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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s6: F. Doctrines

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s6

Language
English

Contents

F. Doctrines

Grub mthav smra ba

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Grub Mthav Smra Ba was one of academic subjects of Tibetan Buddhism in China which expounds on doctrines of Indian Buddhism. With the emergence of Tibetan Buddhism, grub mthav smra ba took shape and developed gradually. It is a system combining explanation of the doctrines of Buddhism characterised by four Indian Buddhist sects (Sarvastivada, Sautrantika, Vijnanavada and Madhyamika) which were made from the entire by the eminent monks of Tibetan Buddhism generation by generation.

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In Qing Dynasty, grub mthav smra ba raised its status in academic fields of Tibetan Buddhism. In particular, eminent monks of dge lugs pa composed an array of works to work on study into grub mthav smra ba and made contributions to making grub mathav smra ba a famous school. Grub Mthav Chen Mo by vjam dbyangs ngag dbang brtson vgrus, lcang Skya Grub Mthav by lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje and Grub Mthav Rin Chen Vphring Ba by dkon mchog vjig med dbang po are the representative works.

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In 1689, vjam dbyangs ngag dbang brtson vgrus (1648-1721) composed Grub Mthav Chen Mo to come up with innovation and deepen grub mthav smra ba. The work contained extensive contents which criticised the reviews of different schools including ancient Indian Samkhya and expounded on the doctrines of *Mahayana* and *Theravada* such as Sarvastivada, *Sautrāntika*, Sautrāntika, madhyamika and *Vajrayana* Buddhism. The book is divided into 13 chapters: chapter one, introduction of *Siddhanta*; chapter two, refutation of *uccheda-drishti*; chapter three, refutation of *nityadrishti* of Samkhya and other factions; chapter four, refutation of *nityadrishti* of Brahma and other factions; chapter five, refutation of *nityadrishti* of nārāyaṇa and other factions; chapter six, refutation of *nityadrishti* of Maheśvara and other factions; chapter seven, refutation of *nityadrishti* of Digambaras faction; chapter eight, establish *Sarvāsti-vāda*’s viewpoints; chapter nine, establish Sautrāntika’s viewpoints; chapter 10, establish *Vijñāptimātratā*’s viewpoints; chapter 11, establish viewpoints of *Sauātantrika* faction; chapter 12, establish viewpoints of *Prasaṅgika* faction; chapter 13, answer difficult questions about Vajrayana practice and achievements.

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From 1747, 1carn skya III rol pavi rdo rje (1717～1786) started writing Lcang Skya Grub Mthav. The publication of this book aroused great repercussion in Tibetan Buddhist academia, and had a positive impact, especially for promoting the development of Grub Mthav doctrine. It was later hailed as the highest academic achievement in the research field of Tibetan Buddhist Grub Mthav doctrine. The structure of the content is: Firstly, it illustrated the mistakes of ancient Indian Samkhya, Brahma, Nārāyaṇa, Vicara, Maheśvara, Vaisheshika, Nyaya and other heretic factions from a critical perspective; secondly, standing on Buddhist viewpoints, separately stated all the thoughts and viewpoints of Sarvāsti-vāda, Sautrāntika, Vijñāptimātratā and Madhyamika; taking the logic relationship between causes, principles and results as a theoretical starting point, widely cited the teachings of Nagarjuna, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Aryadeva, D従ってnāga, Dharmakirti and Tsongkhapa, demonstrated the coherence and differences between the principles of four Buddhist sects, focussed on expounding Buddhist thought of svātantrika and Prasaṅgika.

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In 1773, jam dbyangs bzhad pa II dkon mchog vjig med dbang po (1728～1791) finished the writing of Grub Mthav Rin Chen Vphring Ba on the basis of Extensive Discussion of Grub Mthav by jam dbyangs bzhad pa I dbal shul ngag dbang brtson grus. The book is concise and to the point, so is called *Brief Discussion of Grub Mthav* or *Introduction of Four Buddhist Factions*, and it has an outline feature of Grub Mthav. Firstly it expounded the viewpoints of other factions (lam) and doctrines of inner faction (Buddhism) from a comparative perspective and defined the essential difference between the two. Those who converted to the Tirana of Buddha-dharma-sangha were called inner faction; those who were converted to worldly divinity were called the outer faction. Secondly it focussed on discussion of the religious thoughts of four Buddhist factions, not only made summaries of the Buddhist viewpoints of all *Sarvāstivāda*, *Sautrāntika*, *Vijñāptimātratā* and *Madhyamika*, but also separately expounded the philosophical ideology of *Sauatantrika madhyamaka* and *Prasangika madhyamaka*.

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*Tibetan version of Zongyixue*

gZhung bkav pod lnga

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Gzhung bkav pod lnga (Wubu Dalun): The five important classics of Tibetan Buddhism which refer to *Hetuvidya*, *Prajna*, *Madhyamika*, *Abhidharmakosa-Sastra* and disciplines.

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**Hetuvidya:** One of the five important classics of Tibetan Buddhism, refers to Buddhist Logic. Buddhist Hetuvidya has many functional properties: it is a kind of instrumental and functional knowledge, a discipline that can be correctly reasoned and intellectually exercised, the methodology and epistemology for the seeking of the truth and is known as the golden key to open the treasure house of knowledge. Therefore, in all sects’ education of Tibetan Buddhism, Hetuvidya is relatively consistently learned first and is thought the eye for the study of Prajna. People study Madhyamika later because they think Madhyamika is result of the study of *Prajna*. Historically, Tibetan Buddhist monks applied and developed Dignaga’s Pramanasamuccaya and Dharmakirti’s *Seven Commentaries of Hetuvidya* and so on, all that got rid of the four Indian heretics’ thought and established the four Neidao’s thought, and ultimately established the Buddhist Prasangika Madhyamika. Hetuvidya not only plays the role of “breaking the evil theory and establishing the right thought” in the process of “breaking” and “establishing” Buddhism, but also becomes the arguing skill basis in texts for religious titles of Tibetan Buddhism.

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**Prajna:** One of the five important classics of Tibetan Buddhism and the early important Buddhist ideology and theory of Mahayana. Its fundamental classic is Prajnaparamita and also known as the mother of Buddha (Yum chen mo) because the reason for all Buddhas to become a Buddha is mainly that they depend on Buddhist scriptures of which the essence and realisation process (originating from sex empty theory and how to study Buddhist scriptures and to become a Buddha) are originated from Prajnaparamita. Therefore, Prajnaparamita is called the mother of Buddhist scriptures or the mother of all Buddhas. In addition, Prajnaparamita is thought the transcendent enlightenment intelligence namely Prajna is wisdom, based on which the truth -- true suchness, true essence, and false and sex empty theory are explored. Therefore Prajna is said to be

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*Research books on five sects of Tibetan Buddhism*

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the abstract theory of “the meditations of sunya”. Prajnaparamita has created the Mahayana Buddhism also known as Bodhisattvayana. Bodhisattva has the spirit of self-consciousness, being aware of others, self-interest and interesting others. Bodhisattva’s initial approach to become a Buddhist believer is six perfections including almsgiving, commandments observing, ksanti, virya, meditation practice and prajna. Having a Bodhicitta and studying six Paramita are the main characteristics of Mahayana Buddha and the motive power to contribute to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. So Prajna thought refers to six Paramita. While Maitreya’s Abhisamayalankara is the argument, teaching or knack of Prajna Paramita Sutra and an outline comment on Mahavagga Prajnaparamita that gives the first place to the thoughts of Madhyamika, namely “all dharmas have no self-nature” and the second place to the thoughts of yoga and order. Therefore, Tibetan Buddhism takes *Abhisamayalankara* as the outline of the study of Prajna and incorporates it into one of the five important classics of Tibetan Buddhism, and which has become the most important content to know Buddhist Prajna empty wisdom and achieve the wisdom of Buddha.

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**Madhyamika:** one of the five important classics of Tibetan Buddhism and one of the four Buddhist sectarian doctrines. It occupies an important position in the entire history of Buddhist thought. It absorbed the thoughts of Agama and Prajna; then it created Madhyamika of Tibetan Buddhism that is greatly valued and vigorously carried forward. So Madhyamika flourished and was developed in Buddhism, and even the thoughts of Madhyamika became the main theoretical basis of Tibetan Buddhism, based on which their own views of Buddhism are established, for example, “the five important classics” took Madhyamika and Hetuvidya as two important theories to establish the Buddhist views of point. Hetuvidya is thought the eye for the study of Prajna so it is learned first. People study Madhyamika later because they think Madhyamika is result of the study of Prajna. That shows that the purpose of studying Madhyamika is darsana-marga and to get the kosher thoughts of Madhyamika. Tibetan Buddhism placed Madhyamika on an important position in the entire Buddhist system. Especially during the period of Houhong of Tibetan Buddhism, Chandrakirti's main works about Madhyamika were translated into Tibetan Language, and thus all thoughts of Madhyamika have been preserved in Tibetan Tripitaka and the authoritative status of Chandrakirti has been established in Tibetan Buddhism.

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**Abhidharmakosa**: One of the five important classics of Tibetan Buddhism and its full name is *Abhidharma Abhidharmakosa*, of which *Abhidharma* (mngon pa) refers to the abhisamaya doctrines and arguments, and the word *Abhidharmakosa* has the meaning of hiding Tibetan and treasure-house. Whether Han Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism or Southern Buddhism, they all have such *tripitakas* as *sutra-pitaka*, *vinaya-pitaka* and *Abhidhamma pitaka*, and all that have formed a complete theoretical system and practical method of all sects of Buddhism. And *Abhidharmakosa Sastra* belongs to *Abhidhamma pitaka* and is classified into the Tengyur in the Tibetan Tripitaka, which is the India monk Taetok's commentary on *sutra-pitaka* and *vinaya-pitaka* taught by the Buddha and the further explanation of “Four Noble Truths” in the first part of Dharma-chakra. As Theravada's view in *Abhidharmakosa Sastra* says, it is a kind of Buddhist theory with its content mainly about Theravada Buddhism and an indispensable and important part of Buddhist Tripitaka. As one of the five important classics of Tibetan Buddhism, *Abhidharmakosa Sastra* has become an important study content of Tibetan Buddhism.

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**Discipline**: One of the five important classics of Tibetan Buddhism, and it is the basis of Buddhism and Buddhist study, so it occupies a dominant position in the Tibetan Buddhist study system. The reason why Buddhism was able to flourish relies mainly on organisation of the sangha and the guarantee of discipline system. The Sangha compromises the monk and believers at home. In the strict sense, the monks and believers at home have some differences: bhikkhu (dge slong), the male monk over the age of 20 following 250 commandment; bhikshuni (dge slong ma), the female monk over the age of 20 following 300 to 500 commandments; acolyte (dge tshul), male monk under the age of 20 following 10 commandments; Samaneri (dge tshul ma), the female monks under the age of 20 following about 10 commandments; Sikkhamana (dge tshul ma), the female monk who is two years earlier to become the bhikshuni and follows six commandments; upasaka (dge bsnyen) or recluse, the male believers following “the three commandments and the five precepts”; Upasika (dge bsnyen ma) or recluse, the female followers at home following “the three commandments and five precepts”. The differentiation of these seven groups of people is on the basis of the discipline they comply respectively. Before nirvana, Shakyamuni has completed the formulation of doctrines for the seven kinds of sangha. Each of the seven kinds of sangha, such as bhikkhu or bhikkuni can form the sangha when the monks and believers gather to reach a certain number. Among the five kinds of monks, the acolyte belongs to the bhikkhu, the sikkhamana and the samaneri belong to the bhikkuni. The Sangha aims at serving all beings and making all beings conscious. In order to manage Sangha and make them to be engaged in the regular collective religious life, rules and regulations were formulated, especially for different believers, various discipline were formulated to follow. Since then the doctrines have been established. Just as Bkav-thang-sde-lngamonks said: Monks are the faithful practitioners or defenders of the doctrine, so it is said that monks are the foundation of Buddhism, and consequently a number of *Sangha* organisations are established.

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(*Kalsang gyal*)

gZhan stong gi lta ba

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gzhan stong gi lta ba (The View of Other Emptiness): It is the basic doctrine of Jonang sect of Tibetan Buddhism. It separates from many schools of Tibetan Buddhism and other school observes the view of self-emptiness of Madhyamika.

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“Self-emptiness” differs from “other emptiness” in terms of cognition mainly ie dissimilarities and similarities between common statement and ultimate truth. Secular things come from conditions, while conditional causation will not have self body, which is called as secular phenomena which don't exist ie all things are void. The Jonang sect thinks that substances existing are described as “voidness” by wrong realisation or analysis of people to deny absolute substances existing; the supreme *dharma* nature is the unchanging truth permanently and the environment for intelligence enlightenment ie supreme existence. That is to say, the ultimate truth is formless, cannot be described with words, and is far from all meaningless statements so the ultimate truth is the supreme reality.

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Jonang sect thinks that nirvana is the permanent dharma, and it exists permanently. It is far from worries and those who ignore worries cannot reach nirvana. Intelligence must be meditated to cultivate Bodhisattva heart and those who observe doctrines can get rid of unenlightened worries and see nirvana.

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The ideology of Takongjian

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**Ocean of Definitive Meaning: Final Unique Quintessential Instructions** fully expounds Buddhist thought of the view of other emptiness. For example, the ultimate truth of other emptiness is unchanged permanently, the world of feeling has the same meaning as Tathagata-garbha which is the foundation of all things and cannot be empty absolutely. Jonang sect admits that immaterial nature which is conditional, it is the law of mutual causation of all actions, is delusive and unreal and belongs to secular truth, just as the fact that the non-existence is self-empty. while the self-existence of the ultimate truth isn’t empty, so it is other emptiness.

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Jonang sect thinks that emptiness is existence of heart itself, light is language, and the unity of the two is “enlightenment” (heart). This kind of division method is same as the division of three bodies: real existence of heart is the body with infinite spiritual potential (Dammar body); light is the reward body, and its representation form is the embodiment. Once sublime intelligence (intelligence god) appears, illusive phenomena will stop. If there are illusive phenomena on the contrary, intelligence will suspend. The world of things is unreal and things are just some phenomena, which are only caused by heart. There are no any persons meditating, and something that can be meditated can’t exist because meditator and the meditated are just a lighting characteristic of thought.

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(*Kalsang gyal*)

rGyud

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Rgyud is tantric theory of Tibetan Buddhism. As one of the important schools of Buddhism, it inherited its origin and development from Tang Tantrism, Eastern Tantrism and Tibetan Tantrism, and has been transmitted into different regions. In terms of three language families of Buddhism, Tantrism is widely transmitted in Tibetan and Chinese Buddhism ie Northern Mahayana Buddhism.

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**Concept of Tantrism:** There are many alternative names in Tibetan and Chinese language systems. For example, the names such as Tantra, Tantric vehicle, secret vehicle, esoteric incantation vehicle and Mantra vehicle etc and the famous scholar Xu Fandeng explained it specifically: “the school is characterised by chanting mantras ie the so-called ‘true words’.” Great attention is paid to Tantrism in Tibetan Buddhism, especially profound doctrines are endowed to it so it becomes the essence of Buddhism is honoured as diamond vehicle (Vajrayana) or resultant vehicle which secures it a supreme place.”

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Great monks of Tibetan Buddhism answered why Tantrism (gsang sngags) has so many alternative names or venerable titles. The Fourth Panchen Blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan (1567-1662). As a Tantric matters of the Gelug sect of the generation, he explained the word of Vajrayana (rdo rje thegs pa): there were profound reasons for Tantrism which is called as “Vajrayana”. Firstly, Mahayana doctrines are fully concluded in the six paramitas; secondly, the six paramitas are condensed in skills and intelligence and lastly, skills and intelligence combines into oneness ie Bodhicitta. However, Bodhicitta is the profound meditation of diamond being (Vajrasattva) ie diamond (Vajra), so Tantrism is called as diamond vehicle.

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Explanation on the concept of resultant vehicle (vbras buvi thegs pa) is more theoretical or logical. The eminent monk of the Kagyu sect Bu ston rin chen grub (1290～1364) once expounded that sde snod can be divided into Hinayana Tripitaka and Mahayana Tripitaka. Therefore, Mahayana Tripitaka also contains sutras and shastras of causal vehicle (Yogachara School) and resultant vehicle (Tantrism). That is to say, Exotoric Buddhism doctrines are classified into causal vehicle (rgyu yi thegs pa) is used as the theoretical basis of Tantric cultivation and only the entry into the practical stage of resultant vehicle is the highest dharma of “attaining enlightenment in this life”. The establishment of causal vehicle and resultant vehicle rationalises the Document on Mixuxue

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relations between exoteric Buddhism and esoteric Buddhism as well as constructs the cultivation system of Tibetan Buddhism. Enlightenment or attainment of Buddha fruits can be obtained after learning doctrines of causal vehicle (exoteric Buddhism) and then practicing cultivation of resultant vehicle (esoteric Buddhism).

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**New and Old Tantric Doctrines:** Old and new Tantric doctrines are inherited in Tibetan Buddhism. In the aspect of exoteric Buddhism, there is no difference between the new and the old as well as the saying between the new school and old school and it is divided according to conditions of propagation of Tantrism purely. As for the division between the new and old, there are many sayings and the most common saying is that tantras translated by Pandita smri ti before he came to Tibet are called as Tantras of the old school, and tantras translated after Rin chen bzang po are called as Tantras of the new school; tantric classics translated by Pandita smri ti before he arrived in Tibet (late 10th century CE) are subject to the old tantras and tantric classics translated since the great translator Rin chen bzang po (958~1055) are subject to the new tantras.

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In terms of sects, only Ningmapa sect inherited the old tantric traditions, and other schools belonged to the new tantric system. The Ningmapa sect promoted or practiced Tantric heritance, which originated from the old tantric traditions in the 8th century CE while the doctrines which were promoted and practiced by the schools such as the Gelug Sect, Kagyu Sect, Sagya Sect and Jonang Sect originated from the new tantric system in late 10th century CE.

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In terms of tracing back to historical sources of Tantrism for the new tantras and old tantras, there are many common views as well as subtle differences. Tantrism is propagated from the oneness of the three bodies of the Buddha. It is declared with the spiritual body to support the original meaning, instruct with the reward body to purify self-nature, and preach with the embodiment to embellish words and realise phenomena. There were three birthplaces for Tantras: the first was the place of the Buddha’s spiritual body. The founder, Samantabhadra Dharmakaya Buddha declared great perfection self-nature to retinues or disciples in Wisdom Ocean without time concepts and words. The second was the place of the Buddha’s reward body. The founder Sambhogakaya Mahavairochana presented superior doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism to five Buddhas, five consorts including Mother Voidness and Freedom, Bodhisattvas including Kshitigarbha and female Bodhisattvas including Grace and Charm as well as retinues or disciples in self-appearance altar filled with voidness with six syllables or indescribable words and it was in the age of self-appearance of intelligence. The third was the place of the Buddha’s embodiment. The founder Vajra Dhara, appeared an illusory intelligence body of Vajrasattva instructed inscrutable exoteric and esoteric doctrines to numerous retinues or disciples including obtainers of good karma, Bodhisattvas, achievers, intelligent cultivators of voidness, worldly gods, dragons, human beings, asuras and dri za in the Tushita heaven (one of the six heavens of desire), and it was in the age between infinite life and life of 100 years. The old school emphasised the place of the original founder Bodhisattva of Universal Benevolence largely when narrating Tantric heritance and source of entire Buddhism. The unshakable holy place of Dharmakaya Buddha was highlighted by the fact that Bodhisattva of Universal Benevolence declared great perfection to reduce the places of other Buddhas and the combination of the three bodies makes the reward Buddha and the embodiment Buddha are in the secondary or subordinate place.

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**Four Tantras and Six Tantras:** Tantric literature in sutras and shastras is called as Tantra (rgyud) while rgyud in Tibetan has the meaning of continuity or succession which conforms to the implication of the Chinese character of “续”. Its history can be traced back to the 8th century CE. The concept of *Tantra of Secret Mantra* (sngags kyi rgyud la) had appeared in *Vphang Thang Catalogue* (dkar chag vphang thang ma), the catalogue of Tripitaka compiled in the Tubo period. Moreover, the part of *Tantra of Secret Mantra* was listed in Denkar Catalogue (ldan dkar gyi dkar chag) in the same period, which was same as *Vphang Thang Catalogue* basically, and they can be proved mutually. However, the pre-propagation period of Tibetan Buddhism hadn’t established Tantric cultivation system such as Four Tantras or Six Tantras in a strict sense in the Tubo period.

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Bu ston rin chen grub recompiled the catalogue of Tibetan Tripitaka on the basis of Denkar Catalogue, Mchims phuvi dkar chag, Vphang Thang Catalogue and Snar thang gi bstan vgyur dkar chag and literature catalogue compiled by translators in the 14th century CE. The compilation deleted and added the previous catalogues of Tripitaka. Sutras and shastras of Tipitaka of Buddhism can be divided into two types mainly, exoteric Buddhism and esoteric Buddhism, literature is named after sutra (mdo) and Tantra, respectively, exoteric classics are called as sutras, and esoteric classics are called as shastras.

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Great monks of Tibetan Buddhism proposed the concept of Four Tantras (rgyud bzhi) in 10ᵗʰ century CE. On the premise of sutras and shastras defined strictly, Tantras were classified into Action Tantra, Performance Tantra, Yoga Tantra and Great Yoga Tantra, and the system of four tantras was established; hereafter, Great Yoga Tantra was classified into three Tantras, Upaya Tantra (also called Father Tantra), Intelligence Tantra (also called Mother Tantra) and Nondual Tantra, and the theory of Four Tantras or Six Tantras of Tibetan Tantric Buddhism was created.

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The new school represented by Gelug sect divided Tantric classics into four types: Action Tantra, Performance Tantra, Yoga Tantra and Anuttarayoga Tantra. In Sngags rim chen mo, Tsong Kha Pa expounded cultivation ways, rites and methods, use of ritual implements, Satyadevata types, transmission and heritance of Tantric doctrines and codes of different schools. The later generations including monks in the Qing Dynasty observed the classification method of four Tantras of Tsong Kha Pa basically. Action Tantra and Performance Tantra mainly instruct external rites including Abhisheka, rules and ceremonies, heritance affairs and Four-member chants etc. Yoga Tantra explains four-classes of Siddhi cultivation methods including Buddha, Vajra, Ratna and Lotus; Anuttarayoga Tantra expounds attainment methods including four Abhisheka methods, various kinds of profound rules and rites, and gradual paths to cause of act and perfection. Gradual path to perfection is divided into Father Tantra, Mother Tantra and Nondual Tantra, in which Father Tantra includes Guhyasamaji and Great Authority, etc., Mother Tantra includes Supreme Happiness and Hevajra etc., and Nondual Tantra includes Kalachakra Vajra. Three Tantric Dharmas including Father Tantra (pha rgyud), Mother Tantra (ma rgyud) and Nondual Tantra (ngo bo gnyis med kyi rgyud) are formed in Anuttarayoga Tantra and are inherited.

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The Sagya sect divides Tantric cultivation methods into common Dharma and Distinctive Dharma. Common Dharma includes Vajra Mala, One Hundred Attainment Methods, Attainment Dharma Sea and One Hundred Dharmas of Natang etc and Abhisheka, enlightenment and cultivation can be opened externally and internally. Distinctive Dharma includes Action Tantra, Performance Tantra, Yoga Tantra and Anuttarayoga Tantra. Action Tantra has three common Abhishekas including Buddha, Lotus and Vajra, Ratna, and each part has Abhisheka, instruction and enlightenment of over 50 kinds of Dharmas including Buddhas, group leaders, consorts, Shikhin, Wrath Gods, Wrath Goddesses, envoys and Wealth God; Performance Tantra has instruction and enlightenment of “Five Manjusri Bodhisattvas” who are the leaders of Tathagata group; Yoga Tantra has instruction and enlightenment of multiple kinds of Dharmas including Purifying Twelve Altars with Evil Incarnations, Universal Brightness, Vajrapani Destroying the Lord of Death; Anuttarayoga Tantra including three types, including Father Tantra, Mother Tantra and Nondual Tantra. Father Tantra orients at Abhisheka and heritance of Guhyasamaji, Manjusri Vajra and Avalokitesvara etc.; Mother Tantra orients at Supreme Happiness, Vajravarahi, Five Deities of Kurukulle, Amitayus Buddha, Great Pity and Independent Existence, and Twenty One Taras, etc.; Nondual Tantra orients at perfect Abhisheka and heritance of body speech of Hevajra, Kalachakra Vajra, Fifteen Deities of Nairatmya, Panjaranatha Mahakala, Vajrapani Subduing Monsters, and White Intelligence Tara etc.

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As the representative of the old school, the Ningmapa Sect proposes different views from the new school and divides Tantric classics into six types (Tantras): Three External Tantras (Action Tantra, Performance Tantra and Yoga Tantra) and Three Internal Tantras (Maha Yoga, Anusara Yoga and Great Perfection Ati Yoga). Three External Tantras attach importance to external physical practice and Three Internal Tantras pay attention to cultivation of heart and air. Therefore, individual views and practice are form on Anuttarayoga Tantra, and the core of its doctrine promotes great perfection.

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From the perspective of gradual path to cultivation, great perfection is divided into preface and main body. The main body is divided into gradual paths to cause of act and perfection while gradual paths to perfection are divided into gradual paths to happy voidness, complete voidness and intelligence perfection; gradual paths to intelligence perfection is divided into Sems sde, Klong sde, Man ngag sde.

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*Vajrayana diagram painted in Drepung monastery*

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The realm of Bodhisattva of Universal Benevolence can be obtained if the whole gradual cultivation process to construct great perfection is completed.

Way of Great Perfection

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It is the core doctrine of the Ningmapa Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. It originated from Tantrism of Indian Buddhism and was formed in “the pre-propagation period” of Tibetan Buddhism and developed in “the post-propagation period”. In terms of overall content, it inherited tantric thoughts of Indian monks including Padmasambhava and Vimalamitra as well as collected Buddhist thoughts and tantric heritance of the eminent Tubo monks including Virocana was promoted by great monks of the Ningmapa sect, and formed “great perfection” with independent system of profound doctrines and practice verification gradually.

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“Thuvu bkwan blo bzang chos kyi nyi ma” explained great perfection: “it means birth, death and nirvana of all things in the current world reach perfection and completion in the light voidness, so it is named perfection. There is no superior way to be free from birth and death so it is named greatness.” It can be seen that “great perfection” is bright and clean intelligence of human beings for open way and abandonment of impurity of passions and is the inborn pure disposition of all beings. That is to say material movement and change processes of all things in the world as well as birth and death are generated or eliminated in the state of bright and clear voidness of spirits (thoughts) of human beings so that their spirits can be proved clean and pure in this way, people can cultivate according to dharma, so that their spirits will not be polluted and they can reach an ideal realm of voidness and cleanness. If people can treat with this clear intelligence or clean spirit and realise it by special ways, they can obtain nirvana and realise “attainment of Buddhahood in this life”.

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As an independent systematic doctrine, the connotations of “great perfection” are mainly composed of “sems sde, klong sde and man ngag sde”. “Sems sde” means that heart can be realised in three aspects: Essence, shape and field. For example, pure heart essence, bright heart nature (shape) and broad heart field (function). This is a complete and true heart. True heart is Buddha heart so it can be seen that everyone has Buddha heart. Therefore, “Thuvu bkwan blo bzang chos kyi nyi ma” pointed that “sems sde” shows state, only self heart and heart nature can present natural wisdom, and there is no other way except natural wisdom. The skill to attain this way is similar to the great hand seal sect, which can show environment, while “sems sde” is to seek the ultimate reality of cleanness and purity for

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[Figure: The documents on Dayuan manfa published by the zhongguo Sichuan minzu chubanshe.]

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intuitive conditioning power and heart essence. ” It can be seen that any external environment comes from self heart while heart shape shows natural wisdom and no better dharma can be sought without it. Although there similarities between “sems sde” and great hand seal of the new sect in the process of cultivation, but specific methods or measures differ greatly, for example, great hand seal uses heart to show environment while “sems sde” is intuitive essence voidness.

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In view of “region”, “klong sde” means broadness and all-embracing, and it is a kind of dhamata realm.

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“Man ngag sde” proposes that all things including samsara and nirvana shall be attributed to dhamata of voidness or persistence with intelligence of being free from acceptance or rejection and non-differentiation of dual combination, and bright and clear intelligence free from influences of conditions and feelings of samsara and nirvana, so that the superior concept of body of self-enlightened Vajra-sphota is attained. Meanwhile, it proposes three concepts including purity of substance characteristics, enlightenment of self nature and broadness of great pity, and thinks that the essence of substance is immortal and immaterial, and substance is pure; the voidness and wonderful phase don’t hinder explicit knowledge, and self-nature is enlightened; the voidness and wonderful virtues can show impure and pure phenomena, which is broad great pity.

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From the perspective of schools of Tibetan Buddhism, only the Ningmapa sect inherited the old Tantric traditions, and other schools belonged to the new tantric system. Ningmapa sect promoted or practice Tantric heritance, which originated from the old Tantric traditions in the 8^th century CE, while the doctrines which were promoted and practised by the schools such as Gelug sect, Kagyu sect, Sagya sect and Jonang sect originated from the new Tantric system in late 10ᵗʰ century CE.

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As the school inheriting the old Tantric doctrines, the Ningmapa sect took the lead in differentiating doctrines of Sakyamuni. The whole Dharma is divided into nine vehicles: "nyan thos, rang rgyal, byang sems, kri ya, Au pa, yo ga, bskyed pa ma ha yo ga, lung Aa nu yo ga and rdzogs pa chen po Aa ti yo ga" etc and the first vehicle "nyan thos" is graded to the ninth vehicle "rdzogs pa chen po Aa ti yo ga" to gradually reach the supreme realm of great perfection. As one of the main founders of old tantric heritance, Vimalamitra had profound influences on the Ningmapa sect which was the pyramidal Buddhist or cultivation system, especially played an important role in forming the thought of great perfection.

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(*Kalsang gyal*)

Lam vbras

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The Way and Result (lam vbras) is the Core doctrine of the Sagya sect of Tibetan Buddhism.

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Sagya Sect is a school with different thoughts. The masters including Saban Gongaji, Tshig don and their followers promoted Svatantrika Madhyamika concepts while the masters including Rendawa Zhonu Lodro held Prasangika Madhyamaka concepts even later monks held Mind-Only concepts as well as advocated the thought of "the wrong view concerning unrealness of the attributes", and many eminent monks cultivated "great perfection" of Ningmapa Sect. The core doctrine ie the distinctive view of the school is "the way of result". There are exoteric and esoteric contents.

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In the aspect of exoteric Buddhism, it contains Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka thoughts and is related to Maitreya Buddhist thoughts. Madhyamaka thoughts are highlighted by "the first is to break non-blessing, the second is to break egocentrism, and the last is to break all views".

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In the aspect of esoteric Buddhism, characteristics such as the union of knowledge and emptiness as well as the absolute birth, death and nirvana of human heart shall be proved and enlightened through systematic cultivation; absolute reality of the innate intelligence shall be realised to reach the realm of the unity between the Buddha and self. The cultivation processes are to find general properties of human heart firstly, and seek the way from "clear heart" to "empty heart" secondly, realised the secret of "the union of knowledge and emptiness", thirdly as well as prove and understand the characteristics of original nature including absences of position, colour, shape and substance etc. Sagya sect holds the opinion that heart has two characteristics: firstly, it is twined by a mess; secondly, its nature is the innate intelligence. Therefore, birth and death is for not knowing self heart while nirvana is for knowing self/ heart.

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Because heart is often disturbed by confusion, people cannot understand properties of natural intelligence of heat usually and they will know that birth and death don't differ from nirvana naturally

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The documents on Mixuxue published by the Beijing Minzu Chubanshe.

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and obtain Buddha’s fruit once they understand characteristics of the innate intelligence so the cultivation concept that "all things are misrepresentations of the mind, all things and the mind are misrepresentations of illusion and all illusions are void". This cultivation concept explains that the existence of environment is denied by heart, the existence of heart is denied by illusion, and the existence of illusion is denied by arising from conditional causation, which conforms to the concept of "non-differentiation among birth, death and nirvana" and verifies the truth that they don’t run against one other and words cannot express the enlightenment of the realm, and it can be verified in cultivation practice truly.

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(*Kalsang gyal*)

Phyag rgya chen po

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It is the core doctrine of the Kagyu Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. Kagyu sect is consistent with other schools, promotes Madhyamika thoughts, especially observes Karmapa’s Prasangika Madhyamaka. Because Kagyu Sect attaches importance to practice and cultivation of guru heritance and tantric doctrines, great hand seal becomes its unique core doctrines and rites. The so-called "great hand seal" does not mean hand seal in cultivation and practice of Tantric doctrines but is a symbol to obtain achievement, enlightenment and intelligence for cultivation and practice of Tantric doctrines, such as self-nature, ultimate reality, Bodhi, true body and true character.

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The Great Hand Seal is related to exoteric and esoteric cultivation. Exoteric Great Hand Seal means that concentration and cultivation of non-differentiation can attain enlightenment while Esoteric Great Hand Seal means putting air into great and happy brightness from mid rids, which is the essence of *Anuttarayoga Tantra*. Esoteric great hand seal has complex doctrine system and multiple branches.

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There are four yoga ways mainly in the aspect of cultivation: one-pointedness yoga, simplicity yoga, one taste yoga, and non-meditation yoga.

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Besides great hand seal, Kagyu sect promotes specific cultivation of "six doctrines of Naropa" which originated from Tantric doctrines inherited from Indian Master Naropa. Great hand seal and doctrines of Naropa are inseparably interconnected. Six doctrines of Naropa are composed of six cultivation doctrines advanced gradually in the due order from the shallower to the deeper. Firstly, dharma attainment is to obtain the goal of Vajra Dharani by developing the natural intelligence of bliss and emptiness of a cultivator; secondly, vision body attainment is to obtain reward of perfect Buddha's body by developing natural intelligence of immediate voidness and non-differentiation of a cultivator; thirdly, dream attainment is to prove and realise the true reality of empty self-nature by developing natural intelligence of awareness of voidness; fourthly, bright attainment is to obtain the two goals of utmost enlightenment and absolute reality by developing natural intelligence of complete voidness of a cultivator; fifthly, intermediate attainment is to obtain ultimate release by developing natural intelligence of the three periods of a cultivator; sixthly, phowa attainment is to obtain achievement of Buddha's body by developing natural intelligence of nondifferentiation of a cultivator.

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(*Kalsang gyal*)

sBor drug

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Six-Branch Yoga (sbor drug) is practiced by the Jonang School of Tibetan Buddhism. Typically, a Jonang monk will have a three-year meditation retreat. Six-branch Yoga can be divided into six phases including Withdrawal, Meditative Concentration, Harnessing One's Life-Force, Retention, Recollection and Samadhi. Withdrawal is to enable the mind of a practitioner to withdraw from the secular world and completely enter into empty forms. Meditative Concentration is to make the mind abide in joyfulness and calmness. Harnessing One's Life-Force is to draw in and sustain vital winds within the central channel and not flow to the right or the left channel and to obtain natural joy in a calm sitting. Retention is to enable a practitioner to harmonise the nerve system and control the lifeforce. Recollection is to make a practitioner concentrate the mind on a point and connect it with the universe and obtain incessant force while Samadhi is to enable a practitioner to

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*A mural painting in the ancient monastery of Juenangpai.*

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combine body with heart and enter into a state of stabilised bliss and emptiness.

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(*Kalsang gyal)*)

Naro Chosdrug

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Naro Chosdrug is one of important practice methods of Kargyu sect of Tibetan Buddhist. It is made up of six progressive tantric methods: 1) The Yoga of Inner Heat (Kundalini) method to light the mental state of believers to reach the spiritual state as that of Vajradhāra; 2) Huanshen Chengjiu (Yoga of Illusory Body) method to help believers to acquire complete magical powers as that of Sambhogakaya Buddha;

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*The Indian version of Naruoliufajing.*

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3) Mengjing chengjiu (dream) method to lighten the mental state of believers to realise that emptiness is the nature of trueness; 4) The Yoga of Clear Light (Guangming) method to lighten the nature of mind of believers to get complete realisation of spiritual state of enlightenment and emptiness; 5) The Yoga of intermediate state/existence (Zhong yin) method to lighten the mental state of believers in three worlds and to get complete release and 6) The Qian shi chengjiu (Phowa) method to inspire nirvikalpa-jñāna of believers to acquire Buddhist body.

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(*Kalsang gyal*)

sMon lam chen mo in Tibetan

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Prayer Festival (smon lam chen mo in Tibetan) is the largest and grandest event for Gelug Sect. In the first month of Earth Ox year (1409) of the seventh calendrical cycle, Tsongkhapa founded Prayer Festival in Jokhang Monastery to commemorate Sakyamuni for his miraculous feats of defeating "Six Heretics" and advocating Buddhism. Later on, Gelug Sect monasteries continued the ceremony, added new things to it during development and prolonged the duration to a larger and larger scale. In this way, it evolved into a comprehensive prayer festival for Gelug Sect and even all other sects of Tibetan Buddhism.

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Lhasa Prayer Festival (lha sa smon lam chen mo) is held at Jokhang Monastery, Lhasa between the third and 25ᵗʰ day of the first month every year and thus called Prayer Meeting Festival. Participants, mainly lamas from the above Three Monasteries of Lhasa, amount to 20,000-30,000. If secular people are included, that is a very huge number. Aristocrats and merchants from Shannan Prefecture (U region or anterior Tibet), Shigatse Prefecture (Tsang region or ulterior Tibet) and Amdo-Kham donate substantial givings to express their wishes of believing in Buddhism, thanking lamas and eternal bloom of Buddhism. The main agenda includes opening ceremony on fourth day of the first month: lamas begin chanting scriptures and making prayers and perform other thematic Buddhist rites; hold a debate for awarding candidate lamas the highest degree "lha rams pa" on the 12ᵗʰ, 13ᵗʰ and 14ᵗʰ days of the month; have butter-oil lamp exhibition overnight on 15ᵗʰ day, which is pleasantly noisy; take the ceremony "gtor rgyag" on 24ᵗʰ day which means sending off hungry ghosts by giving them food (lamas of rnam rgyal graw tshang and sngags pa graw tshang, Potala Palace and Drepung Monastery specially prepare the event, and 500 lamas even disguise themselves as ancient Mongolian soldiers to parade, burn hay stacks and shot guns so as to dispel all disasters or misfortunes in this year); on the 25ᵗʰ day, perform the ceremony of "inviting Maitreya" then come to an end so that all lamas return to their respective monasteries.

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Kumbum Monastery Prayer Festival (sku vbum smon lam chen mo), was first held in the Water Sheep year (1583) of the 10ᵗʰ calendrical cycle upon edict of Third Dalai Lama Sonam Gyatso (1543-1588). It lasts from 6ᵗʰ-17ᵗʰ day of the first month annually and mainly includes scripture chanting, Buddhism teaching and various rites. On 14ᵗʰ and 15ᵗʰ days, Buddhist dances and butter-oil flower exhibitions

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*A large prayer being held at the Potala Palace*

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favoured by ordinary people are performed. Butter-oil flower exhibition (one of Three Consummate Arts of Kumbum Monastery) is famous for exquisite workmanship and design novelty. The flowers are made of butter, only last one day, much like a flash in the pan. Pilgrims flood the monastery to watch that on the day. That is indeed a spectacular scene.

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Labrang Monastery Prayer Festival (bla brang smon lam chen mo) which originated in reigns of 2ⁿᵈ Jamyang Zhepa or called Jamyang Könchog Jigme Wangpo (1728-1792) is held between the third to 17ᵗʰ day of the first month every year. With various colourful activities, it includes lamas' scripture chanting and eminent lamas' Buddhism teachings throughout the whole period. During the festival, hold massive debates for conferring degrees such as "rdo rams pa" and "rams vbyams pa" on those qualified candidates. In the meantime, hold various rites and ceremonies: the 8ᵗʰ day, "setting livestock free", which means not hurting them; the 13ᵗʰ day, "Buddha painting show" where believers worship thangka paintings in a solemn and grand manner; the 14ᵗʰ day, "Buddhist dance" with vivid scenes attracting all followers; the 15ᵗʰ day, "butter-oil flower exhibition" where people play about till deep night; the 16ᵗʰ day, lamas "hold Maitreya" statue in parade to chant scriptures" around the monastery so as to pray for peace and bliss of the future world" with accompanying Buddhist music.

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PHILOSOPHY

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PHILOSOPHY

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PHILOSOPHY

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India-China philosophical interaction traces its history back to 1ˢᵗ century CE. With the spread of Buddhism from India to China, the two countries have carried out exchanges in religion, philosophy and culture for 2,000 years. Dating from Han Dynasty, India-China philosophical exchange was carried out intesively in Wei Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties reaching a climax in Sui and Tang Dynasties and was taken further in Song and Yuan Dynasties. In Ming and Qing Dynasties,

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‘A Source Book in Ancient India Philosophy’, translated by Yao Weiqun, front cover

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India-China philosophical exchange was at a low ebb due to the obstructions caused by the Western colonialism. In modern times, it has achieved a leapfrog development and entered a period of growth due to increasingly powerful status of India and China as well as the development of friendly relations between the two countries. In ancient China, there were numerous Buddhist monks and scholars who endured much hardship to study in India and seek wisdom. Similarly, a large batch of Indian Buddhist monks and scholars went to China to preach and translate sutras as well as carry out academic exchange at the same time. In Sui and Tang Dynasties (6ᵗʰ to 9ᵗʰ centuries CE) Indian and Chinese scholars carried out philosophical exchange on a scale and frequency rare in the cultural history of the world. Besides Buddhist philosophy, the philosophy of *Astika* that includes *Samkhya*, *Vaisesika*, *Yoga*, *Nyaya*, *Puarra Mimansa* and *Vedanta* and *nastika* that includes Jainism and Lokayatika were introduced to China and had a profound influence on ancient Chinese thought and culture. Meanwhile, Chinese philosophy such as Lao Zi's Dao De Jing, Daoism and Confucianism also spread to India and is believed to have had some influence on Indian religious and cultural development.

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Spread of philosophy of Buddhism to China

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In the 1ˢᵗ century CE, Buddhism spread to China in the transitional period between the Eastern Han and Western Han Dynasty. With the spread of Buddhism in China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures were successively translated from Sanskrit into Chinese and accepted by Chinese Buddhists, resulting in the rise of Buddhist philosophy in China. During the early stages of translation of Buddhist scriptures, monks from India and Western Regions played a major role. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Master An Shigao from Parthia went to China to teach the doctrines and philosophy of Theravada Buddhism and translated Theravada sutras such as *Anapanasati Sutta*, *Jataka Sutra* and *Dvadashamukha Shastra*. Additionally, the Tokharian monk Lokakṣema taught Mahayana Buddhism and translated Mahayana sutras such as *Asahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra*, *Shurangama Sutra*, *Paramita Samdhi*, *Vimalakirti* Nirdesa Sutra and *Aparimitayus Sutra* with a group of his disciples. In Eastern Jin Dynasty, eminent Indian monk Kumarajiva who was well-versed in Mahayana Madhyamika philosophy translated a large number of Mahayana sutras including the famous *Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra*, *Lotus Sutra*, *Amitabha Sutra*, *Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra*, *Madhyamakakarika*, *Sata Sastra*, *Dvadashamukha Shastra*, *Mahaprajna Paramita Sastra* and *Satyasiddhi Sastra* which expounded on the Madhyamika philosophy formulated by Nagarjuna. With the increasing popularity of Buddhism in China, many Chinese Buddhist scholars participated in translation of Buddhist *sutras*. Among them, Master Xuanzang studied sutras in India for 17 years and brought over 600 Buddhist sutras to China. After returning to China, he devoted himself to translation of Buddhist scriptures for 20 years and translated 75 Mahayana and Theravada sutras running to over 1300 volumes including *Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra*, *Ksitigarbha Pranidhana Sutra*, *Sajdhinirmocana Sutra*, *Yogacarabhumi Sastra*, *Abhidharma Mahavibhasa Sastra*, *Mahayana Samuparigraha Sastra* and *Prakaranasyavaca Sastra*. With the spread of Buddhist sutras, Buddhist philosophy and doctrines prevailed in China, including *Skandha*, four noble truth and Nidana in Theravada Buddhism and Prajna, Madhyamika and Vijnanavada of Mahayana Buddhism.

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‘Lotus Sutra (Fahua jing)’, Song Dynasty edition

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‘Madhyamakakarika (Zhong Lun)’

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In Sui and Tang Dynasties, Buddhism was in its heyday in China and eight Buddhist sects such as Tian Tai Sect, Three-Sutra Sect, Pure Land Sect, Huayan Sect, Dharma-image Sect, Meditation (Chan) Sect, Vinaya Sect and Esoteric Sect emerged in China, most of which were influenced by Indian Buddhist philosophy. Among them the *Three-Sutra Sect* which was rooted in Madhyamaka in Indian Mahayana Buddhism and was typified by *Madhyamakakarika*, *Dvadashamukha Shastra* and *Sata Sastra* by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva, emerged in Sui Dynasty and it espoused Madhyamaka philosophy formulated by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva and preached the emptiness of nature, the twofold truths and eight-negation Middle Way. The *Dharma-image Sect* founded by Xuanzang and his disciple Kui Ji was influenced by Indian Buddhist philosophy as well as typified by *Sajdhinirmocana Sutra*, *Yogacarabhumi Sastra* and *Vijnaptimatra Siddhi Sastra* translated by Xuanzang and his disciple Kui Ji. By embracing the philosophy formulated by Asanga and Vasubandhu, leading members of the Dharma-image Sect of Mahayana Buddhism, it preached the doctrine of Consciousness-Only (vijnapti-matrata-Perception is reality). The Tian Tai Sect that emerged in the Sui Dynasty inherited Nagarjuna's philosophy, the representative of Madhyamaka and considered Nagarjuna as the founder of the Sect. By embracing the emptiness of nature established by its founder Nagarjuna and further development combined with their own practices. The *Tian Tai Sect* developed the doctrine of Three Meditations of One Mind or threefold contemplation in one mind. By interpreting void, unreal and mean existence in tri-satyas advocated by Nagarjuna as three dogmas (truths), to their eyes, all existence in the universe was subject to conditions (unreal truth), all unreal

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