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War in Ancient India c9.s4: Section VI: Tactics

War in Ancient India c9.s4

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Section VI: Tactics

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In tactics we call a battle defensive if the enemy takes the initiative, and the defender awaits him from his own station. Among the six prescriptions of foreign relations we can roughly speak of *vigraha* as a war of offence and *āsana* as one of defence. In the great battle of Laṅkā it was Rāma who took the offensive, while Rāvaṇa adopted a defensive policy. It was a long and weary march from Kiṣkindhā to Laṅkā. Further, there was the sea to be crossed. This was possible only by a rough causeway which was specially constructed by the engineering skill of Nila at the instance of Rāma. This must certainly have lost Rāma much time; and Rāvaṇa, if he had wished, could have obstructed the building of the causeway. Common sense would have dictated that he should prevent the enemy from crossing the bridge by direct defence from the other shore. Apparently Rāvaṇa realised the advantage of the condition of the approaching enemy as well as of the ground on which he could reinforce his troops and draw them up in orderly array. Judged by the result, Rāvaṇa's adoption of this defensive policy was a tactical blunder.

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In dealing with the conduct of war from the point of view of tactics, the range and the effect of different weapons are important. In tactics, however, we are concerned with arms in a finished state and not with their construction.⁷⁴ At the outset it must be remarked that Indian literature is replete with a number of mystical weapons, which seem to have been used by superhuman heroes and which legitimately belong to the Daiva and Asura forms of combat.⁷⁵ They were chiefly fought with charms and spells. The Atharva Veda Samhitā is full of these. The object was to confuse the enemy and steal a march over him.⁷⁶ It is not to our purpose to mention these, as we are dealing with the mānuṣa form of battle, far from the realm of mythology.

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⁷⁴ Clauzewitz, I, p. 113.

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⁷⁵ Niti. II, 22-49; Rāmā. I, 27-28.

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⁷⁶ S.B.E. A.V. pp. 121-24.

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Vyūhas: It would be interesting to consider the disposition of the army or order of battle, called vyūha in Sanskrit literature.⁷⁷ This belongs to the province of tactics, while the plan of war is strategy. It must not be forgotten, however, that the deployment and the drawing up of the army in array form the chief part of the plan of battle which should be arranged in accordance with the nature of the ground.

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⁷⁷ The Lakṣaṇaprakāśa quotes at length on this subject from a work entitled Rājavijaya, apparently a work on war.

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If the ground is level, the army may be arranged on daṇḍa or staff-like array and maṇḍala or circular array; if uneven, bhoga or snake-like and asamhata or detached arrays, and if complex, viṣama or an irregular array.⁷⁸ Kauṭalya speaks of Sama, Viṣama, Hasti, Rathi, Aśva and Patti vyūhas. In all these arrays the fourfold forces are used, unlike the solid phalanx of the Greeks and the Romans, which was a square formation of heavy armed infantry drawn up in rank and file, close and deep. In the samavyūha all the four

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⁷⁸ Ar. Śās. Bk. X, 3. The Hariharacaturanga follows the Kauṭalya's Arthaśāstra in this respect and mentions six principal vyūhas with their sub-divisions and details of arrangement. These are the maṇḍala, asamhata, bhoga, daṇḍa, varāha and prakṛti. The last two, varāha and prakṛti, are new divisions put into use probably during the Muhammadan and Vijayanagar periods. As if to corroborate this, there is mention of varāha vyūha in a Vijayanagar inscription (Ep. Car. VIII, p. 186).

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It was arranged in boar-like form. What was the principle that underlay the prakṛti vyūha it is difficult to say. We are told that at the battle of Raichur the army was divided into seven wings (Sewell, p. 336).

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arms are placed at certain distance so that there may be free movement for every soldier in the use of his weapons. There must be three men-at-arms to oppose a charger, and fifteen men or five horses to oppose a chariot or an elephant. If it is otherwise, it is viṣama vyūha. In an array of chariots (ratha) nine chariots are stationed in front and the same number on the two flanks and the two wings. The same number is also used for elephant (hasti) and horse (aśva) vyūhas; but in the array of elephants, nine war elephants are in the front, the same number, but trained for riding purposes are on the flanks, and rogue elephants on the wings; in an array of infantry (patti), soldiers wearing coats of mail are in front, those without armour are on the wings and archers in the rear.⁷⁹

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⁷⁹ Ibid., ch. 5.

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The other kinds of array are bhoga (snake-like) in which the army is arranged in a line one behind the other, daṇḍa (staff-like) in which the army stands abreast, maṇḍala (circle) in which the army is stationed in such a way as to be able to face all directions, and the asamhata (detached) array, and in which small groups of warriors act by themselves. The daṇḍa array becomes pradara when its flanks are projected forward. And it is droṇa when both the flanks and wings are so projected. Its counterpart is asahya where its wings are of great length. Śyena is formed when the front stretches out, with its counter cāpa. But if these four are arranged in the reverse order, they are known respectively as cāpa, cāpakukṣi, pradhiṣṭha and supradhiṣṭha. The cāpa with its front stretched out becomes vajra with its counter sañjaya.

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With flanks and wings extended, it becomes sthūlakarṇa, with the front twice the original length; viśāla vijaya is its counter array. With wings alone projected it is called camūmukha, and the reverse of this latter Jhaṣāsya. The efficacy of these arrays in their days was its irresistibility and strength to break through the enemy’s order of battle.⁸⁰

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⁸⁰ Ibid., ch. 6.

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Again sūci is another variety of daṇḍavyūha where the various divisions of one army stand one behind the other. If this is of two lines, it is known as valaya, if of four lines, durjaya. Sarpasārī and gōmūtrikā are other varieties of bhoga order in which the front flanks and wings are of unequal depth. That is śakaṭa (cart) in which there are two lines in front, while the wings are like those of daṇḍa array. The converse order for this is makara (crocodile). Pāripatantaka whose counter array is sarvatobhadra is yet another variety of bhoga which is another form of cart-like array.

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The different dispositions of the army under the maṇḍala classification are sarvatomukha (capable of turning in all directions), sarvatobhadra (auspicious), aṣṭānīka (an eight-fold division), vijaya (giving victory), vajra (diamond-like), kākapadi (crow’s foot), ardhacandrika (semi-circle-like), and karkaṭakaśṛṅgī (fish-like or crab-like). Some more kinds of arrays mentioned are ariṣṭa where the front, the wings and the rear are occupied by chariots, elephants and horses respectively, acala in which infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants stand one behind the other, and apratihata in which elephants, horses, chariots and infantry stand one behind the other. But all kinds of arrays could be resisted with success by durjaya.⁸¹

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⁸¹ *Ar. Śās.* Bk. X. 6.

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These vyūha varieties are also mentioned in the *Agnipurāṇa*.⁸² According to it, even a small body of soldiers, if drawn up in pin-like array, could hold its own against odds. Though every array mentioned was practically drawn up in five parts, yet all of them were not engaged at one and the same time. Usually one or two divisions were in active service, while the rest were kept in reserve to meet emergencies. But if the central division of the main portion of the vyūha was broken, then it was time to order a general retreat.⁸³ Kāmandaka names from Bṛhaspati the seven limbs of a vyūha, and from Śukra five limbs, and concludes by saying that there are seventeen varieties of daṇḍa vyūha, two varieties of maṇḍala, six of asamhata, and five of bhoga. These should be used in accordance with place and time by expert leaders who have a practical and working knowledge of them.⁸⁴

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⁸² Mr. Date furnishes plans of the following vyūhas: sarpa, cakra, sūci, garuḍa, makara, śakaṭa, daṇḍa, kāka, simha and others towards the end of his *Art of War*.

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⁸³ *Agni.* ch. 236.

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⁸⁴ *Kāma.* 20. 21-40, 53-55.

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Strategy and tactics could be used with effect both in righteous and unrighteous warfare. Nowhere else is the application of these arrays so practically illustrated as in the Great War. In the *Mahābhārata* war Bhīṣma has recourse to different vyūhas on different days.⁸⁵ The army of the Kurus consisted of eleven Akṣauhiṇīs while that of the Pāṇḍavas had only seven. Seeing himself numerically inferior, but backed by the superior strategy and experience, Yudhiṣṭhira advises Arjuna to form a pin-like array as it was decisive in battles where a few had to fight against many. Its other advantage was that it was capable of expansion, when necessary. But Arjuna in reply expresses his desire to form that impenetrable array called vajra with Bhīma as its leader and king Virāṭa in the rear and the whole protected by himself. For it has the great advantage of facing all directions.⁸⁶ Śveta and Bhīṣma exchange winged arrows. Then the former cuts off his bow with his sword. But in the evening Śveta is killed by Bhīṣma.⁸⁷ The next day Dhṛṣṭadyumna is appointed commander and a krauñcāruṇa vyūha is formed. Arjuna is the leader of the vanguard. Drupada is its head and king Kuntibhoja and Caidya are its two eyes. A few kings were placed on its neck. Yudhiṣṭhira with his retinue takes a position at the rear. Bhīma, Sātyaki, and other horsemen constitute its right wing. Nakula and Sahadeva occupy the left wing. For to concentrate on the flanks is one of the unwritten principles of cavalry tactics.⁸⁷ᵃ On the joints of the wings are stationed elephants and car warriors as well as on the head, the back and the neck. The rear is protected by Virāṭa.⁸⁸ Bhīṣma forms a counter array and blows his conch. Arrows, swords and battle-axes are used in succession. Arjuna fights with Bhīṣma, and Droṇa with Dhṛṣṭadyumna. Bhīṣma kills the Kalinga prince and his soldiers.⁸⁹

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⁸⁵ Bhīṣma. ch. 20, 18.

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⁸⁷ Ibid., ch. 48. 87a Cf. the tactics of the strong flanking parties (tulghama) of the Mongol and Mughals, especially in the first battle of Pānipat, where Bābur scientifically combined artillery and cavalry, ready to wheel round and take the enemy in the flank or rear, (C.H.

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¹ IV. pp. 12-13). See also Rushbrook Williams: An Empire Builder of the XVII C. (Allahabad) 1918. 88 Bhīṣma. ch. 50, 40-58.

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⁸⁹ Ibid., chh. 51 and 52.

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Then the gāruḍa vyūha is formed by Bhīṣma; Droṇa and Kṛtavarman are its eyes, Aśvatthāma and Kṛpa its head, Jayadratha its neck, Duryodhana its back, and Sūrasena and others its tail. The Magadhas and Kalingas form its right wing and other tribes the left wing. On this Arjuna forms a counter array in ardhacandra.⁹⁰ Again the Pāṇḍavas form the śṛṅgaṭaka vyūha against the ocean-like army of Bhīṣma.⁹¹

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⁹⁰ Ibid., 56, 12-19.

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⁹¹ Ibid., 88, 16 f.

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The next to be referred to in detail is the sarvatobhadra array of Bhīṣma’s army.⁹² Further, Droṇa draws his army in cart-like array and the Pāṇḍavas in the krauñca form.⁹³ Again, when Karṇa assumes the generalship at Droṇa’s death, he forms the makara vyūha, while the Pāṇḍavas forms an ardhacandra.⁹⁴ Similarly, in the encounter between Bhīma and Duryodhana, various manoeuvres are displayed.⁹⁵

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⁹² Ibid., 100, 2 f. Śalya, 7.20.

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⁹³ Droṇa. ch. 7, 10.22.

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⁹⁴ Karṇa. xi, 14-32.

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⁹⁵ Ibid., 58, 21 f.

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A close examination of the arrays used in the Mahābhārata battles affords proof of the existence of four kinds of movements common to them—circular, crooked, separate and compact, roughly corresponding to the deep and dense columns of mediæval England. The introduction of firearms brought about a transformation in the tactical disposition of troops. We find different formations in wars since the beginning of modern times. Methods in the formation of troops have been profoundly affected by the changes of armaments in different periods of history. Every method served a purpose in its own age. The conclusion is that we must not become the slaves of any particular method. From the *Agnipurāṇa*⁹⁶ we conclude that vyūhas like makara and sūci are to be formed if the danger is expected from the front, the sakaṭa or cart-like arrangement if danger is from the rear, the vajra if from the wings, and the cakra or wheel array if from all sides. And the General-in-Chief must invariably accompany the front which is indeed the danger zone. Acting up to these principles in all their encounters with Bhīṣma, Droṇa, Karṇa or even Duryodhana, the Pāṇḍavas won their victory by sheer manliness conducting themselves generously against the enemy. Does not diplomacy lend colour to strategical and tactical considerations also?

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⁹⁶ Ch. 242, 35 ff.

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In the Kūṭayuddha, on the other hand, different tactics come into play. The idea that underlies this method of war is not Dharma. But still that form of war, to repeat what we have said, is warranted by the Śāstraic texts but only as a last resort. When Duryodhana was sinking, Aśvatthāma with Kṛpa and Kṛtavarman entered the Pāṇḍava camps undetected at night, and murdered Dhṛṣṭadyumna and the Pāñcāla warriors, set fire to their tents and returned.⁹⁷ The tactics adopted by Indrajit in the war with Rāma by the murdering of Māyā Sītā so as to dishearten the monkey hosts, who witnessed the horrid scene and spread the news of Sītā's death, came upon Rāma as a great surprise.⁹⁸ But for the timely disclosure of the facts by Vibhīṣaṇa, Rāma might have desisted from further fighting.

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⁹⁷ *Saupati*, ch. 8.

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Another method employed in Kūṭayuddha is to attack the enemy fighting on another front when he was engaged or the would-be conqueror would feign an open attack or retreat, draw the enemy into a trap and overwhelm him in the rear by attacks previously arranged. This is what we understand to-day as enveloping tactics. Generally the attacks were direct, and rarely was this tactical method adopted. When the Pāṇḍavas realised that Bhīṣma could not be conquered by a frontal attack, they arranged a plan of campaign in which the enemy would be overwhelmed from all sides. Indeed it proved effective to the Pāṇḍavas and detrimental to the Kurus. No restrictions embarrassed a king pursuing an unrighteous war. The enemy might be attacked whenever he was wearied or careless. Or he might be killed when asleep during day or night.⁹⁹ Thus the use of stratagem for destroying an enemy seems to have been advocated even by good men. Aśvatthāma cites the authority of Vedic scholars for the use of poison, fire, and illusory weapons as the road to victory.

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98 *Yuddha*. ch. 81. 99 *Kāma*: 19, 54-66.

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विषेण वा माधव मायया वा शस्त्रेण गोविन्द तथामिना वा ।
यैः तैरुपायैः अरविन्दनाभ शलोर्वधं वेदविदो वदन्ति ॥

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Cf. *Ar. Śās*. XII, ch. 2, 4, 5; XIII, 2; XIV, ch. 1-4.

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In this connexion the recommendation of the *Agni-purāṇa*¹⁰⁰ is noteworthy. False shouts of victory should be made to terrify the enemy and spread confusion in his ranks. These may, perhaps, find a parallel in enemy propaganda in modern wars in which defeats are sometimes advertised as victories.

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¹⁰⁰ Ch. 236, 59-68.

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Thus ‘strategy’ and ‘tactics’ are simply two different names, as has been well said, given to the same devices when applied in scales of different magnitude. There is no single rule applicable to the former which is not equally applicable to the latter as well.

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