Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c14: Section XI Diplomatic Exchanges
Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c14
- Language
- English
Contents
- v2.c14.s1 A. Concepts — 2 parts
- v2.c14.s2 B. Events — 5 parts
- v2.c14.s3 C. Organisations, Institutions, Delegations — 11 parts
- v2.c14.s4 D. Personalities — 45 parts
Section XI Diplomatic Exchanges
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Before the Christian Era as recorded, governmental contacts between India and China began no later than 2^nd century BCE. According to *Record of the State of Dawan*, *Shiji* in the 2^nd year of Jian Yuan Era (139 BCE), as decreed by Emperor Wu of Han (ruled from 140-87 BCE), Zhang Qian (unknown-114 BCE) started a diplomatic mission to the Western Regions and returned 13 years later (129 BCE). While in Bactria, he learned of India and thus suggested to the emperor that envoys could go to India via Sichuan and Yunnan in southwestern China. However, such missions failed. In 119 BCE, Zhang Qian commenced his second mission to the Western Regions, and he sent his deputy envoy to India, but no detailed records are available. After the death of Zhang Qian, the Han Dynasty continued to send a number of envoys to India, which was accessible from the Western Region Road but not the Sichuan-Yunnan route. At that time, a diplomatic mission was large in size and might consist of as many as several hundred or at least over 100 members. It would have an envoy and a deputy envoy, and the rest were attendants and retinues. Every year, more than 10 or at least five or six such missions would be sent.
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Western Silk Route
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During the reign of Emperor Wu, intercourse between India and China was made by land and water. By sea, it reached Kanchi in the south of India (present-day Kanchipuram of Tamil Nadu), and by land, it could lead to Alexandria (present-day in Pakistan) and Kophen (present-day Kashmir) in northwest India. *Han Shu* (*Book of Han Dynasty*) recorded in the section of *Geography*, “There is a kingdom called Kanci, which has similar customs with Zhu Ya (present-day in the north of Hainan Island). It is extensive, populous and filled with exotic things, and has offered gifts since the reign of the Emperor Wu”. This indicates that envoys from southern India had been to China many times. In spite of the remote distance and inconvenient route, ‘few envoys rather than none have been sent to Alexandria Bucephalous’. As a result, the Chinese already had considerable knowledge of local customs and products. There were also frequent diplomatic missions to and from Kophen. In the early 1^st century BCE, Wen Zhong and Zhao De were the Chinese envoys to Kophen whose names were recorded, and in the late 1^st century BCE, Kophen sent envoys to China “once in several years”. At first, the Han government would escort the envoys back from Kophen, but these escorts had to risk their lives. Later on, Han officials found that some merchants pretended to be envoys, and so the special escort was stopped, and genuine envoys were only accompanied to Guma (present-day Guma of Xinjiang).
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1^st-6^th century CE
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During this period, there was a significant increase of official contacts between India and China. In the early 1^st century, Kanci maintained friendly intercourse with Han Dynasty, and as recorded in many historical documents, its envoys once brought rhinoceros to amaze the Chinese. In the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 CE), contacts by sea increased, and in the 2^nd and 4^th year of Yan Xi Era of Emperor Huan, Indian envoys went to China via the sea route several times, but no record is available to show that China also had sent envoys to India. At that time, Western Region Road was accessible intermittently, and Emperor He of the Han Dynasty (89-105 CE) had ordered a number of diplomatic missions, but later on, this route was blocked and interrupted. When Buddhism was introduced in China, and Emperor Ming of Han (reigned from 58-75 CE) once sent envoys to Western Regions for Buddhist scriptures.
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In the 5^th year of Yuan Jia Era (428 CE), the Emperor Wen of Song Dynasty (reigned 424-453 CE) received a letter of credence from Candrapriya, King of Kapilavastu. This letter was recorded in *Han Shu, Geography*
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Man Yi Zhuan of *Song Shu* (*Book of Song Dynasty*). In the early Tian Jian Era (502 CE), the Gupta ruler in central India sent an envoy Zhu Luo Da to take a letter to Emperor Wu of Liang (reigned 502-548 CE). Despite their similar and thus doubtful contents, these two letters expressed sincere good wishes, and may serve as a testimony to the friendly intercourse between the two states. In the 2^nd year of Tai Shi Era (466 CE), Kapilavastu sent envoys Zhu Fu Da and Zhu A Mi to southern China, and the Chinese emperor conferred the title of Jian Wei General on them.
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At the same time, regimes in northern China had more contacts with various Indian kingdoms. According to *Wei Shu* (Book of Wei Dynasty), from
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*Image of Emperor Wu of Liang Dynasty*
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451-521 CE, China received at least 42 diplomatic missions from India, including among others from Kophen, west India, Sravasti, Varanasi, Oddiyana, Ayodhya, Bolor, south India, Jalandhara, Syamaka, Gandhara, Sindhu, Mathura, Kashmir, Purusapura, Magadha and Kausala. By contrast, fewer envoys had been sent to India by northern regimes in China. According to *Wei Shu* in mid Tai Yan Era (about 437 CE) of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Dong Wan and Gao Ming were sent on a diplomatic mission to nine states in the Western Regions. In the 3^rd year of Xi Ping Era (518 CE), Song Yun (an official) and Fa Li (a monk) were sent to Western Regions to collect Buddhist sutras. They all had been to India.
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6^th-10^th century CE
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In Sui Dynasty, Emperor Yang (reigned 605-618 CE) sent Wei Jie and Du Xingman to Western Regions. They went to India and obtained Buddhist *sutras*, agate cups and other materials. In Tang Dynasty, more official contacts with India were recorded. India sent a great number of envoys to China, and the Tang empire also sent numerous missions. For instance, according to Xi Rong Zhuan of *Jiu Tang Shu* (*Old Book of Tang Dynasty*) in the 15^th year of Zhen Guan Era (641 CE), Siladitya (ie King Harsha, see *Siladitya*), who called himself King of Magadha (present-day Bihar), sent envoys to pay gifts. Emperor Taizong (reigned 627-649 CE) in return gave an imperial jade seal and an edict. Upon receiving the edict, Siladitya again sent envoys, who came a long way and were courteously received. Emperor Taizong sent Li Yibiao (see *Li Yibiao*) as the envoy and Wang Xuance (see *Wang Xuance*) as the deputy envoy to pay a return visit and express his gratitude.
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Wang Xuance went to India thrice (or four times). He first went to India in the 17^th year of Zhen Guan Era (643 CE) as the deputy envoy of Li Yibiao. He returned in the 20^th year of Zhen Guan (646 CE). While in India, he met Siladitya, visited Buddhist sites, and went to Kamarupa (present-day Assam). The king of Kumarupa sent envoys to Tang Dynasty to obtain a portrait of Lao Zi and *Dao De Jing* (Book of Tao). He began his second trip to India in the 21^st year of Zhen Guan Era, with Jiang Shiren as his deputy envoy. When they arrived in India, Siladitya had already died, and Arunashwa, a courtier, has usurped the throne and sent troops to attack Wang Xuance. With support from Tubo and Nepal, Wang Xuance defeated and captured Arunashwa and brought him back to Chang’an in the 22^nd year of Zhen Guan Era (648 CE). In the 2^nd year of Xian Qing Era (657 CE), Emperor Gaozong ordered Wang Xuance to send a cassock to India. In the 5^th year of Xian Qing Era (660 CE), he attended the assembly held for him at Mahabodhi Temple. As a Buddhist as well as an official envoy, Wang Xuance had a special impression of India, Nepal and other places. On his return to China, he wrote *Zhongtian Zhuguo Xingji* (also titled *Wang Xuance Xiguo Xingzhuan*), supposedly including 10 volumes, with appendices of three volumes of maps and charts. However, this valuable book was soon lost and only a few paragraphs are available now. His visit to India is a great event in history of India-China relations, and indicates the climax of political intercourse between Tang Dynasty and various regimes across India.
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Many Indian kingdoms either sent envoys or “offered local produce” to Tang Dynasty. According to a rough estimate, during 140 years from 2^nd year of Wu De Era (619 CE) to first year of Qian Yuan Era (758 CE), over 80 missions were sent from a dozen Indian kingdoms, among others, Kophen, Oddiyana, Magadha, Nepal, Gandhara, Mallava, south India, Bruzha, west India and central India. Kophen sent many envoys. Second to it were Bruzha and south India which sent envoys eight times each. Later on, fewer and fewer Indian envoys were recorded and trade was replaced by maritime trade to a considerable extent.
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10^th-13^th century CE
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During this period, Chinese documents did not record many envoys to and from Song Dynasty and various Indian kingdoms, with the exception of Cola (or Chola) in southern India. Chola was an ancient kingdom and grew into a powerful state in mid 10^th century CE. According to Book 489 of *Song Shi* (*History of Song Dynasty*), in eighth year of Zhong Xiang Fu Era (1015), Rajaraja, king of Chola (reigned about 985-1016 CE), sent a 52-person delegation to offer local specialties. The envoy Srisaman brought a royal letter. In second year of Ming Dao Era (1033), Chola sent Bhujadali and others to offer pearls, ivory and other materials. In the 10^th year of Xi Ning Era (1077), Chola King Devakara again sent 27 persons to offer pearls, spices, herbs etc. In the Southern Song Dynasty, the northwestern passage was blocked and only the sea route was accessible,
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In 1271, the Yuan Dynasty was established and though with a history of less than 100 years, it had as many records of sea-borne traffic than the preceding dynasty. Especially the period from 1279-1294 witnessed the most frequent intercourse between India and China. According to *Yuan Shi* (*History of Yuan Dynasty*), during this period the Yuan Dynasty sent envoys 11 times to Malabar (southwest coast of India), Kollam and other Indian states, and Malabar sent envoys 12 times and Kollam four times to Yuan Dynasty. Yang Tingbi, then the most famous Chinese envoy, set sail thrice from Guangzhou and Quanzhou, and historical records also contained the names of several Malabar and Kollam kings, courtiers and envoys.
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Ibn Batuta (1304-1368), an Arab traveller, came to India via central Asia in 1333 and became an official in the court of Mohammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate. Afterwards, he was appointed as a special envoy to China. He wrote *Rihla* (*Journey*), often titled as *Travels of Ibn Batuta*, which gave a detailed account of his journeys in Central Asia, India and China. Although it is doubtful whether he even reached China, his account of southern coastal India was quite consistent with that of *Yuan Shi* and *Daoyi Zhilue*.
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14^th-15^th century CE
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A great event in the history of India-China relations was the visit to India by Zheng He, a Chinese mariner and messenger of the Mind emperor. Emperor Chengzu of the Ming (reigned 1403-1424) appointed Zheng He (see *Zheng He*) as the envoy and Wang Jinghong (see *Wang Jinghong*) as deputy envoy to go to India by sea. The Emperor also sent Hou Xian (see *Hou Xian*) to visit northwestern India by land. According to *Zheng He zhuan* of *Ming Shi* (*History of Ming Dynasty*), Zheng He had been to the Indian Ocean seven times. The first time was from the sixth month of third year to the ninth month of the fifth year of Yong Le Era (1405-1407). The second time was from the ninth month of sixth year to the sixth month of ninth year of Yong Le Era (1408-1411). The third time was from the 11^th month of the 10^th year to the seventh month of 13^th year of Yong Le Era (1412-1415). The fourth time was from the winter of the 14^th year to the seventh month of the 17^th year of Yong Le Era (1416-1419). The fifth time was from the spring of the 19^th year to the eighth month of the 20^th year of Yong Le Era (1421-1422). The sixth time was from the first month of the 22^nd year of Yong Le Era to the second month of the 1^st year of Hong Xi Era (1424-1425), and the seventh time was from the fifth to eighth year of Xuan De Era (1430-1433), lasting a total of 29 years.
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Statue of Arab traveller, Ibn Batuta in Quanzhou Maritime Museum of Transportation
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Zheng He's voyages in Quanzhou Maritime Museum of Transportation
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Zheng He's fleet set off from Liujiagang of Jiangsu. It was replenished in Fujian and then sailed to present-day Vietnam, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Cambodia in southeast Asia. They crossed the Strait of Malacca to reach present-day Sri Lanka, India, Bengala and Maldives in southern Asia. It then entered the Persian Gulf and Red Sea via the Arabian Sea to come to present-day Iran, Turkey and the Arabian Peninsula, and then sailed southward to states along the east coast of Africa.
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Zheng He's voyages served to strengthen the contact with and knowledge of India. While returning from a voyage, Zheng He usually brought envoys from some states numbering from several to more than a dozen, including envoys from India. Meanwhile, there were three books offering valuable and truthful information about Indian states. The first was *Ying Ya Sheng Lan* (*General Survey of the Ocean Shores*) compiled by Ma Huan, who was fluent in Arabic and a translator for the fleet. He wrote a part of the book and preface in 1416, and then went abroad again. Supplementary contents were added. The book was not completed until the first year of Tian Shun Era of Emperor Yingzong (1457). The second was *Xing Cha Sheng Lan* (*Description of the Starry Raft*) written by Fei Xin who had accompanied Zheng He on four naval expeditions. His book was completed in the first year of Zheng Tong Era (1436). The third was *Xi Yang Fan Guo Zhi* (*Annals of Foreign Nations in the Western Ocean*) written by Gong Zhen who participated in the seventh voyage. This book was completed in the ninth year of Xuan De Era (1434). These three books verify and supplement each other, provide a thorough description of the then southeastern and southern Asian states, and are a valuable reference for study of the history of southern India and India-China relations.
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Hou Xian had been ordered many times to visit states in southern Asia. He went there mainly by land, but the sea route was also mentioned. According to Hou Xian of *Ming Shi* (*History of Ming* *Dynasty*, Book 304), in the seventh month of the 13th year of (Yong Le Era) (1415), the Emperor wanted to contact Bangla and so ordered Hou Xian to lead a fleet. Bangla was a state in eastern India then and was far from China, and its King Saifuddin sent envoys to offer local specialties.
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According to *Xing Cha Sheng Lan*, *Ying Ya Sheng Lan* and *Ming Shi* (*History of Ming Dynasty*), the Ming Dynasty had contact with the following Indian kingdoms or regions (mostly by sea, rarely by land): Delhi, Jaunpur (present-day Uttar Pradesh), Bangla (present-day Bengal and West Bengal in India), Annagoondy (present-day Karnataka in southern India), Cochin (present-day Kochi on west coast of southern India), Minor Kollam (present-day Quilon on west coast of southern India), Major Kollam (present-day Quilon or south of Quilon), Cail (on the east coast of southern India), Comorin (now at the southern tip of India), Cola (or Chola, on the southwest coast of India), Calicut, Nicobar and Andaman. Specifically, the King of Annagoondy (Bo Ha Lu), sent envoys to China in the seventh year of Hong Wu Era (1374), King of Calicut (Sha Mi de Xi) sent envoys to Nanjing in the third year of Yong Le Era (1405). King of Bangla (Ai Ya Si Ding, unknown-1412) sent envoys to China in the sixth year of Yong Le Era (1408). King of Cochin (Ke Yi Li) sent envoys to China in the ninth year of Yong Le Era (1411) and in the eighth year of Xuan De Era (1433). King of Bangla (Saifuddin) sent envoys to China in the 11th year of Yong Le Era (1413), and Vikrama, King of Calicut and Devaraja, King of Comorin, all sent envoys to China in the eighth year of Xuan De Era. Mehmud, King of Delhi and Ibrahim Sharqi, King of Jaunapur had also contacted the Ming Dynasty.
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16th-mid 20th century CE
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In 16th century CE, China was on the decline, and Western powers came to control the sea routes and India-China trade. In 1510, the Portuguese seized Goa on the west coast of India and turned it into a stronghold to colonise India. In 1557, they established themselves in Macao, China and carried out Europe-South Asia-East Asia trade. Then, the Spanish, British, Dutch, Danish, French and Swedish all came to India and East Asia, and direct official contact between India and China ceased.
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Up to the mid 19th century CE, between India and China there were only a few civilian intercourses but very few official contact. By the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, there were regular liners to and from both nations. Around 1901, on an average, at least one direct passenger liner would set out from Guangdong for India once every five days, which was quite a busy schedule. Civilian intercourses rose significantly, In the summer of 1878, Huang Maocai and his entourage, a total of six persons, were sent by the Qing government to India by sea. This was the first official delegation ever sent by the Qing government to India. Huang Maocai stayed in India for nearly six months, and including the time spent en route, this trip lasted one year and five months. Back in China, Huang Maocai wrote the diary, *Yin Du Zha Ji*, *You Li Chu Yan* and other books, and made a map of India.
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Chiang Kai-shek's inscription after the death of Mahatma Gandhi at Gandhi Smriti in New Delhi, India
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Cover of Wu Guangpei's, Diary of Travels to the South
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In 1881, Ma Jianzhong and Wu Guangpei were dispatched to India to negotiate opium issues with the British, and stayed there for 25 days. Back to China, Ma wrote *Nan Xing Ji* (published in 1896) and Wu wrote *Nan Xing Ri Ji* (published in 1890). Ma and Wu failed to achieve their purpose, but this was the second official delegation sent by the Qing government to India, and their accounts provided valuable information about India in 19ᵗʰ century.
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In 1889, Xue Fucheng was appointed as the Ambassador to Britain, France, Italy and Belgium, and Huang Zunxian as the Second Counsellor in Britain. In 1890, they went onboard the same
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Image of Huang Zunxian
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ship and sailed westward by way of India. Though not envoys to India, they were all very concerned with issues related to India. Once back in China, they published the relevant works which contained special chapters on production and trade of opium and tea. Xue Fucheng also paid attention to India’s population issue, saying that India conducted its first census in 1891 rather than in 1901 as usually thought, and its population then stood at over 288,509,600.
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In 1900, the Boxer Rebellion broke out, and Britain sent its forces in India to suppress it. In the British army, there were many Indian soldiers and the most touching and memorable was of Gadadhar Singh’s, an Indian soldier who wrote a diary in Hindi who published it as *Thirteen Months in China* once back in India. This book is a very valuable historical document,
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In 1912, the Republic of China was founded, while India was still under British rule. Chinese revolutionaries and staff of the nationalist government had frequent contact with leaders of the Indian independence movement, but very few interactions with British colonists.
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In 1924, the great Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore visited China, which received a lot of attention from the nationalist government. Sun Yat-sen, who was ill then, wrote a letter to welcome him.
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In 1933, with vigourous support from China’s nationalist government, and Indian and Chinese scholars, the Sino-Indian Cultural Society was initiated in China. The following year in 1934, with active support and involvement of the leaders of the Congress Party that already enjoyed a semi-official status, Sino-Indian Cultural Society was initiated in India. It was established in India and China in 1935. The Chinese nationalist government donated Chinese books to Visva-Bharati through public collection, and sponsored Rabindranath Tagore to set up Cheena Bhavana in 1937.
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On July 7, 1937, China commenced the Anti-Japanese War, and Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party leaders all strongly denounced the Japanese aggression. Jawaharlal Nehru called for all-India support to China’s anti-Japanese war. With his support, an Indian Medical Mission team was set up in August 1938 and dispatched to China. Dr. Kotnis, a member of the Indian Medical Mission, sacrificed his life in China.
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On August 22, 1939, Nehru arrived in Kunming, and he came to Chongqing on August 23 and was solemnly received as a state guest by China’s nationalist government and people from all walks of life there. Chiang Kai-shek and his wife held a banquet in his honour. While in Chongqing, he met senior KMT officials and senior CPC cadres. On August 27, CPC leader Mao Zedong sent a telegraph to invite him to visit Yan’an and to thank him for despatching the Indian Medical Mission to China. However, since the European War erupted and Nehru was urged to return to India earlier, he had to decline the invitation. During his visit, Nehru wrote a memorandum on strengthening India-China contact, giving seven recommendations to develop mutual relationships. Based on these and the opinion of Chiang Kai-shek, KMT central committee drafted *An Outline of Measures for Sino-Indian Cooperation* that suggested mutual exchange of professors, students, publications, news; send groups for research and investigation, visit and travel. Following specific measures were put forward: China will organise Buddhist delegation to visit India; specialists will be dispatched to India to investigate industry and agriculture; a mission will be organised to India for scientific investigation; and representatives will be despatched to India to attend annual meeting of the Congress Party. Later, these measures were implemented.
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On February 9, 1942, Chiang Kai-shek and his wife arrived in New Delhi at the invitation of the British Governor-General of India and were greeted by people from all walks of life. While in India, Chiang Kai-shek spent most of his time in visiting and meeting important Indian figures, including Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Chairman of Muslim League), and women leaders Vijayalakshmi Pandit and Sarojini Naidu. Nehru thrice met Chiang Kai-shek and personally accompanied him to visit Visva-Bharati founded by Tagore. Before returning to China, Chiang Kai-shek published *Message to Indian People* on February 21 to make clear his position, saying that up till now, world peace had been threatened by brutal aggression and violence. India and China were closely related with a common destiny. Therefore, the two nations would have to work and fight together to combat aggression and do the best they can to achieve world peace. He urged the British authorities to return real political power to the Indian people as soon as possible.
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India gained independence in 1947 while the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. On April 1, 1950, India established formal diplomatic relations with China, and thereafter, a new era began in India-China diplomatic relations. In the half century from 1950-2000, diplomatic relations between the two countries could be divided into four phases: Phase I was the honeymoon in the 1950s, Phase II was the interruption from early 1960s to early 1970s, Phase III was the restoration in mid and late 1970s, and Phase IV was the stability in the 1980s and 1990s.
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*Zhou Enlai’s autographed books which he donated to Visva Bharati during his visit to India in 1959*
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In the 1950s, India and China began full contact and cooperation in political, economic and cultural aspects. Leaders of both countries all attached great importance to the newly established mutual friendship. They cooperated with and supported each other under the anti-imperialist banner. China supported India to recover Goa, while India supported China to resume its lawful seat in the UN. There were many high-level visits. From June 25-28, 1954, the Chinese Premier and Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai visited India. The day he arrived in New Delhi, he went to see the Indian President Rajendra Prasad, Vice President Radhakrishnan and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. He held talks with Nehru to arrive at an extensive agreement on many issues, and issued a joint communiqué calling for 'Five Principles' to deal with international relations. From October 19-30, 1954, Indian Prime Minister Nehru and his daughter Indira Gandhi paid a visit to China and were warmly received by Chinese leaders and people. Premier Zhou held a grand banquet to welcome the distinguished guests, and Chairman Mao also personally met Nehru and held a banquet to entertain him. Nehru’s visit further promoted common understanding and friendship between the two countries. In the Bandung Conference held in April 1955, Indian and Chinese prime ministers worked to promote solidarity and anti-imperialist efforts among Asian and African countries. Later, Premier Zhou Enlai visited India in 1956 and 1960.
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In 1959, border dispute arose between India and China, and conflicts occurred in 1962. Both countries withdrew their ambassadors. In the following decade, relations between the two nations were almost interrupted.
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This relationship did not have a favourable turn until Dr. Bejoy Kumar Basu, President of All India Kotnis Memorial Committee and an old friend of Chinese people, visited China in April 1973 at the invitation of Marshal Ye Jianying. In the following May, the All India Kotnis Memorial Committee sent a delegation to Beijing, the first Indian delegation since 1962. Before departure, the delegation obtained the approval of the Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Dr. Basu and the All India Kotnis Memorial Committee made important efforts to normalise diplomatic relations.
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In 1976, they resumed diplomatic relations at ambassadorial level. In 1978, Wang Bingnan, President of Chinese People’s Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries (CPAFFC) led a 12-person delegation to visit India and was warmly greeted by the Indian public. The All India Dr. Dwarkanath Kotnis Memorial Committee was responsible for the reception and arranged the delegation to meet Indian Vice President B. D. Jatti, Prime Minister Morarji Desai, Foreign Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the opposition party leader Indira Gandhi and other important political figures. In February 1979, the Indian Foreign Minister Vajpayee visited China as invited. During his visit, the Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping met the delegation and made an important speech on India-China relations.
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In May 1980, October 1981 and October 1985, Chinese and Indian prime ministers took the chance of international summits to meet each other in Belgrade, Cancun and New York, respectively. In June 1981, Vice Premier and Foreign Minister Huang Hua visited India, reaching an understanding on issues of common concern. From 1981-1988, Indian and Chinese officials held nine rounds of negotiation to resolve border issues. These negotiations, though failed to settle border issues, played a positive role in improving mutual relationship and promoting cultural exchange.
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From December 19-23, 1988, the Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi paid a formal visit to China on invitation. This was the first time in 34 years that an Indian prime minister visited China. Rajiv Gandhi visited China in spite of opposition at home and held frank, sincere and amicable talks with the Premier Li Peng, exchanging opinions on bilateral relations and issues of common concern. They arrived at a consensus that the border issue should be resolved on the basis of amicable consultation, the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence as well as mutual understanding, accommodation and adjustment so as to improve and develop a good-neighbourly relationship. Deng Xiaoping and other Chinese leaders also met Rajiv Gandhi.
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From December 11-16, 1991, Premier Li Peng, at the invitation of Prime Minister Narasimha Rao, paid a formal friendly visit to New Delhi. This was the first visit of a Chinese premier to visit India in 31 years. Both sides agreed that the border issue should not be an obstacle to mutual relations and it was necessary to continue with high-level exchange visits, to push forward mutual relationship and to further deepen mutual cooperation in the areas of politics, economy, science & technology and cultural aspects, and given the changing international situation, developing countries should support and cooperate with each other. India and China also signed five documents and issued a joint communiqué.
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In May 1992, Indian President R. Venkataraman paid a state visit to China, the first Indian president ever to visit China since diplomatic relations being established between the two nations. From September 6-9, 1993, invited by Premier Li Peng, the Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao paid a state visit to China. Both nations signed four documents to promote mutual political, economic and cultural collaboration.
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At the invitation of Indian President Shankar Dayal Sharma, the Chinese President Jiang Zemin paid a state visit to India from November 28-December 1, 1996. This was the first visit by China’s head of state to India since diplomatic relations was established between the two countries. India attached great importance to this visit, and the most important result of this visit was that India and China agreed to build a constructive partnership oriented toward the 21ˢᵗ century on the basis of “Five Principles” of Peaceful Coexistence. Leaders of both countries vowed to push India-China economic co-operation to a new height.
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The Indian Foreign Minister Jaswant Singh visited China in 1999, and it was agreed that India and China would not deem each other as a threat. From May 28-June 3, 2000, the Indian President K R Narayanan paid a state visit to China on invitation, met President Jiang Zemin and exchanged opinions on bilateral relations as well as regional and international issues of common concern, reaching extensive consensus. On July 22, the Chinese Foreign Minister Tang Jiaxuan visited India to discuss measures for implementing the consensus reached by the leaders of both countries, and for improving and developing bilateral relations.
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Indian President Ramaswamy Venkataraman takes the guard of honour, along with Yang Shangkun, during his visit to China in 1992
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A review of India-China diplomatic exchange in the past more than 2000 years indicates that friendship is the mainstream and common desire for both Indian and Chinese people.
A. Concepts
Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence)
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Panchsheel, the principles guiding interstate relations and diplomatic policies jointly initiated by India and China, is also known as the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence or Five Principles. The
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Prime Ministers of India and China in Beijing in 1954
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specific contents of the Five Principles are: mutual respect of each other’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference into each other’s internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence.
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In December 1953, delegations of the Chinese Government and Indian Government held negotiations to discuss the relations between India and China in the Chinese Tibetan region in Beijing. On December 31, the first day of the negotiations, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the Five Principles of “mutual respect of each other’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference into each other’s internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence,” to deal with the relations between the two countries when meeting the delegation of Indian Government. The Indian delegation accepted this proposal and took these principles as the guiding principles for the negotiations. The negotiations were concluded on April 29, 1954 and representatives of both countries signed the *Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between the Tibet Region of China and India* and relevant exchange of notes. The agreement designated the above-mentioned Five Principles as the guiding principles for bilateral relations in the preface.
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On June 25, 1954, Zhou Enlai was invited to pay an official visit to India. Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru suggested extending the Five Principles to Southeast Asia so as to build a peaceful region free from wars and fear. In the joint statement published later, he made it clear that the Five Principles was applicable not only to India and China, but also to other Asian countries and all countries in the world. As proposed by Jawaharlal Nehru, the Five Principles applied the Indian religious term 'Panchsheel'.
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On June 29, 1954, Zhou Enlai and U Nu, Prime Minister of Myanmar, issued a joint statement in Rangoon (present-day Yangon) and affirmed the universal significance of the Five Principles for guiding international relations. Later, India and China applied the Five Principles extensively to international relations, which was accepted by most countries in the world. The Five Principles have become one of the important principles for international relations.
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(*Zhang Minyu*)
Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai
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'Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai' “印度中国亲如兄弟” (India and China are brothers) was a slogan popular in India and China in the 1950s. India and China were first described as 'brothers' by Liang Qichao in Beijing in 1924. It was actually used to mobilise the Chinese intellectuals to welcome the Indian poet, Rabindranath Tagore. It was also mentioned
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A show to commemorate the 60ᵗʰ anniversary of the establishment of China-India Friendship Association
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by Tagore in his lectures in China the same year. Later, the concept of “India and China are brothers” became a popular Indian slogan during the 1950. India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru coined the slogan 'Hindi Chini Bhai-Bhai' in the 1950s to glorify India-China relations. This can be regarded as an indication of the effort made by Nehru to implement the original Tagorean perception. During this period, based on this famous slogan, a song was composed by legendary Bengali singer, Debabrata Biswas. He performed the song at various places in China when he had visited China as a member of the Indian Cultural Delegation in the early 1950s, and was warmly appreciated by the Chinese audience. These performances were organised by Chinese People’s Committee in the Defence of World Peace, the organisation that hosted the Delegation.
B. Events
Visit of Chiang Kai-Shek and His Wife to India
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From February 4-21, 1942, Chiang Kai-shek, Chairman of the Supreme National Defense Council of the Republic of China and Commander-in-Chief of the allied forces in China war zone, paid a state goodwill visit to India. His wife Soong Mei-Ling and Foreign Minister Wang Chonghui as well as Vice-Minister of the Propaganda Department Dong Xianguang accompanied him during the visit. The
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*Chiang Kai-shek meets Jawaharlal Nehru in India, 1942*
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delegation departed from Chongqing by a special plane on February 4 and arrived in Calcutta, India on February 5 via Kunming and Myanmar.
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Chiang Kai-shek had talks with officials of the British colonial government on the progress of the Pacific War, India-China relations and Indian political situation in Calcutta and New Delhi, respectively. On February 7, he met Sir John Arthur Herbert, Governor of Bengal, in Calcutta. In the morning of February 10, he and his accompanying officials held talks with Lord Linlithgow, Governor General of India in New Delhi. On February 12, Indian and Chinese representatives continued to talk about constructing the Ledo Road. A series of results of the talks include: 1) both sides reached consensus on the specific plan on building the Ledo Road; 2) both sides planned to cooperate in transporting aid-China military materials via Lhasa; 3) both sides negotiated the construction of a large airport in India and the opening of transport air routes; 4) both sides agreed to send their diplomatic representatives to reside permanently in New Delhi and Chongqing; 5) both sides also agreed to set up Chinese affairs liaison office “Chinese Affairs Liaison Bureau” in Calcutta.
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Chiang Kai-shek also held talks with prominent leaders of the Indian National Independent Movement several times. In the afternoon of February 11, he spoke to Jawaharlal Nehru and Abul Kalam Muhiyuddin Ahmed Azad. In the afternoon of February 15, he met Nehru again. In the evening of February 17, he had a talk with Mohammed Ali Jinnah. On February 18 at noon, he met Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in the house of his Indian friend Ghanshyam Das Birla. Indian national movement leaders got to know the situation of the Anti-Japanese War through these talks and expressed their sympathy for Chinese people’s resistance against Japanese invasion. However, Gandhi also made clear that he wouldn’t give up the non-violent non-cooperation movement although he wouldn’t hamper Sino-British cooperation in fighting against Japanese aggression and wished Chiang Kai-shek would put pressure on the British Government to make India independent.
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On February 19-20, Chiang Kai-shek and Soong Mei-Ling visited Visva-Bharati and wrote the inscription 'The Ways of Harmonious Relationship with Neighbouring Countries' for the university, meaning there should be a way to contact with neighbours. They also donated Rs 50,000 to the university and Rs 30,000 to Cheena Bhavan. Nehru also went to the university at the invitation of Tan Yunshan and held talks with Chiang Kai-shek once again.
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On February 21, Chiang Kai-shek made public the *Letter to Indian People* in Calcutta and emphasised that the British Government should return the authority to Indian people as soon as possible. In
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*A picture of Mahatma Gandhi with Chiang Kai-shek and his wife during the couple's visit to India in 1942*
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the evening, the delegation left Calcutta by plane to Kunming.
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According to the agreement reached during his visit to India, Shen Shihua was appointed as the commissioner of China to India under the rule of Britain on March 3. On March 17, “Indian Day” was celebrated in China. In the same year, the Government of the Republic of China established the National Oriental Language School in Chenggong County, Yunnan Province and set up the Hindi subject, Indian history, among other correlated curriculum.
Chinese Army in India 1942-1945
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During World War II, India served as the temporary base for an elite Chinese military force. This force was trained in India to form part of the strike force for the eventual expulsion of the Japanese army from Burma. The existence of this Chinese Army in India (CAI), stationed at Ramgarh in Bihar province (present-day Jharkhand), was so secret that it was not made public until after the war.
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Troops from China had been sent to Burma from Yunnan to fight with the British army to hold off the Japanese forces. With their defeat at the hands of the Japanese in mid-1942, a large number of these Chinese troops were forced to retreat, fighting all the way into India. From July through September 1942, remnants of detachments of Chinese troops arrived in India one after the other. Some were from the 38ᵗʰ division of the 66ᵗʰ Army commanded by Lt. Gen. Sun Li-jen, while others from the 22ⁿᵈ Division of the 5ᵗʰ Corps were under Maj. Gen. Liao Yai-hsiang. The British Government of India made available a former prisoner of war camp at Ramgarh for them.
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Most of the Chinese soldiers who arrived in India initially were in a wretched condition on account of the privations they had suffered during the Burma campaign, and the arduous retreat that followed. However, the aim was not just to rehabilitate these soldiers in India, but also to retrain and re-equip them so as to turn them once again into an effective fighting force through the combined efforts of the Chinese, British and Americans. The Chinese military authorities on the spot took care of administration and maintaining discipline among the forces, the Government of India provided food and money to pay the soldiers, and the Americans took over the work of training and providing equipment. The ranks of the original 9,000 troops that arrived from Burma were increased by new batches of officers and men specially flown in from China. A total of 5,368 officers and 48,124 Chinese soldiers passed through the Ramgarh training camp, forming what eventually came to be known as the New Chinese 1ˢᵗ Army and the New Chinese 6ᵗʰ Army under the command of Generals Sun Li-jen and Liao Yao-hsiang, respectively.
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Even as new personnel from China continued to arrive in Ramgarh, divisions of the CAI began to move to Ledo to prepare for fighting in Burma as early as April 1943. The New 38ᵗʰ Division first took part in the campaign to repulse the Japanese troops from the India-Burma border. The combined forces of the New 38ᵗʰ Division and the New 22ⁿᵈ Division took part in the Hukawng Valley campaign, which ended in victory for the Allied forces in March 1944. The Chinese and American forces combined then expelled the Japanese from the strategically situated town of Myitkyina in August 1944. In the second phase of the campaign, Bhamo, Namhkam and Mongyu were retaken by January 1945, permitting the opening of the Ledo (Stilwell) Road, crucial for the transport of supplies and personnel between northeastern India and southwestern China. At Mongyu, troops of the CAI were reunited with Chinese troops from China. They went on to partake in the remaining part of the Burma campaign, following which they were airlifted back to China by the end of June 1945 to aid in the counter-offensive against the Japanese there.
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The Chinese Army in India during World War II was a significant instance of military cooperation between India and China in the modern era
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*(Madhavi Thampi)*
Establishment of India-China Diplomatic Relations
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After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, India was the first non-socialist country to establish diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China on April 1, 1950. In September 1948, the Northeast Field Army of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army started the Liaoxi-Shenyang Campaign and it was promising to win soon. Therefrom, India began to adjust its policy towards China. India was also the first non-socialist country to establish an embassy in the People’s Republic of China. On October 5, 1948, the then Bureau Chief of the Hong Kong Branch of the Xinhua News Agency, Qiao Guanhua sent a request by telegram to the CPC Central Committee on the Indian Embassy Councillor Ismail's wish to visit the liberated areas. Guanghua mentioned that the Indian Embassy Councillor-Ismail had sent an emissary to enquire regarding Chinese reaction to the Indian side sending people to the liberated areas. Ismail hoped that a visit to the liberated areas will lay the foundation for establishing diplomatic relations between the liberated areas and India in future. In April 1949, the President of People's Liberation Army occupied the Nanjing Presidential Palace. The personnel under the nationalist government retreated southward to Guangzhou. The Indian Embassy in China did not follow but they prepared an inventory of embassy personnel and property and sent to the People's Government for record.
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*China Expeditionary Force in India; General Sun Li-jen reviews the troops in Ramgarh*
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*Indian Ambassador to China, K. M. Pannikar presents his credentials to Chairman Mao Zedong*
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On December 30, 1949, the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru received an official letter dated October 2, 1949 from Zhou Enlai, Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China and immediately acknowledged that the Government of India recognised the Government of the People's Republic of China and expressed the willingness to establish diplomatic relations with the Chinese Government. On January 4, 1950, Zhou Enlai replied in telegram to Nehru and expressed that the Chinese Government stood ready to establish diplomatic relations with the Indian Government on the principles of equality, mutual benefit and mutual respect for each other's territorial sovereignty and wished the Indian Government to send representatives to Beijing to discuss related issues. On January 6, 1950, Nehru sent a telegram to him and said the Indian Government had decided to appoint A K Sen as the Charge d'Affaires ad Interim for preliminary negotiations with the Chinese Government. On January 12, 1950, Zhou Enlai replied and agreed on the suggestion. On February 13, 1950, Sen arrived in Beijing and the two countries started the negotiations of the establishment of diplomatic relations. On February 22, March 1 and March 15, 1950, three rounds of talks were held and basically addressed the major issues related to the establishment of diplomatic relations. Following that, four rounds of talks were held on sending diplomatic envoys to each other's country on March, 20, 27 and 30 and April 1, 1950. The People's Republic of China assigned Yuan Zhongxian as the ambassador to India while the Indian Government appointed Kavalam Madhava Panikkar as the ambassador to China.
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Later, both countries also signed the *Panchsheel Agreement* in 1954 in Beijing, in the presence of Jawaharlal Nehru, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai and other Indian and Chinese leaders. According to the agreement, both sides agreed to follow the five basic principles of mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit and peaceful coexistence.
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(Sabaree Mitra & Jiang Jingkui)
Visit of Indian Leaders to China Since the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations
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On April 1, 1950, the Republic of India and the People's Republic of China established diplomatic relations formally. Since then, many Indian leaders have paid visits to China at the invitations of Chinese state leaders which have promoted the two countries' mutual understanding, boosted bilateral relations and enhanced India-China friendship.
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From October 19-30, 1954, Jawaharlal Nehru in the capacity of Indian Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, and his daughter Indira Gandhi paid a visit to China and held three talks with Mao Zedong on 'The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence' and on issues like 'whether making war a policy tool is beneficial'. There were differences between the two sides in the talks, but this friendly argument did not hamper the two countries to reach a consensus in facing common tasks. Both sides believed that they should work together to prevent wars and win a lasting peace. During this visit, Jawaharlal Nehru also had four talks with the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai. These talks further consolidated the negotiations between the two governments held not long ago about the relations between Chinese Tibet and India and the results of Zhou Enlai's visit to India.
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From December 19-23, 1988, the Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi paid a state visit to China and held talks with Li Peng and Deng Xiaoping, respectively. Both prime ministers also reached internal understanding of the guiding principles of solving India-China border disputes, which contributed a lot to the settlement of India-China border disputes and represented a new starting point for the improvement and development of India-China relations. Gandhi expressed the resolve of India to seek mutually beneficial settlement of the disputes and put forward the concept of “parallel working” that is to actively develop bilateral relations in other areas while seeking a way for the settlement acceptable for both countries. For that matter, both sides agreed to establish a joint working group for the settlement of border issues and other joint working groups for issues related to economy, trade, science and technology and signed the *Agreement on Scientific and Technological Cooperation*, *Air Service Agreements* and the *Plan on Implementing the Three Annual Cultural Cooperation Agreements*.
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Indian Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru on his arrival in Beijing on October 19, 1954
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From May 18-23, 1992, Indian President Ramaswamy Venkataraman was invited to pay a state visit to China, which was the first-ever visit made by any Indian president since the establishment of diplomatic relations between India and China. President Venkataraman held talks with President Yang Shangkun and met with Jiang Zemin, General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee and Chinese Premier Li Peng, respectively. Both state leaders had an extensive exchange of views on bilateral, regional and global issues. Both sides agreed to further recover and develop India-China traditional friendship and signed the *Agreement on Entry and Exit of Border for Trade*.
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From September 6-9, 1993, Indian Prime Minister Pamulaparthi Venkata Narasimha Rao was invited to pay an official goodwill visit to China. Both sides had an in-depth exchange of views on bilateral, regional and international issues of common concern and signed four documents including the *Agreement on Maintaining Peace and Tranquility along the Line of Actual Control in the China-India Border Areas*. According to the agreement, the two countries agreed to address border issues through peaceful and friendly negotiations. Both sides agreed not to go for arbitrary use and threat of force. Both sides agreed to strictly respect and abide by the control line in between before the final settlement of border issues. Both sides agreed to maintain their respective military forces in the line of actual control at the minimum level appropriate for good neighbourly and friendly relations between the two countries. The term 'line of actual control' appeared for the first time in the official document signed between the two countries. After the signing of the agreement, the Indian and Chinese armies started to exchange visits and spontaneous border trade became active.
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From May 28-June 3, 2000, Indian President Kocheril Raman Narayanan paid a week-long visit to China at the invitation of Chinese President Jiang Zemin. Apart from Beijing, the capital city of China, President Narayanan also visited Dalian and Kunming. Both sides jointly commemorated the 50ᵗʰ anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic ties between the two countries and compared notes extensively on international and regional issues of common concern. The two sides also reached consensus on many issues, such as promoting global diversified development, strengthening the role of the United Nations, fully embodying the representativeness of developing countries in reforming the United Nations Security Council, establishing just and rational international political and economic new order and jointly safeguarding the peace and stability of South Asian region and the world at large. Both sides also agreed to set up a “China-India Famous Persons Forum”. In 2004, Narayanan visited Beijing again and attended and addressed the “International Symposium on Celebrating the 50ᵗʰ Anniversary of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence” organised by Chinese People’s Institute of Foreign Affairs.
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