *Zhong Tianzhu xing ji* (*Record of Travels to Central India*), *Tang Xiyu tu zhi* (*Records and Maps of the Western Regions during the Tang*), *Xiyu zhi* (*Record of the Western Regions*). Yancong, a monk in the translation office of the Shanglin Academy in the Eastern Capital of the Sui, translated, at the request of Indian monks in Rājagṛha, the *Renshou sheli rui tu jing* (*Text about Auspicious Maps of Relics during Renshou*) and the *Xiangrui lu* (*Record of Auspicious Things*) from Chinese to Sanskrit, and transmitted them to India.

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During this period, the number of Indian monks who came to China also peaked. The Indian monks Damo Bore (Dharmaprajñā) and Naliantili Yeshe (Narendrayaśas) received a courteous reception from the court. Piniduo Liuzhi (Vinītaruci) received instruction from the monk Sengcan, the third patriarch of the Chan school in China. Damo Jiduo (Dharmagupta) and Shena Jueduo (Jñānagupta) presided over the Translation Hall during the Sui. Boluopo Jialuomidouluo (Prabhākaramitra), Adi Quduo (Atikūṭa/Atigupta), Fachang and Anan Lümucha, Jiaye (Kāśyapa) and others brought letters from the Indian monks, Zhiguang (Jñānaprabhā) and Huitian (Prajñādeva), paying respect to Xuanzang. They received gifts from Xuanzang. Nati, Naluo Ersuopo, and Lujia Yiduo prepared a “long life medicine” for the Tang emperor. Dipo Heluo (Divākara), Huizhi (Prajñājñāna), Fotuo Boli (Buddhāpāla), Ani Zhenna, Puti Liuzhi (Bodhiruci), Sengqie Fandamo, Mouni Shili (*Muniśrī*), Shiluo Batuoluo (*Śīlabhadra*), Puti Xian (*Bodhirṣi*), the *śramaṇa* Jin Juzha and others came to China and translated scriptural texts. They also introduced the belief in Guanyin (*Avalokiteśvara*) and Wenshu (*Mañjuśrī*) to China. Building “Indian style temples” and bringing latest esoteric texts of Indian Buddhism, they advanced knowledge of India and attracted great attention from Chinese Buddhists. Moreover, the Indian monk Damo Zhannieluo (Dharmacandra) was good at medical prescription. In Chang’an, he offered books about medical prescriptions, Indian medicine and herbs. He translated some volumes of the *Yifang ben cao* (*Herbal Prescriptions*), the *Pubian zhizang bore xin jing* (*Scriptural Text about the Heart of Prajñā, of Samantajñānagarbha*). Bore (Prajñā) and the Persian monk Jingjing (Adam), together translated scriptural texts and also represented the court as envoys to northern India and Kashmir in search of Sanskrit texts. Jueduo (Gupta) went to study under Huineng, the sixth patriarch of the Chan school and he offered the Sanskrit text of the *Huayan jing, Puxian xing yuan pin* (*Avataṃsakasūtra, Chapter about Samantabhadra's Practice*) to the Tang Court, copied in his own hand by the king of the country of Wucha (Uḍa) in southern India. Eight people, *śramaṇas* from the Da Puti (Mahābodhi) Temple in Central India and two craftsmen came to China during the years of Zhenguan and they transmited the technique of making sugar. They made rock-honey with sugarcane from Yuezhou (present Shaoxing in Zhejiang). Because of their remarkable success, many were commended by the Court and were given the purple robe and called *Sanzang* (*Tripiṭaka*). The “three great beings of Kaiyuan”, persons who came to China and who transmitted Indian esotericism during the years of Kaiyuan of the Tang, Shan Wuwei (*Śubhākara*), Jingang Zhi (*Vajrabodhi*), and Bukong (*Amoghavajra*), were the monks whose influence was greatest among many Indian monks. They arrived in Guangzhou by ship and went north to Chang’an to transmit the newest wave of Indian Buddhism. The Court thought highly of them and both commoners and elites respected them. Bukong was specially famous as Tripiṭaka and *dharma* master, propagated esotericism and was renamed at court. He performed initiation (*abhiṣeka*) for the emperor. His position was prominent. He also went by decree to the five regions of India and to Sri Lanka in search of esoteric scriptures. Promoted by the three great beings, Buddhist esotericism in China prospered. An esoteric school was established and Bukong himself gained a special reputation. The court granted him the title of noble doctor and promoted him to treasurer, ceremonially at the level of the three supervisors. It installed him as a duke, with revenue of 3,000 households. After his death, he was given the title of minister of works, of Tripiṭaka with wide knowledge and abundant eloquence.

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Buddhism during the Tang not only spread within Han territory but also reached Nanzhao in Yunnan and the Tubo territory of Tibet. In these areas there were also Indian monks living there. In the 7th century, the Indian A Zali (also given as A Zhali) (Ācārya) and his master Zantuo Jueduo (also given as Shili Daduo) (Candragupta or Śrīdatta) came to the country of Nanzhao from Mojietuo (Magadha) and spread esotericism. He was respected by the king of Nanzhao, Xi Nuluo. They erected five esoteric altars and promoted yoga. The group of Zantuo Jueduo and Zhang Zichen, Luo Luoyi and others formed the “seven masters of Nanzhao”. They promoted A Zhali's teaching. The Indian monk Li Chengmei and his disciple Chan Hezi, reached Dali from central India in the 9th century and introduced the belief in Guanyin to the country of Nanzhao.

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The Tibetan region originally practiced the traditional teaching of Bon. The Tibetan king Songzan Ganbu sent people to Sri Lanka to find out an image of Guanyin with 11 faces, made of '*uragasāracandana*' (*sandal*). They also went to the border area of India and Nepal, asking for an image of Guanyin, made of *haricandana* (this image now still is in the Potala palace). Songzan Ganbu adopted a policy of kinship with the nations in the neighbourhood. He asked for Tang princess Wencheng in marriage and became a relative of the Tang Court, establishing friendly relations. Princess Wencheng brought a Buddha image from the Han territory. The Chan School of Han Buddhism had already entered this region. Songzang Ganbu further married princess Chizun (Bhṛkuṭī) who brought a Buddha image from Nepal. During the first transmission of Tibetan Buddhism, the Han Chinese master Da Tianshou, the Tibetans Tunmi Sangbuzha, Damo Kuoxia and Lalong Jingangxiang, the Indian master Gu Sare and the Brahmin Shang Jieluo (Śaṅkara), the Nepalese master Shiluo Manshu and others cooperated with each other translating Buddhist scriptures and restoring temples. In 794 CE, Tibetan King Chisong Dezan personally presided over a debate between the monk of the Chan school, Mohe Yan (Mahāyāna), and Lianhua Jie (Padmaśīla), on the merit of sudden and gradual insight. Mohe Yan finally lost and the Chan School withdrew from Tibetan territory. The esoteric school of Indian Buddhism thus began to spread its influence in the Tibetan territory.

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With the support of Chisong Dezan, Buddhism developed in Tibet but at the same time, it was also opposed by some nobles who believed in the teaching of Bon. The Indian monk, minister Sanang, went to the Indian court and performed ceremonies at the holy places of the Mahābodhi Temple and of the Nālandā Monastery. In Nepal, he met master Jingming [also translated as Jihu (Śāntipāla)] and invited him to Tibet to propagate the law. The Indian monk Ānanda won over Bon followers in debates and he established the position of Buddhism in Tibet.

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The first temple, the Sangye Temple, was erected in the Tibetan area, with paintings and drawings modeled after the Feixing Temple (Odantapuri) in India. The Tibetan King also invited a disciple of Jingming, master Padmasambhava. Through the actions of Padmasambhava, Buddhism in the Tibetan area developed further. Twelve *bhikṣus*, who followed the *vinaya* of the Sarvāstivāda school, were invited to Tibet from India. They influenced Tibetans on a large scale, letting them go forth and receive the precepts. Groups of monks began to be established in the Tibetan territory. The seven Tibetans who were first to receive the precepts were called "seven enlightened persons." At the same time, the Tibetan King also sent sons of the nobility and other people to India to study and get training as talented translators. The Indian monks Vimalamitra, Buddhaguhya and others actively spread the Buddhist teachings in Tibet. The Esoteric School of Buddhism thus began to spread. But following the death of Chisong Dezan and his son, Xide Zudun, ministers who did not believe in Buddhism took control of the government. In 841 CE, Tibetan King Lang Damo began to persecute Buddhists. Tibetan Buddhism then entered a period of decline. In history, this is recognised as the period of the first propagation of Tibetan Buddhism.

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Xuanzang's & Yijing's Journey to India

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III

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An important aspect of the exchange of Buddhism and culture between India and China is the complete and thorough study made by Chinese Buddhists about Indian Buddhist scriptures. India used curved Sanskrit letters and China used square Chinese characters and ideograms. If one wants to understand the theories and the thought of Indian Buddhism, one has to break through the barrier of characters. That is why in China a long period of several hundreds of years was dominated by translation activities. *Sui shu* (*History of the Sui*), volume XXXV, mentions: “The investigation of books and records started before the Han when they were not transmitted to China yet. Some say that they had long been spread but in the time of the Qin, they were destroyed. Later, Zhang Qian was sent to the Western Regions where he heard about the teaching of Buddha. In the time of Emperor Ai, the learned disciple Qin Jing sent Yi Cun to orally preach the scriptures of Buddhism. It was not believed when it was first heard in the heartland. Emperor Ming of the later Han dreamed at night that a golden person came flying to his palace. He asked his court about it and when Chuan Yi replied it was the Buddha, the emperor sent his secretaries, Cai Yin and Qin Jing to India to enquire about him. They obtained the Buddhist text *Sishier zhang* (*Forty-two Sections*) and a standing image of Śākyamuni. They returned East with the *śramaṇas*, She Moteng and Zhu Falan. While Yin was on his way, a white horse carried the scripture and that is why he erected a *Bai Ma* (*White Horse*) Temple to the west of the Yong Gate of the city of Luo to place it there. The scripture was kept in a brick room of the Lan Terrace and the painted image was on the Qingliang terrace on the Xianjie Hill. In the time of Emperor Zhang, the prince of Chu, (Liu) Ying, was known for his respect for the law of Buddha and numerous *śramaṇas* from the Western Regions who kept arriving with Buddhist scriptures. During Yongping, Falan also translated the *Shi zhu jing* (*Daśabhūmikasūtra*). The other transmitted translations often were incomprehensible. In the time of Emperor Huan, there was a *śramaṇa* from the country of Anxi, An Jing (recorded as An Shigao). As scriptures kept arriving in Luo, his translations were most intelligible. In the time of Emperor Ling, the Yuezhi *śramaṇa* Zhi Qian, the Indian *śramaṇa* Zhu Foshuo and several others translated Buddhist scriptures. Scholars think that Zhi Qian’s translation of the two volumes of *Nihuan jing* (*Parinirvāṇasūtra*) most coherently conveys the fundamental meaning. At the end of the Han, the Prefect Zhu Rong also honoured the law of Buddha. In the time of the Three Kingdoms, a *śramaṇa* from the Western Regions, Kang Senghui, came to Wu with Buddhist scriptures and translated them. The ruler of Wu, Sun Quan, respected him greatly. During Chuzhong of the Wei, the Chinese for the first time engaged with Buddha’s precepts and practiced taking the tonsure to become monks. Chinese records notes that first a *śramaṇa* from the Western Regions came here and translated the *Xiao pin jing* (*Lesser Scriptural Text* ie, the *Aṣṭasāhasrikā*). There were, however, many mistakes, from beginning to end, and one could not understand it. During Ganlu, another *śramaṇa*, Zhu Shixing went to the Western Regions, to the country of Hotan and obtained the 90 chapters of the text. During Yuankang of the Jin, he went to Ye and translated it with the title *Fang guang bore jing* (*Scriptural Text about Shining Prajñā*). During Taishi, the Yuezhi *śramaṇa*, Zhu Fahu Dharmarakṣa) travelled to several countries in the West, obtained many Buddhist scriptures and translated them in Luo, counting many divisions. The spread of Buddhism to the East was smooth from this time on.”

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The *Sui shu* describes the situation of monks in Chinese Buddhism. It also points out the problems of translation during the early propagation of Buddhism in China, and its spread and transmission. From Wei-Jin and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Chinese had already begun translation activities in general. In Chang’an in the North and in Jinling in the South they established several translation offices. Zhu Fahu, Jiumo Luoshi (Kumārajīva), Faxian, Zhendi (Paramārtha) and others, all were famous translators then. They brought out a great quantity of scriptural texts and they promoted the development of translation activities for the Buddhist teachings. The period of the Sui and the Tang saw the peak of translation activity in Chinese Buddhism.

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With the support of the Imperial court, Xuanzang, Bukong, Yijing and others established translation bureaus for Chinese Buddhism during the Tang period. Once organised, the translation system was complete. Most scriptural texts of Indian Buddhism were translated by Chinese Buddhists. The amount of translated volumes reached more than 5,000. From the Song period onward, Chinese translations of Indian Buddhist scriptural texts gradually decreased but, on the other hand the work of Tibetan translations entered its peak. Large quantities of Indian esoteric scriptures were translated. This work continued up to the end of the Ming. After that, translation activities in both Han and Tibetan Buddhism basically stopped. The translation of the Indian Buddhist texts not only accelerated the spread of the doctrines and theories of Indian Buddhism in China but also produced a long lasting influence on the Chinese language and its characters and on thought and culture. It facilitated the introduction of Indian religion and thought to the Chinese people. On the basis of translated Indian texts, Chinese Buddhists arranged the framework of the Three Storehouses (Tripiṭaka) of Buddhism. They brought out Chinese and Tibetan editions to organise the scriptural texts in the great Tripiṭaka. At the same time, they also transmitted Chinese traditional scriptures to India. For example, responding to the request of the Indian king Jieri (Śīlāditya) during the Tang, Chinese Buddhists translated the scriptural text of Daoism, the *Dao de jing*’ (*Classic of the Way and its Power*) to Sanskrit.

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Statue of Kumārajīva, located in front of the Kizil Grottoes, Baicheng, Xinjiang Province, China

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Buddhism was obviously the most characteristic feature of the cultural exchange between India and China. Before the introduction of Buddhism, the traditional Chinese thinking stressed on human values. “Not knowing life, how can one know death!” Considerations about the meaning of human life and about the understanding of life were not profound. Buddhism aroused the interest of the Chinese in the fate of human beings and life. The Chinese learned that, apart from the path of filial piety, there also was the theory that life is suffering, the theory of deliverance through the eightfold path of leaving suffering and obtaining happiness. The Buddhist theories of the greater and of the lesser vehicle of Indian Buddhism were fully transmitted to China. However, except for the areas of national minorities in Yunnan, in all the other areas of China Buddhism of the greater vehicle was prevalent. The study of ‘*prajñā*’ and of consciousness only (vijñānavāda) and the theories and the teaching of the esoteric vehicle were all spread in China to different extents. The scriptures of these different schools were translated into Chinese and/or Tibetan. The Chinese embraced an attitude of learning an ideology that came from outside. In the process of learning, they combined Buddhism with traditional Chinese thinking and made several changes and elaborations to the thoughts and the concepts of Indian Buddhism. This drew the Buddhist world closer to traditional Chinese thought through absorption of elements of both Confucianism and Daoism. The sinicised Buddhism required people to practice filial piety, follow the constant obligations of morality and ethics and preserve rules of social order. For instance, when Buddhism was just introduced to China, it attached itself to Huang-Lao. At that time, people saw it as a kind of stratagem, or they saw it as one popular belief or magic current at the time. Translated Buddhist scriptures often borrowed the terminology of the Confucianists and of Daoists or of Daoism. Subsequently, the influence and the strength of Buddhism gradually increased. Its special characteristics came to the fore, little by little. Its way of thinking and the nature of its culture gained the attention of the people, and at the same time, with the support of the court, especially with the support of the ruling classes, Buddhism began to be established together with Confucianism and Daoism. In the end, it stood like one of the three legs of a tripod. The study and the assimilation of Indian Buddhist theories and its teaching and thought demonstrate cosmopolitanism of the Chinese people. Indian Buddhism thus finally gained great lustre in China.

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*Xiang jiao* (teaching of images) is a special appellation used in Buddhism for Buddhist art such as Buddhist images and paintings. Its studies facilitate our historical comprehension of the process and the development of Buddhism for more than 2,000 years. The origin and rise of Buddhist art in China owe much to the influence of the Indian Buddhist Art. Scholars generally divide the art of Indian Buddhist images into four periods: The first one is from the 3rd century BCE beginning with Emperor Aśoka, up to hundred years after him. In this period, Buddha’s images had not as yet appeared. There just were artistic representations of persons, spirits, animals etc, which had a relation with Buddha’s life and with stories. Reaching a considerable number during a short period, these art figures were powerful and majestic as well as prosperous and moving reflecting awesome energy. The lion’s throne and relief sculpture now kept in the Sarnath Museum is a representative work of this period. The second period is that of Gandharan art which characterises the Mahayana Buddhist art form of India. It witnessed emergence of images of the Buddha and of *bodhisattvas*. Because they had absorbed the sculptural art of ancient Greece in their creative technique, the models possessed a strong and realistic feeling. The engraved Buddhist images had deep eyebrows and a high nose and the ornaments were simple, the lines protruding. The third period was that of Gupta art, from about the middle of the 4th century to about the middle of the 7th century. This was the most prolific period for the production of Buddhist images which reflected the return of the art to native roots and local tradition.

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Its models had a light feeling. The Buddhist images were elegant but not overly so. In the treatment of some parts, they paid more attention to detail. The carving of ornaments and of the background was complicated. The technique was fine and smooth and the lines were graceful. They were very rich and moving. Concerning basic similarity, they paid even greater attention to the spiritual effect. From form to content, they give expression to a high degree of integration of aesthetics. The fourth period is that of the art of esotericism and starts from the 8th century on. The art of Buddhist images during that period received even more the artistic influence of Brahmanical Hinduism. Artistic models were exaggerated and the depiction of the parts became complicated. There was, however, a lack of innovation and the emphasis was on stylisation.

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Indian Buddhist art entered China after the second period. The earliest art are the wall paintings of the dwellings in Kezi'er (Kizil) in the district of Baicheng in the Xinjiang area. Its paintings offer the life of the Buddha and Buddha's birth stories (*Jātakas*). This art is also shown in the Buddhist caves of Kumutula (Kumtura) and in the Buddhist caves of Senmusemu (Simsim) in the district of Kuqa. In the picture Temptation by Māra's Daughters of Kizil cave 76, in the centre there is an image of the emaciated body of Śākyamuni practising asceticism, very similar to Gandharan sculptures. Gupta art of the third period was even better transmitted to China, in the Mogao grottoes of Mingsha Mountain in Dunhuang, in the rock caves of Bingling Temple in Yongjing, and in the rock caves of Maijishan in Tianshui. There are also the rock caves of Yulin in Anxi, the rock caves of Yungang in Datong, Shanxi and the caves of Longmen in Luoyang, Henan. In such places, its art is represented. It has influenced the artistic production of Chinese painting. The painting of the Buddha image in "Cao's Clothing coming out of the Water" of painter Cao Zhongda during the Northern Qi in China was probably inspired by Buddhist images of the Mathurā art style of the Guptas. The art of the fourth period is mainly manifested in the art of the *thangkas* of Tibetan Buddhism. In brief, the influence of Indian art on Chinese Buddhism is comprehensive. Chinese Buddhists took in the basics of Indian Buddhist art but in the end, they began to form their own artistic style of creating Buddhist images.

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The influence of the construction of Indian Buddhist pagodas on Chinese Buddhist architecture is obvious. After the death of the Buddha Śākyamuni, his physical body (*śarīra*) was transformed to relics. These were collected by eight kings in the area and distributed over pagodas which were built for worshipping. When Buddhism entered China, relic worship also followed. The scriptures record

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Image of Xuanzang, an illustration from the Marathi textbook for the primary school

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that there are three great relics of the Buddha in China. The first is the finger relic in the Famen Temple in Shaanxi, China. The second is the tooth relic in the Lingguang Temple in Beijing. The third is skull bone relic in Nanjing. In the world there presently are few famous tooth relics of the Buddha. Southern Buddhism worships Buddha's tooth relic in the Temple of Buddha's Tooth in old Kandy, Sri Lanka. Northern Buddhism has Buddha's tooth relic in the Lingguang Temple in Beijing, Buddha's tooth relic in the Taizi Ling Zong (Divine Footprint of the Crown Prince) Pagoda of the Baoxiang Temple in Wenshang, and Buddha's tooth relic in the wooden pagoda in the district of Ying, Datong, Shanxi etc. Historical records mention a total of more than 70 such places of worship in China. Now there still are more than 30 places left.

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Moreover, the phonology of Indian Buddhism also had its influence on Chinese characters. After the Chinese had received Indian phonetics, they produced their own system of four tones. Chinese literature too received the influence of Indian Buddhism and culture. This could be witnessed in adoption of the narrative (*avadāna*) literature of Buddhist literature, the vocabulary used etc.

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IV

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By the Song period, the process of sinification of Buddhism had completed. Most scriptures of Indian Buddhism had been transmitted to China and they had been translated. Meanwhile, the process of the decline of Indian Buddhism had also begun. The main current now was the trend for the esoteric vehicle (*Vajrayāna*) school of Buddhism. In Song times, they continued to use the system of the Tang and established a state-run *Yijing Yuan* (*Translation Bureau*). In the fourth year of Qiande (966 CE), eminent monks like Xingjin and 157 others were sent to the Western Regions as well as to Kashmir and other parts of India in search of the law (*Dhamma*). Zhixuan, *śramaṇa* from Quanzhou, Daoyuan, *śramaṇa* from Cangzhou, Jicong, *śramaṇa* from Bianjing, Guangyuan, *śramaṇa* from Yizhou, Zhongda, *śramaṇa* from Taiyuan, Keyun, *śramaṇa* from Xihe, Huaiwen, *śramaṇa* from Bianjing and others, more than 140 persons, returned home from India. They brought back mainly esoteric scriptures. They at the same time promoted the popularity of the belief in bone-relics of the Buddha during the dynasties of Song and Liao.

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The practice of movement of Indian monks to China, however, continued and their number did not diminish at all. During the period of the Northern Song, there were Fatian (Dharmadeva), a monk from central India, Tian Xizai (Śāntideva), Shihu (Dānapāla) and others. They all were famous eminent monks of that time. They were received by the Song Emperor and the purple robe was bestowed on them. It was arranged for them to translate scriptural texts in the Translation Bureau. There further were Fahu (Dharmapāla), a monk from Kashmir, in northern India, Richeng (Sūryayaśas), a monk from central India, Tian Jixiang, Zhi Jixiang, Jin Zongchi, and others. They also worked in the Translation Bureau. There were also the *śramaṇas* from Mojietuo (Magadha), Bo Taluo and Lifu Riluo, Manshu Shili (Mañjuśrī), *śramaṇa* from central India, Su Getuo, *śramaṇa* from western India, Butuo Chiduo, *śramaṇa* from Nalantuo (Nālandā) Monastery, Jialan Nashandi, *śramaṇa* from northern India, Juejie, *śramaṇa* from central India, and others, more than 80 persons. They propagated the Buddhist doctrine, scattered over other areas. Because of the weakness of the Song, the Xixia (Western Xia), the Liao and the Jin in the North had also established their dynasties around the same time. They also accepted the belief in Buddhism. Some monks who came from India, went to their areas via the Han territory eg, Zongxian, a monk from central India; Cixian, a monk of the esoteric school and Moni (Maṇi), an Indian monk. They served as national preceptors of the Qidan. Sutuo Shili, a monk from the Nālandā Monastery in central India, came sailing to China with his disciple, Fotuo Shili and seven others. They arrived on Mount Wutai in China and paid a respectful visit to the divine remains.

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Tibetan Buddhism, at this time, entered the so-called period of the later propagation of Buddhism. Through the common efforts of Tibetan and Indian monks, some Tibetan monks arrived in India in search of the dharma and many famous Indian monks came to Tibet to expound the scriptural texts. This led to the overall revival of Tibetan Buddhism. With greater support of the Tibetan King Songnei, Buddhism became renowned and its knowledge spread. He selected 21 youths from the area of Alisan and sent them to India. He exhorted them to invite master Bao Jingang (Ratnavajra) from the land of Kaśmīra, master Damo Boluo (Dharmapāla) from eastern India and master Moni Zhou (Maṇidvīpa) from the land of Jialu in the West. They further learned two tantras and a compendium from master Bore Fuli from central India (1: *Jimi* (*Guhyasamāja*); 2: *She zhenshi jing* (*Tattvasaṃgraha*) and also the *She zhenshi jing qingxi zang she lun* (*Compendium of the Storehouse of Joy from the Tattvasaṃgraha*). From Moni Zhou and Damo Boluo they learned the *Duanchu e zhang xu* (*Tantra about the Doing Away with the Obstacles of Evil*) and a commentary. They learned the *Mantuoluo sanbai sishi zun* (*340 Venerables of the Maṇḍala*), made by Shengtian, and the Maṇḍala ritual of the Jimi (*Guhyasamāja*) (made by the bodhisattvas Fo Zhizu and Longmeng). From master Bao Jingang, they learned *Shilun* (*Kālacakra*) and the *Si jingangzuo xu shi lun* (*Explanation of the Tantra about Four Vajrāsanas*).

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