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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c5.s2: A. Products

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c5.s2

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English

Contents

A. Products

Bodhi Tree

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The Bodhi Tree is a kind of arbor from the species *ficus microcarpa* of the Moraceae family of plants, and its scientific name is *Ficus religiosa*. The Sanskrit name of the bodhi tree is *pippala*, which is transliterated in Chinese as Biboluo (毕钵罗, 卑钵罗 and 庫钵罗). It is said that the Sakyamuni was enlightened on the Diamond Throne under a bodhi tree outside Gaya, Magadha (in present-day Bihar, India). The tree was called bodhi, and its free translations were ‘the tree of the Way’, ‘enlightenment tree’, ‘bodhimandala tree’, ‘thinking tree’, etc. ‘*Juan*’ 8 of the Chinese work *Traveling Notes on the Western Regions in the Great Tang Dynasty* recorded that the original bodhi tree had a yellowish white stem and green leaves, and that it did not wither away, but thrived both in winter and summer. When the Buddha lived, the tree was supposed to have been one hundred *chi*¹ in height, and its height was four or five *zhang* even after having been cut several times. Kings in later generations conducted Buddhist ceremonies around the Bodhi tree, and collected its leaves as auspicious relics, while many Chinese monks who visited India to seek Dharma, including the famous Xuanzang, visited the holy relic of the tree. Envoys from China in the reign of Zhenguan of the Tang Dynasty displayed sacrificial offerings and "kasayas" (robes worn by monks) in the temple beside the tree. Tang envoys also erected a monument in the temple in the 5ᵗʰ Year of the Xian Qing reign (660 CE). *Juan* 18 in Book One of Duan Chengshi's *Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang* cites relevant passages from *Traveling Notes on the Western Regions in the Great Tang Dynasty*, as well as pointed out that there were two Sanskrit names of the bodhi tree, in which ‘阿湿曷吔娑力叉’ (*A shi he ta suo li cha*) was the transliteration of *Asvattha-vrksa* in Sanskrit.

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*Book made out of Bodhi leaves in Ming China*

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Since the bodhi tree was connected with the enlightenment of the Buddha, a part of this tree was transplanted in China. It is said that Tripitaka Zhi Yao came from India by sea in the first year of Tianjian of the Liang Dynasty, planted a bodhi tree in front of the altar of Guangxiao Temple, Guangzhou and predicted that later generations would have real Bodhisattvas (meaning Hui Neng, the sixth Patriarch of the Chan sect) to enlighten the people there. Thereafter, bodhi trees were planted in places such as Guangdong and Yunnan in China and elsewhere. Pi Rixiu, a poet in the Tang Dynasty wrote a *Poem on Tiantai Guoqing Temple in Qi and Liang Style*. In it, he wrote, “I walked 10 *li* on Guoqing Road of Songmen and fed monkeys on the platform beside the Bodhi tree. I wondered why it rained on such a sunny day, it turned out that the sea wind brought the waterfall.”

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Bodhi trees and their leaves from India were often offered as tribute or presents. *Juan* 54 in the *Book of the Liang Dynasty* recorded that the Panpan kingdom dispatched envoys to present true relics and painted pagodas of the Bodhi kingdom and offered bodhi leaves and the plant Lindera thunbergii Makino in August of the sixth year of the middle Datong (534 CE). The *Old Book of the Tang Dynasty juan* 198 recorded that King Silajita of Magadha sent envoys to offer fire balls, tulips and bodhi trees in the 15^th year of Zhenguan. According to the *General History of Chinese Buddhism*, monks of Kaibao Temple returned from India and offered Sanskrit sutras, a pagoda of Buddha’s relics, bodhi leaves and peacock tail brushes in March of the third year of Taipingxingguo (978) of the Northern Song Dynasty. Similarly, the *sramana* Guangyuan of Chengdu, on his return from the western paradise, went to the royal house of the prince of western India named Motunangbiao to offer as presents a seal of the Buddha’s head crown (skull bone relic), palm tree leaves and leaves of the Bodhi tree in December of the seventh year of Taipingxingguo (982 CE). Indian monks, including Niweini, came to China and offered to the court Buddha’s relics, Sanskrit sutras, bodhi leaves and bodhi prayer beads in the first year of Xianping in the Northern Song Dynasty (998 CE). The monk Mulasiji from Kashmir is also recorded as having offered Sanskrit sutras and bodhi leaves in March of the second year of Jingde (1005); while five years later, the Indian monk Juejie came to China and brought relics, palm-leaf scriptures, a genuine *bodhimanda* and bodhi leaves in the third year of Dazhongxiang. Huaiwen who had gone to the West three times, returned from the Indian kingdom of Magadha bringing fragments of the Buddha’s bone, *pattra*-leaf sutras, *pattra*, bodhi leaves, ashoka leaves, bodhi prayer beads and 19 texts based on the monument of the western paradise.

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The bodhi tree had influence on ancient Chinese literature. In the *Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch*, Shen Xiu wrote a *gatha* in which he said, “The body is the wisdom tree. Your heart is a stand of a mirror bright. Frequently wipe it. Don't let it be dusty.” In turn, Hui Neng wrote the *gatha* saying, “There is no wisdom tree nor a stand of a mirror bright. Since all is void where can the dust alight?” They were the most famous *gathas* related to the Bodhi tree in the history of Chinese Buddhism. Thus, the Bodhi tree is important in the transfer of plants between China and India as well as an important article in Chinese and Indian Buddhism and diplomatic intercourse.

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(Chen Ming)

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[1 *chi* is approximately equal to one foot in length; 10 *chi* make up 1 *zhang*]

Sala Tree

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The sala tree (commonly known as sal) is a perennial evergreen arbor of the Dipterocarpaceae family. Its scientific name is *Shorea robusta*. Its original home is in the Indian and Malayan rainforests and it is one of the Buddhist holy trees. Sutras record that the Buddha Sakyamuni entered nirvana between the two sala trees beside the Ajitavatā River outside the capital of Kuśinagara (35 km east of present-day Gorakhpur. The work *Travelling Notes on the Western Regions in the Great Tang Dynasty* (juan 6) described the sala trees seen by Xuanzang there, “The trees were similar to the Quercus dentata but their bark was bluish white, and leaves were bright and smooth. The four trees were very high and the Buddha entered nirvana here.” ‘娑罗’ (Suoluo) was the transliteration of sala in Sanskrit. Juan 1 of Shen Qing’s *Record of North Mountain* in the Tang Dynasty explained that, “It is named sala in Sanskrit and it is called jiangu here and it doesn’t wither away in winter.” The explanation on "sala forest" in *juan* 23 of Hui Lin’s *Sound and Meaning of All Sutras* differed somewhat. “The sala tree is called gaoyuan here and it is higher than other trees in a forest. It was translated as 'jiangu' wrongly in the past because sala was similar to the pronunciation of Para. If it is called 'jiangu', the sound of the same has to made by turning the tongue. If it is called 'gaoyuan', it might be done by pronouncing it straight without any turning of the tongue.” 'Jiangu' corresponds to the Sanskrit 'sàra', whose pronunciation is similar to Sala.

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*Śāla grove after the rains*

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*Juan 54*, 'Record of Foreign Countries', in the *Book of the Liang Dynasty* recorded that the state of Funan sent envoys to offer auspicious Indian sandalwood images, sala leaves, fire balls, curcuma aromatica and storax in the 18^th year of the Tianjian period (519 CE). Duan Chengshi’s *Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang* recorded that Anxi monks from the Western Regions went to the court to offer sala leaves in the first year of the Tianbao period in the Tang Dynasty. Zhang Wei wrote, “Offering Sala Leaves” for the Anxi provincial governor and praised the excellent characteristics of the tree, saying that, “It doesn’t shield common grasses and harbour evil birds.” As a Buddhist holy tree, sala trees were planted in many Chinese temples. The entry on Sala in Volume 961 of the *Taiping Imperial Encyclopaedia* quoted Sheng Hong’s *Records of Jinzhou* and recorded a miracle about how a sala tree was grown in a monk’s room of Xian’an Temple in Baling in the 1^st Year of Yongkang of the Jin Dynasty and was recognised by foreign monks later. Li Yong, the governor of Hai Zhou wrote the *Sala Tree Tablet* in the 11th year of Kaiyuan of the Tang Dynasty (723 CE) in Huaiyin County, Chuzhou. There is also the *Tablet of the Sala Tree Song* in the ruins of Xiangshan Temple in Beijing’s Xiangshan Park which was made on imperial order in the 38th Year of Qianlong in the Qing period (1773). The poem, carved in four scripts - Manchu, Mongolian, Han Chinese and Tibetan - praised the Sala tree which had been planted there for 1,000 years. Ouyang Yongshu wrote his *Poem of the Sala Tree* which went as follows, “There are many rare trees in Yi and Luo. Sala trees were once famous, they are often seen in Buddhist temples and they grow best under the moon.” Therefore, the sala tree is not only an illustration of the transmission of plants between China and India but also played a role in the spread of Buddhist culture.

Asoka Tree

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Asoka is a kind of tree belonging to the Caesalpiniaceae family. Its scientific name is *Saraca Asoca*, originally grown in India, Indo-China and the southwestern region of China. It is one of the Buddhist holy trees. ‘无忧’ (*wu you*) is the name of the Asoka in Chinese and its transliteration is *a shu jia* written with different characters (‘阿输迦’, ‘阿输柯’, ‘阿叔迦’ , ‘阿菽迦’, etc). *Juan* 09 of Baochang’s work, the *Sanskrit-Chinese Lexicon*, says that A shu jia shu 阿菽迦树 (Asoka tree) must be pronounced as A shu jia 阿输迦, and must be translated as *wu you* 无忧 (meaning, one without sorrow). *Juan* 10 of the same work has Asoka 阿输迦 referred to as *wu you hua shu* 无忧华树 (Asoka flower tree). *Juan* 26 of Huilin’s *Sound and Meaning of All Sutras* refers to A shu jia shu 阿叔迦树 (Asoka tree) as *wu you shu*无忧树. *Juan* 03 in *Collection of Terms in Translation* has A shu jia阿输迦 pronounced as ‘A shu ke’ 阿输柯 (Asoka). *The Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom* also translates it as *wu you hua shu* 无忧华树.

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The *Sutra on Cause and Effect* wrote that Queen Maya went to Lumbini Garden on February 8, saw an Asoka flower and raised her right hand to pick it but her baby (the prince Siddhartha, the future Gautama Buddha) was born from her right flank. Many sutras recorded that Queen Maya, the mother of the Buddha Sakyamuni, who had returned to her family to give birth according to the convention of the time, passed Lumbini Garden and gave birth to Prince Siddhartha under the Asoka tree. *Juan* 1 of the *Sutra on Causes and Effects of the Past and Present*, translated by the Indian Tripitaka Gunabhadra in the Song Dynasty, described the tree specifically,

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*An Aśoka tree pruned into the shape of an umbrella*

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“The Queen saw a huge tree named Asoka in the garden, its flowers were fragrant and fresh and its leaves were very luxuriant.” *Juan* 6 of the *Travelling Notes on the Western Regions in the Great Tang Dynasty* recorded that Xuanzang visited Lumbini and saw that the Asoka tree under which the Buddha was born had withered away. Because the Asoka tree was related to the birth of the Buddha, it became one of the Buddhist holy trees and all ancient Indian stone sculptures or frescoes describing the birth of the Buddha painted the image of the tree. The artistic way of depicting the Asoka tree was introduced to China from India. In the frescoes at Qizil and Dunhuang which depict the birth of the Buddha, the image of the tree appears in many places.

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Duan Chengshi’s *Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang* (*juan* 3) claimed that the “flowers of the Asoka bloom once women touch them.” Some species of the Asoka were planted in South China. Moving Indian Buddhist stories which feature the Asoka tree are popular in China.

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(*Chen Ming*)

Clover

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In the family Leguminosae, *muxu* (clover) is a general term for wild flowering annual and perennial herbs which belong to the genus, *Medicago*. Its Latin name is *Medicago sativa Linn*. It is also called ‘Musu’ (here ‘su’ represents different characters in Chinese), Guangfeng Grass, Huaifeng Grass and Lianzhi Grass. With its introduction from India and the Western Regions (present-day Xinjiang), clover was gradually developed into a common native product in China from an exotic plant.

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The word for clover (Muxu) in Chinese is actually a transliteration of a foreign word. In *Sino-Iranica*, B. Laufer adduced its origin as buksuk or buxsux in Persian, burchak in Turkic or buso in Jirachi (a Caspian dialect). However, it is not conclusive. In Chinese versions of Buddhist scriptures, various transliterations of it were listed, such as, Muxuxiang (fragrance of clover), also known as Saibeilixiang (*Murti Mandala and Incantation Sutra*), Muxuxiang, i.e. Saibilijia (Volume 7, *Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sutra* translated by Yijing), Sabilijia, also called Muxu in Persian (Volume 5, *Usnisa Vijaya Dharani Sutra*) and (Sa)bilijia, Muxuxiang (*Most Secret, Well-Established Dhāraṇī of the Vast Gem-Encrusted Tower* translated by Bodhiruci). According to the collation of the Chinese version with the original *Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sutra*, Saibeilixiang, and Sabilijia were all transliterated from ‘Sprikka’. They were the same terms used in two sutras of the Tang Dynasty; according to Li Yan’s *Miscellaneous Names in Sanskrit*, ‘Muxu, is a transliteration of svista’ and the *Chinese-Sanskrit Buddhist Dictionary* also followed the same wording. In any case, *muxu* is no doubt a foreign word regardless of its various transliterations.

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Clover

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Clover has many varieties and the most famous one is Medicago sativa which was used to feed livestock. The Chinese work *Compendium of Materia Medica*, says, “The plant grows from its perennial root and can feed cattle and horses.” Clover originated from Persia and was introduced to India and various countries in the Western Regions. Kophen produced clover along with sandalwood trees, pagoda trees, Catalpa trees, bamboo and so forth. In Dayuan (present-day Ferghana in Central Asia), horses loved eating clover. It is said that the herb was introduced from the Western Regions after the famous envoy Zhang Qian went there during the Wudi Emperor’s reign in Han Dynasty. After that, clover gardens appeared in the capital of Chang’an. As recorded in Volume 1 of *Record of the Western Regions* in the *History of the Han Dynasty*, after Dayuan was conquered, the King of Dayuan offered their horses as tribute and the Han envoys brought back grape and clover seeds. The clover seeds later spread as horse feed from the Northwest to many other regions of China. In Tang poet Wang Wei’s poem, entitled *Seeing Lieutenant Liu Off to the Protectorate of the Pacified West*, it is mentioned, “Clover together with steeds were introduced into China; grapes were brought back by Han envoys.” Another Tang poet, Bao Fang, depicted the same scene in two lines in his *Random Thoughts*, “From time to time, the heavenly horses feed on alfalfa, ‘Hu ren’ (the non-Han people from the Western Regions) for years have offered their best grape wines!”

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Upon its introduction into central China, clover not only served as horse feed but was also used as a herb and food. Its medical functions were seen in Tao Hongjing’s *Alternative Records of Famous Physicians*. In the Tang work *Materia Medica for Dietotherapy*, it was written that clover can be mixed with sauce or used for cooking porridge or congee. It can “benefit the organs and help one keep fit. Also, it can clear away harmful heat (‘qi’) and free the small intestine to remove heat-toxin.” In Yuan Dynasty, it was widely planted to feed the huge number of horses needed by the regime’s military operations. Besides, the prescription to make clothes fragrant recorded in Sun Simiao’s work *Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency*, also used clover fragrance.

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*(Chen Ming)*

Cucumber

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Trapusa is a species of cucurbitaceous plant, also known as teasel gourd, cucumber or trichosanthes cucumeroides. Its scientific name in Latin is *Cucumis sativus*. Its country of origin is India. The history of the cultivation of trapusa is very ancient, with many varieties. It could be divided, in light of its ecological features into big trapusa, small trapusa, fruit trapusa, quadri-leaf trapusa and hothouse trapusa. Since its introduction to different regions of China, it has become a common vegetable on the household menu.

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It is said that Zhang Qian, who was sent by the emperor of the Western Han Dynasty on a diplomatic mission to the Western Regions, brought back to central China the seeds of this plant. Hence, it was called the gourd from Hu, referring to the non-Han people inhabiting that region in ancient China. Later, it was renamed cucumber (*huanggua*). There are two versions about its renaming. In the first version, the 拾遗本草 (*Shiyi bencao*) compiled by Chen Cangqi pointed out, “To avoid the taboo of Shi Le, the northerners changed its name to cucumber, and this name has persisted to the present day.” Because Shi Le, king of the later Zhao kingdom belonged to the Hu nationality, he did not want to hear this reference to ‘Hu’ in connection with this plant. The second version is as follows. It is recorded in the *Gleaners’ Record*, composed by Du Bao of the Tang dynasty, alternately titled the *Gleaners Record during the reign period of Daye*, that emperor Yang of the Sui dynasty had named *huchuang* 胡床 as *jiaochuang* 交床. The emperor also renamed

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*Cucumber*

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*hugua* as the "white dew" cucumber (*bailu huang gua*), and eggplant as the purple gourd from the Kunlun (mountains).” The written record titled *Zhen guan zheng yao*, compiled by Wujing of the Tang dynasty confirms that during the fourth year of the Daye reign period of the Sui dynasty emperor Yang, this change in name was brought into effect.

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In the Sanskrit version of the *Thousand Character Classic* compiled by Yijing of the Tang Dynasty, cucumber was transliterated as duoluobusuo and its Sanskrit equivalent is ‘*trapusa*’. In the Chinese version of the Buddhist *Sutras*, we find the same translation of the name. In the work, *Biography of Sakyamuni Buddha*, a trader’s name was given as Dilifusuo with the added note, “Hu gourd as pronounced by people in the Sui Dynasty.” The monk Yijing translated it as cucumber in the fifth volume of the Buddhist classic, *Legend of a Poor Monk*. From the Sanskrit version of *Legend of a Poor Monk*, we know that the Sanskrit equivalents of this term are trapusā or trapuùā while Hu gourd and cucumber are just its colloquial versions. Watermelon is called tarbuza by Indians today which originated from the Persian language and bears a clear resemblance to trapusa.

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(*Chen Ming*)

Pepper

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Pepper is a kind of liana vine that originated in India. The term generally refers to the dried or ripe fruit *piper nigrum*. The Sanskrit term for pepper is *marica* or *maraca* and it is known as black pepper in English. Another Sanskrit term for pepper is ūṣaṇa meaning hot. Together with long pepper and dried ginger, they are known as the “three pungent medicines”, “three pungent spices”, “three hot drugs” or “three pungent drugs”. Pepper has traditionally been a major commodity in the overseas land and sea trade of India and has also been commonly used in the traditional Chinese medicine and food.

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Pepper is one of the favourite condiments and also one of the main spices carried in the maritime trade between Asia and Europe. Pepper’s major medicinal value, according to traditional Chinese medicine, lies in its stimulation function, which can reduce *qi* and remove cold and stimulate secretion in the stomach to help digestion. Pepper has played an important role in the history of Indian drugs for several centuries. It has long been considered and used as aromatic stimulant and carminative to expel gas from the gastro-intestinal tract. It works well in treating dyspepsia, flatulence and hemorrhoids and sometimes, it can be used as an anti-malarial drug. Pepper can be also used as external medicine.

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The *History of the Later Han Dynasty (juan 78)* first recorded that pepper originated in India. The *Record of the Western Regions of the Great Tang* by the famous monk Xuanzang recorded that *schinus molle* originated in A Zha Li kingdom and that *schinus molle* looked very much like the pepper of Shu. The *You Yang Essays* by Duan Chengshi recorded that pepper originated in Magadha and was called marica. It said that it looked like the Han pepper and tasted pungent and was usually used as seasoning.

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In medieval Buddhist literature, marica is written as Mo Li Zhe (摩梨遮), Mo Li Zhe (么哩者), Mo Li Zhe (末栗者), Mo Li Zhe (摩唎遮) and Mo Lian Zhe (摩练遮). There was a close relationship between pepper and the Magadha kingdom. Pepper was an expensive imported commodity in the Tang period. For instance, when the household of the wealthy prime minister Yuan Zai under the Emperor Daizong of the Tang dynasty (762-779 CE) was raided after he relinquished office, countless precious objects were found including 800 *hu* of pepper.

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*Pepper*

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The nature and usage of pepper was recorded in the *Materia Medica* of the Tang Dynasty in *Overseas Medicinal Plants* by Li Xun of the five dynasties, the Ri Huazi Medicinal Plants, Augmented Materia Medica and Classified Materia Medica of the Song Dynasty, and in the Compendium of Materia Medica of the Ming Dynasty and other traditional Chinese writing on herbs. The third volume of *The Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas* by the Chinese monk Yi Jing also pointed out that ginger, pepper and long pepper had the function of dispelling cold. In the Buddhist medical system, there are five medicines that can be taken freely for general well-being namely pepper, Haritaki, āmalaka, Bingxile and long pepper. Among the esoteric Buddhist documents translated in Chinese namely the Saptabuddha aṣṭabodhisattva mahādhāraṇī sūtra (the mahādhāraṇī sūtra chanted by the seven Buddhas and the eight Bodhisattvas) and the ‘Bodhisattva Avalokiteṣvara Cintāmaṇi dhāraṇī sūtra’ (the Cintāmaṇi dhāraṇī sūtra of the Boddhisattva Avalokiteṣvara), pepper is mentioned as serving as an important ingredient for eye drops. In several esoteric rituals, pepper was also seen as bringing rain, the rule of joy and happiness, good luck and respect when used. In the medical manuscripts unearthed in Dunhuang written by Chinese and non-Chinese (Sanskrit, Uighur, Khotanese, etc.), prescriptions containing pepper were relatively common which reflected the specific impact of Indian pharmacology. In the Song Dynasty, the sixth chapter of *Eyes of Humans and Gods* by Huiyan and Zhizhao, and the eighth chapter of the Jingde *Transmission of the Lamp* recorded that “Persians eat pepper” which indicated that in the Tang and Song periods the image of Persians, Indians and people of the southern seas in the eyes of the Chinese was deeply influenced by social factors. It is also a simple and clear manifestation of cultural exchange.

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The pepper trade between ancient India and China was mainly documented in Chinese literature, especially in those works of literature about the traffic between China and foreign countries as well as literature about the southern regions. In the Siming (now Ningbo) port of the Southern Song Dynasty, the pepper imported from South Asia was considered as one of the most valuable goods.

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The *Daoyi zhilue*, written by Wang Dayuan of the Yuan period, said that pepper, mostly stored in warehouses, was produced in Calicut (Kerala), India but the quality was worse than that in Shimosato (another place in Kerala). Two-tenths of the value of the pepper trade went as tax. *Shuyuzhouzilu*, a record of the countries around China, written by Yan Congjian of the Ming Dynasty, recorded that Bengal was the source of pepper. Bengal paid tribute including pepper to the Ming Dynasty on many occasions. *A Study of the Eastern and Western Oceans* by Zhang Xie of the Ming period that pepper in Calicut was valued at 200 fen per 400 catty. The *Statutes of the Ming Dynasty* in its special regulations on trade, mentioned pepper, pomade, herbs and other objects. Pepper from South Asia and other places were purchased based on the price fixed by the imperial storehouse, namely, three strings per catty. Prices varied according to the different origins of the product. The Ming dynasty imported a great quantity of pepper. According to the record, in March of the first year of the Zhengtong period (1436), the imperial court imported 300 kg of pepper which showed the large amount of pepper imported from South Asia. Pepper was also closely related with people’s daily life. In the 22nd year of the Yongle period (1424), the government stipulated that the salaries of civil and military officials in Beijing would be converted into and paid in the form of pepper and hematoxylin, of which pepper was valued at 16 strings per catty.

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(*Chen Ming*)

Bhallataka

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Bhallataka is a kind of anacardiaceae plant in India. Its Latin scientific name is Semecarpus anacardium L. and its fruit, stem and oil can all be used as medicine. Its translated English name is Marking-Nut which means Semecarpus fructus. Bhallataka is one of the medicines introduced to China from ancient India.

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In the translated Chinese version of Buddhist scriptures, the transliterated names of *Bhallataka* include “Boluodejia” (Volume II of the *Scriptures of Powerful Wushuse King Moming* translated by Ajitasena, Tripitaka of India, north to China in Tang Dynasty), *Baluodeji* (Volume I of *Suxi Jieluo Scriptures* translated by Shujiapoluo, Tripitaka of India of Tang Dynasty), *Baluodeji* (Volume I of *Suxi Jieluo Scriptures*) and *Poluodajia* (Volume 17 of Fundamental Shrauta *sutra* of Generous Manjushri translated by Tianxizai of Northern Song Dynasty) and the translated names are “Indian lacquer wood” and “dye wood”.

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In literature on traditional Chinese medicine of the Tang and Song Dynasties, this medicine has two names, “Poluode” and “Poluole”. The etymology of the latter one may be Tocharian language *bhallāràk*. The properties of this medicine was firstly recorded in the Gleaning Chinese Materia Medica written by Chen Cangqi of Tang Dynasty: “Poluode, with acrid flavour, warm and non-toxic, is mainly for cool air mass, warming the middle, nourishing waist and kidney and breaking the hypochondroium abdominal mass. It can dye moustache and hair into black. Its tree is like willow and seed is like castor bean. It grows in Western countries.” *Bhallataka* was listed as a newly added medicine in *Precious Herbs* of early Song Dynasty. The “prescription of change of white hair and moustache in *Recent Effect*” of *Medical Secrets of an Official* (Volume 32) written by Wang Tao of Tang Dynasty, “prescription of lead comb for black moustache and hair” and “prescription of permanent maintenance of black-dyed moustache and hair” in *Imperial Benefits of Time of Peace and Prosperity* (Volume 41) written by Wang Huaiyin et al. of Song Dynasty and F043 “prescription of change of hair” in Dunhuang mainly use this medicine to dye moustache and hair. The records of this medicine in works of traditional Chinese medicines and herbs after Tang and Song Dynasties basically repeated that in Gleaning Chinese Materia Medica and didn’t add new knowledge. The pictures of bhallataka described in *Herb Essentials* and *Addendum of Tripterygium Wilfordii Preparation Enchiridion* of Ming Dynasty are not the material description of this medicine but artistic imagination. Ancient Japanese scholars’ knowledge of bhallataka mainly derived from doctors of central China such as the *Records of Herb Colour leaves* by Weizong Jujun and *Introduction of Herb Family* by Songgang Xuanda.

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In the medical books of ancient ayurveda system, such as *Caraka-samhita*, *Susruta-samhita* and *Astanga-hrdaya-samhita*, bhallataka is one of the common medicines. The prescriptions prepared with it, such as bhallataka crisp and bhallataka oil, are mainly used for *rasayana-tantra* and hair blacking. Bhallataka is also used in many *sadhana* drubtabs of Esoteric Buddhism. It can be found from the unearthed documents that *The Bower Manuscript* excavated in Kuqa and *Jivaka-pustaka* and *Siddhasara* excavated in Dunhuang all include prescriptions of bhallataka. This medicine was used by doctors of the main stations of Silk Road including Tochara (present-day Sinkiang), Khotan (located at the south edge of Tarim Basin), Tubo (present-day Tibet) and Uygur (present-day Sinkiang) and transmitted to Dunhuang and central China. The use of it undoubtedly influenced traditional Chinese doctors of Tang and Song Dynasties. They used bhallataka for hair blacking, which reflected the general mood of society of Tang and Song Dynasties namely pursuing longevity.

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Ancient bhallataka was also transmitted to Persia (present-day Iran), Arab, Greece and Rome. Doctors mainly use its juice or fruit as medicine to treat the discomfort of central nervous system, epilepsy and improve memory. The herb works and medical prescription collections such as *Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb* by Ibn Sina, *Al-Saydanah fi’l-tibb* by Al-Biruni, *Al-Kulliyyat* by Ibn Rushd (Averroes in Latin), *Kitab al-jami’fi-mufradat al-adwiya wa al-aghdhiya* by Ibn Al Baytar and *The Small Dispensatory* by Sabur Ibn Sahl all record the properties and usage of bhallataka. Bhallataka was also called *habb ai-fahm* (nut of apprehension) and famous for its capability of enhancing and improving memory. The use of bhallataka by Islam medical science was transmitted to China again through *Huihui Formularies* of Yuan Dynasty. The remaining volumes of *Huihui Formularies* have reserved two groups of names of bhallataka namely the translations of Arabic baladhur and Persian baladur, “Baladu’er”, “Biladi’er”, “Biladu’er” and “Boladi’er” and translations of Arabic anaghardiya or *anaqardiya* (Greek anacardia), “Anha’erdiya” and “Anjia’erdiya”. The related medical prescriptions in *Huihui Formularies* such as “Dabiladi’ermazhun”, “Biladi’ermazhun”, “Xiaobiladi’ermazhun”, “Mazhunbiladi’er”, “Mazhunibaladu’er”, “Anha’erdiya” and “Dawawuxisana” can basically be deemed as the interpretations of bhallataka prescriptions from Islam medical works in China.

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The spread of bhallataka in our country has two different historical periods and respectively came from Indian medical science (including Buddhist medical science) and Islam medical science but the source is actually Indian ayurveda. Although bhallataka is not a very famous medicine, its use and spread process are quite complex and from which we can get a glimpse of the diversity of influences of ancient Indian medical culture to medical sciences of many East and West areas.

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*(Chen Ming)*

Cotton

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Cotton is a fibre plant which belongs to the genus gossypium in the mallow family Malvaceae, originally produced in the subtropical zone. There are different categories including African cotton, Asian cotton, upland cotton, island cotton, etc. Asian cotton originated from India. Its Sanskrit name was Karpāsa and it was translated as “吉贝” (jibei) and “劫贝” (jiebei) in Chinese. Fa Yun pointed out in *juan* 7 of *A Collection of Terms in Translation* that “劫波育” (jieboyu) or “劫贝” (jiebei) is silk cotton. It is “迦波罗” officially. The tree is named after its flower and can be woven into cloth. It is named “氎” (die) in Gaochang. It is as big as a tree south of Kophen while its size is small in the north and its shape is like the local mallow. It has a shell which can be cut for a catkin-like flower. It can be woven into cloth.” White cotton meant cotton cloth woven with wild African cotton carried along the Silk Road in Central Asia, and sometimes it also was called Pahat in ancient Turkish. In India, cotton used for cloth was called Tūla, which was translated as 'douluo' in Chinese. Hui Lin described “douluo’ cotton in *juan* 11 of *Sound and Meaning of All Sutras* saying that “douluo cotton was very soft, just like willow catkin or grass catkin”. In *juan* 7 of *A Collection of Terms in Translation*, it was explained: “Douluo cotton can also be called duluo which is the name of a tree. The cotton is from the tree, and it is named so. It is like willow catkin, or translated as willow flower. It is called douluo flower and also known by the name maomao.”

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Asian cotton

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A piece of plain-woven cloth unearthed in a boat-like coffin in Wuyi Mountain, Chong’an, Fujian, in the early 1980s dates back about 3,000 years. It is the earliest cotton cloth in China which shows that the history of India-China trade in cotton cloth is very long. African cotton (levant cotton) with short and thick fibre was introduced into western China from Africa in the Eastern Han Dynasty (1ˢᵗ to 3ʳᵈ century CE). Cotton cloth and cotton clothes have been unearthed in places such as the southern part of the Tarim basin, Hetian and Lop Nor in Xinjiang several times. Cotton textiles unearthed in the ruins of Niya in 1959 showed that cotton cloth had been very common in that area in the later part of the Eastern Han Dynasty. *Juan* I of Zhao Rushi’s *Record of Foreign Countries* in the Song period several centuries later recorded that products of Namburi (Ma’bar in South India) included foreign cloth in different colours and douluo cotton. Products of the Chola kingdom were said to include coloured silk cloth and Ceiba cloth. The *Record of Eminent Monks in the Southern Seas* compiled by Chen Dazhen et al., in the Yuan period noted that varieties of cloth made in present-day South Asia included white foreign cloth, flower foreign cloth, bi cloth, sheared flannelette and sheared coarse cloth etc. Tribute offered by different Indian states to the Chinese emperor in the Yuan Dynasty included such cloth.

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Wang Dayuan's *A Brief History of Island Countries* from the Yuan period recorded that Banavasi in India (southeast of Karwar, in Karnataka) made fine cotton cloth. Textiles made in Bengal included bi cloth, gaoni cloth, douluo cotton etc. Other areas including Bhandari are recorded as making textiles such as "douluo" cotton, "badan" cloth, big hand towels, cotton cloth, big flower towels, silk cloth, "pisang" cloth, fine cloth, cotton piece goods etc. *The Travels of Marco Polo* recorded that Indian Malabar (the south-western coast of India) made black pepper, ginger, cinnamon bark and cotton cloth, and Chinese merchants went to India by ship and brought fabrics, precious metals and traditional medical materials with them, taking back local specialties. *Juan* 5 in Mao Ruizheng’s *Record of the Interpreters of the August Ming* wrote that tribute offered by Kulam (Kollam in present-day Kerala) in the fifth year of Yongle (1407) included a pearl umbrella, white cotton cloth and black pepper. Again, it was mentioned that tribute offered by western countries included a black and yellow tiger and a douluo cotton quilt in the 21ˢᵗ year of Yongle (1423). Ma Huan’s *Overall Survey of the Oceans Shores’* in the Ming Dynasty recorded that Bengal produced five or six types of fine cloth, including bi cloth and turmeric cloth. During the reign of Zhengtong of the Ming Dynasty, Bengal offered white bi cloth and douluo cotton as tribute.

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*Juan* 326 of the *History of the Ming Dynasty* mentions that tribute from Kulam included white cotton cloth, while tribute from Calicut included danbolan cloth and bi cloth. After the late Ming and the early Qing periods, the trade between India and China was increasingly controlled by the West, as India came under British colonial domination. From the 1780s, raw cotton from western India was increasingly exported to China, to pay for the rapidly escalating imports of Chinese tea by the British. The export of raw cotton played an important role in the growth and early development of the port of Bombay (now Mumbai), and in the development of the shipbuilding industry in this region. Later in the 19th century CE, with the growth of the modern Indian textile industry, cotton yarn began to be exported from India to China. At the end of the 19th century CE, Indian yarn dominated the import market for cotton yarn in China. By the second decade of the 20th century CE, the Chinese manufactured cotton yarn industry developed and the import of cotton yarn from India was greatly reduced. However, in this period, trade in raw cotton and cotton yarn, as well as in varieties of piece goods including unbleached cloth, coarse cloth, fine cloth, foreign standard cloth and twill cloth, etc. continued. It can be said that cotton and cotton cloth were historically India’s main exports to China and made an important contribution to India-China economic exchange.

Saffron

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Saffron is a kind of perennial flower of crocus of the freesia genus as well as a common flavouring. It originated in South Asia and is known as *kuïkuma* in Sanskrit, *jáphrán* in Bengali, *zafran* or *kesar* in Hindi, *safran* in Marathi and saffron in English, and its scientific name is *Crocus sativus*. Saffron’s Sanskrit name has several transliteration forms in China, such as Guanjiumo (官久摩), Tujumo (茶矩磨), Tujumo (茶矩么) etc. Its transliteration in Volume 7 of the *Asokavadana* translated by Tripitaka Samghavarman was 官久摩 but in the annotated translation of the text it was written as 翻郁金香 (*fanyu jin xiang*). The flavour was introduced from the central part of India to Kashmir (Jibin). *Yujinxiang* (saffron), is not what is often seen today as the herbaceous tulip plant under the lily family, but it refers to saffron (*Crocus Sativus*). The *Siddhasara-Nighantu* pointed out that “asra is also called *kuïkuma*”. Xuan Ying’s *Sound and Meaning of*

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*Saffron*

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*All Sutras* pointed out that “kuïkuma is the name of a tree and comes from Kophen and its flowers are yellow. After picking them, they are then left in a place to rot and become soft and mushy. The juice is pressed and mixed with other materials to yield a flavour and the flower dregs are fragrant and can be also made into a flavouring.” While saffron was used as medicine occasionally, it was mainly used for flavouring and colouring materials in religious ceremonies. Volume 6 of the *Sarvāsti-vāda* translated by Yi Jing recorded eight main Indian pigments and colours: red purple dye, red violet dye, saffron, cinnabar/vermilion, deep greenish black or deep green or deep blue, alizarin red, yellow lead and sappan lignum. Monks were not allowed to use them to dye clothes.

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[Figure: Red tulip in meticulous intricate Indian embroidery]

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Many places in India abound with saffron. The *Book of the Liang Dynasty* (juan 54) recorded that “saffron originated from Kophes, the colour of the flower was yellow and fine and it was similar to the hibiscus flower and was wrapped in many layers as in the case of a lotus flower. People of that country plucked the flowers and offered them to Buddhist temples. They would accumulate the fragrant dead wood from the plant every day so that they could be used as manure. Businessmen bought them from the temples and sold them to other countries.” Yi Jing’s *An Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas* described the origins and circulation of Indian medicines and wrote that “haritaki grew mostly in the west, saffron grew in the north and the west abounded with asafoetida; borneol was rarely found in the South Seas. Three types of cardamom grew in Douruo. Two-coloured lilacs grew in the Kulun Kingdom.” *Travelling Notes on the Western Regions in the Great Tang Dynasty* also recorded the origins of various fragrant medicines. In *Juan* 1, we find the reference that Kapisa “was famous for horses and saffron. The kingdom had many rare goods.” *Juan* 3 mentions that Uddiyana “abounded with grapes, while sugar cane was rare. It produced gold and iron, and it is suitable for saffron.” Darel of Uddiyana “abounded with gold and saffron.” Kashmir “was famous for dragon studhorses, saffron, fire balls and herbs.” *Juan* 12 similarly contains a reference to Jabula, saying that it “abounded with flowers and fruits, and is suitable for saffron.” The Dunhuang text of Hui Chao’s *Memoir of a Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India* recorded that Kophen (Kamār) “was famous for syzygium jambos (rose apple), barley, wheat and saffron, etc.” The *Brief Account of the Wei Dynasty* and Chen Zangqi’s *Supplement to Materia Medica* recorded the place of origin and properties of saffron. It grew in Da Qin (the Chinese name for the eastern part of the Roman empire) and it produced flowers in February and March with colours like red and blue. Its flowers could be picked in April and May. Its taste was bitter, flat and atoxic; it could expel all foul odours and get rid of evil air and diseases in bodies. Owing to its fragrance, it would be used in aromatic drugs.

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The section on Records of Foreign Countries in *Juan* 54 of the *Book of the Liang Dynasty* recorded that Funan sent envoys who offered auspicious Indian sandalwood images, sala leaves, fire balls, saffron and storax in the 18ᵗʰ year of Tianjian (519 CE). Several places offered saffron as tribute to the Tang Dynasty as well. In *Juan* 198 of the *Book of the Old Tang Dynasty*, it is recorded that King Siladitya sent envoys to Chang’an in the 15ᵗʰ year of the Zhen Guang reign (641 CE), and sent envoys several times with offerings of saffron and bodhi trees. *Essentials of the Tang Dynasty* (*Juan* 100) recorded that Kapi offered saffron in the 21ˢᵗ Year of Zhen Guang (647). It noted that “its leaves looked like those of the ophiopogon root, its flowers bloomed in September and looked like cotton rose hibiscus in purple and green and its fragrance can be smelt from over 10 steps away. It doesn’t have seeds, so it must be planted from the root.” *Juan* 221 of the *New Book of the Tang Dynasty* recorded that the king of the Dong’an Kingdom in the Western Regions sent envoys to offer Persian mules, bigleaf hydrangea, saffron and refined sugar in the 22ⁿᵈ year of Kaiyuan (734 CE). The scholar Edward Hetzel Schafer pointed out that this kind of plant was introduced into China in the Middle Ages and that saffron powder sold well in the Tang Dynasty. At that time, it was used as an aromatic drug/medicine made out of the fragrance of the plant to treat toxins in the body. The Tang and Song *Materia Medica* and the *Compendium of Materia Medica* of the Ming Dynasty recorded the properties of saffron.

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*Juan* 17 of Sun Simiao’s *Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency* noted that the prescription for lavender incense used aromatic drugs such as holy basil, lilac, green cinnamon, green ‘mu xiang’ (*radix saussureae*), thick leaf croton (*croton crassifolius*), saffron, sweetgum, mastic etc. *Juan* 31 of Wang Tao’s *Medical Secrets from the Royal Library* referred to a lotus herbal ointment made out of lotus seeds which could produce an immediate effect. This was an Indian prescription and its main functions were to cure diseases including deafness and blindness as well as prematurely greying hair and to protect teeth and prolong life. The prescription used four herbs including altemanthera juice, raw fructus oil, lactogenesis and liquorice, with saffron and was very effective. *Juan* 2 of the work *Flavor Vehicles* by Zhou Jiazhou (1582-1658) quoted from the *Overall Survey of Land*, the observation that Samarkand in Central Asia was a great country in the Western Regions, which abounded in yellow saffron looking like cotton rose hibiscus.

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Thus, we can see that saffron was used as an item in diplomatic exchanges as well as a flavouring in religious ceremonies and in daily life. It was a popular commodity in both India and China and it was introduced into China from different countries including India.

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(*Chen Ming*)

Zebu

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Fengniu is a kind of mammalian bovid with sarcoma on its shoulders and back which is native to India. Its alternate names include Fengniu (here, Feng refers to different characters in Chinese) and Zebu and it was famous for the physical characteristic that “there is eminentia (protuberance) of flesh in their neck.” According to the archaeological evidence, the domestication of Zebu began in the region of southern Asia 8,500 years ago. In the unearthed cultural relics from the Indus Valley Civilisation period, there are to be found seals depicting the Zebu. In ancient Indian myths, the most famous bull of this kind is Nandi, the mount of Siva. Owing to this, this kind of bull has been worshipped by Hindus in India.

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Detail from an Indian painting of an ox

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There are many records in documents of the Han and Tang dynasties of Fengniu in India and the Western Regions of present-day China. *Han Shu - Biography of the Western Regions* recorded that there were animals such as Fengniu, buffalo, elephants, big dogs, macaca and peacocks in Kawmira (present-day Kashmir). The *History of the Later Han Dynasty* (*Juan* 180) recorded that there were rare and valuable animals, such as lions, rhinoceros, Fengniu, peacocks and sparrows in Antiochia where the land was hot and wet. In the Wei and Jin dynasties, as well as the Sui and Tang dynasties, both Qiuci (present-day Kuqa, Xinjiang) and Samarkand (the region between the Syr Darya and Amu Darya) had Fengniu.

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There was no Fengniu in Central China previously and they were introduced from India and the Western Regions. In June of the second year of Yangjia in the Eastern Han period (133 CE), Shule (present day Kashgar, Xinjiang) presented the court with lions and Fengniu. In the Western Jin Dynasty, countries in the Western Regions offered more than 200 species of rare animals such as Ferghana horse, asbestos linen, Fengniu, peacocks and huge elephants as tribute. Fengniu had been introduced in the south of China even earlier. In the Classic Book of Mountains and Rivers, Fengniu was known as the “wild ox of the South.”

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*(Chen Ming)*

Porcelain

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Porcelain was one of the main articles traded between ancient India and China. Since the Tang and Song dynasties, porcelain has been one of China’s major exports. Porcelain exported from China in the late Tang and Five dynasties period was unearthed in the ruins at Arikamedu and Korimedu in Puducherry in southern India. Chinese porcelain has also been excavated from Banbhore near Karachi and Brahminabad in Sindh, Pakistan and from other parts of South Asia including Sri Lanka. Porcelain exported to India reached port cities of the Indian subcontinent by sea via the Malay Peninsula from Chinese ports such as Guangzhou and Quanzhou. *Juan* 1 in Zhao Rushi’s *Record of Foreign Countries* from the Song period recorded that merchants of Namburi traded in porcelain. Wang Dayuan’s *A Brief History of Island Countries* from the Yuan period recorded that there were many varieties of porcelain including greenish white porcelain, green porcelain, coarse bowl and greenish white flower porcelain among goods being traded in the Indian subcontinent. Volume 2 of the *Travels of Ibn Battuta* mentioned that the best porcelain was made in Guangzhou and Quanzhou and that it was exported to many places including India and even reached as far as Maghreb, Africa. Jingdezhen in the Ming period was the main source of porcelain exported from China. During Zheng He’s maritime expeditions, the main commodity carried by his fleet was porcelain. Fei Xin’s *Overall Survey of the Star Raft* recorded in detail the trade in porcelain between Zheng He’s fleet and the countries it visited. Apart from gold, silver, satin, dyed silk, etc. Bengal was supposed to have the greenish white flower porcelain also. This means that in this period Chinese porcelain was popular in India and ordinary merchants were engaged in buying and selling it.

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*Chinese porcelain*

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*Juan* 326 of the *History of the Ming Dynasty* recorded that tribute offered by Bengal included the greenish white flower porcelain. The Mongolian court too used to use wonderful Chinese porcelain in the 17th century CE. With the coming of the Age of the Great Voyages in the 16th and 17th centuries CE, the Dutch East India Company and the British East India Company began to play the main role in the circulation of Chinese porcelain. Large quantities of porcelain were transported to the southeast coastal areas of India, and then trans-shipped to Europe. More than 10,000 pieces of porcelain could be loaded onto a ship.

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As a byproduct of the trade between the Chinese coast and Bombay (Mumbai) starting from the later 18th century CE, a significant quantity of Chinese porcelain was imported by Bombay traders. As a result, several museums in India as well as a number of Parsi families who were connected with the China trade, have significant collections of Chinese porcelain today.

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*(Chen Ming)*

Silk

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The production of silk has always been identified with the Chinese civilisation and it is widely accepted that the Chinese people have developed the art and technique of silk-making for a longer time and to a higher level of sophistication than any other people.

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Silk is produced by unravelling the filament of the cocoon spun by certain species of moth which is then woven to produce silk cloth. Although Chinese silk has, from antiquity, been the home of the finest domesticated and processed silk, the technique of producing raw silk from a number of wild species of moth has been known to many other societies including India. For instance, recent studies have revealed the presence of silk in sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation in present-day Pakistan. Dating back to the 3ʳᵈ millennium BCE, this is the earliest evidence of silk outside China.

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Stone image of Han dynasty weaving in China

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The earliest archaeological evidence for silk in China dates back to about 2570 BCE from the Huzhou Neolithic site of Qianshanyang. Chinese silk is identified with the domesticated species of moth, *Bombyx mori*. The silkworms are reared primarily on a diet of white mulberry leaves. The silkworm cocoons are boiled in a slightly alkaline solution in order to remove a gum called sericin. By boiling the cocoons before the moths come out, it is possible to draw out an unbroken filament which results in a very fine quality of the silk.

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Princess in natural silk

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