Studies in the History of Sanskrit Poetics v1.c5.7

v1.c5.7

The first evidence of a definite, if somewhat crude, activity in this direction is traceable in the *Nighaṇṭu* and *Nirukta*. From the investigation of the peculiarities of the general form of language, which began early, attention was apparently directed to the analysis of the poetic forms of speech; but the question was still regarded entirely from the linguistic point of view. The term *alaṃkāra* in the technical sense does not occur in the *Nirukta*, but Yāska uses the word *alaṃkariṣṇu* in the general sense of ‘one in the habit of adorning’, which Pāṇini explains in III. 2. 136 and which is apparently the meaning of the word occuring in the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* (xiii. 8. 4. 7; iii. 5. 1. 36), and in the *Chāndogya Upaniṣad* (viii. 8. 5). But in the *Nighaṇṭu* iii 13, a list is given of particles of comparison relating to the Vedic *upamā*, comprising twelve varieties, which are illustrated in the *Nirukta* i 4, iii 13-18 and ix 6. Six of these varieties, viz., those indicated by the particles *iva*, *yathā*, *na*, *cit*, *nu* and *ā*, are discussed in connexion with Yāska’s treatment of *upamārthe nipātas* or particles indicative of comparison (i 4), and partly included in what he designates as *karmópamā* in iii 15. Then Yāska mentions *bhūtópamā*, in which the *upamita* becomes the *upamāna* in character, and *rūpópamā*, where the *upamita* resembles the *upamāna* in point of form. The fourth variety occurs where the particle *yathā* is used. Then comes *siddhópamā*, in which the standard of comparison is well established and known to surpass every other object in a particular quality or act, and is characterised by the suffix *vat*. The last variety is *luptópamā* or suppressed simile, also called *arthópamā* (equivalent to the *rūpaka* of later theorists), which is illustrated in iii 18 (also ix 6), where the example is given of the popular application of the terms *siṃha* and *vyāghra* in a laudatory and *śvan* and *kāka* in a derogatory sense. The term *upamāna* itself is used by Yāska, but only to denote these particles of comparison (vii 31). The significance of comparison in general is also referred to in i 19, ii 6, iii 5, iv 11, v 22 and vii 13. Incidentally Yāska quotes (iii 13) the grammarian Gārgya's definition of *upamā*¹, which is important from our point of view. As explained by Durgācārya, it lays down that *upamā* occurs when an object which is dissimilar is reckoned, through similarity, with an object having similar attributes². It also states as a general rule that the standard of comparison should be superior in merit and better known than the object of comparison; but the reverse case is also admitted and illustrated (iii 14-15) by two examples from the *Ṛg-veda*. The definition, too wide as it is, recalls Mammaṭa's similar dictum, and undoubtedly establishes a very early, but more or less definite, conception of the poetic *upamā*.