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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c13: Chapter V: Arts and Sciences

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c13

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Contents

Chapter V: Arts and Sciences

(1) Writing

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The art of writing was known in ancient India.¹ We have seen that *lekha* occurs in the list of seventy two arts. The *Rāyapasenī* refers to various kinds of writing materials and accessories such as *pattaga* (leaves), *kambiyā* (wooden board), *dora* (thread), *ganthi* (knots), *lippāsaṇa* (ink-pot), *chaṇdaṇa* (lid), *saṅkalā* (chain), *masi* (ink), *lehaṇī* (pen), *akkhara* (letters) and *potthaya* (book).² *Lehāyariya* (*lekhācārya*, teacher) is mentioned in the *Āvaśyaka Bhāṣya*,³ and in the *Cūrṇi*⁴

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¹ According to Dr. Gauri Shankar Ojha, writing in India goes back to the 5th century B C. (*Bhāratīya Prācīna Lipimālā*, p 2 ff )

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² Su 131, Āva Ti (Hari.), p. 384 a. *Gandī, kacchavī, muṭṭhī, samuṭaphalaka* and *chedapāī* are mentioned as five types of *potthaya* (*Bṛh Bhā* 3·3822) For a detailed description of these see Muni Punyavijayajī's scholarly monograph, *Jain Citrakalpadruma*, also Prof H. R. Kapadia's *Outlines of Palaeography* in *J U. B*, Vol. VI, pt. VI, p 87 ff, also Ojha, *op cit.*, pp 4-6, 142-158.

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³ 76 (*Niryukti Dīpikā*, I, p. 90a).

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⁴ p. 248.

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The commentary on the *Samavāyāṅga* refers to writing, engraving, sewing and weaving of letters on materials such as leaves,⁵ bark, wood, ivory, iron, copper⁶ and silver and forming them by cutting the material, burning it, breaking it, and joining one with another (*saṅkramaṇa*).⁷

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⁵ Writing on *bhuṛjapatta* is referred to in the *Āva cū.* p 530. The material on which the signs have been traced in Babylon was clay. They were traced in India on leaves or on pieces of bark These were mere scratchings, and ink was not used, Rhys Davids, *Buddhist India*, p 117

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⁶ The *Vasudevahiṇḍi* (p 189) mentions of writing a book on the copper leaf.

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⁷ p. 78.

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We hear of Cakravartins writing their names on the mountain with *Kākiṇī* jewel.⁸ We also meet the caravans which during the course of their journey used to make signs and marks on stones etc.⁹

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⁸ Jambu 3 54; for references in the Buddhist literature see Rhys Davids, *Buddhist India*, p. 108

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⁹ Āva. Ti (Hari.), p. 384a.

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We have referred to sending of letters (*leha*) to the enemy before entering into actual warfare Love-letters,¹⁰ sealed letters,¹¹ and forged letters¹² (*kūtalekha*) were also known.

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¹⁰ Uttarā. Ṭī. 13, p. 191 a.

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¹¹ Bṛh. Bhā Pt. 195; *Nisi cū.*, 5, p 87 (MSS)

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¹² Uvā. 1, p. 10.

The Eighteen Livis

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The following *livis* or scripts are mentioned :—

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(1) Bambhī, (2) Javanāliyā or Javanāṇiyā, (3) Dosāuriā, (4) Kharotthiā, (5) Pukkharasāriā, (6) Paharāṇā, (7) Uccattarā,¹³ (8) Akkharaputthiyā, (9) Bhogavayatā, (10) Veṇatiyā, (11) Niṇhaiyā, (12) Aṅka livi, (13) Gaṇia livi, (14) Gandhavva livi—Bhūya livi, (15) Ādamsa livi, (16) Māhesarī livi, (17) Dāmilī livi and (18) Polindī livi.¹⁴

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¹³ According to the *Paṇṇa* (1 55a), we have *Antakkhariyā, Uyantarikkhiyā* or *Uyantarakariyā* in place of *Uccattarā*, and *Ayāsa* in place of *Ādaṃse*, Punyavijaya, *Jain citrakalpa*., p. 6.

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¹⁴ The Viseṣa Ti (V 464) mentions the following eighteen livis (1) Hamsa livi, (2) Aṅka livi, (3) Jakkhi, (4) Rakkhasi, (5) Uddi, (6) Javani, (7) Turukki, (8) Kūī, (9) Davidi, (10) Sindhaviyā, (11) Mālavī, (12) Nadī, (13) Nāgarī, (14) Lāda livi, (15) Pāravī, (16) Animitti, (17) Cānakki and (18) Mūladevi. For some of these livis such as Aṅka livi, Nāgarī, Cānakki and Mūladevi see Punyavijaya, op cit, p 6 f note The other lists of the livis are given by Lāvanyasamayagani in his Vimalaprabandha (p 123) and Laksmi-vallabha Upādhyāya in his commentary on the Kalpasūtra, (H R Kapadia, op cit, p 94).

Brāhmī and Kharoṣṭrī Scripts

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Brāhmī and Kharoṣṭrī are the two most important scripts mentioned in the Jain and Buddhist texts.¹⁵ The former was written from left to right and the latter from right to left. The Kharoṣṭrī alphabet was introduced overland into the extreme north west of India about 500 B.C. and was used locally in Gandhāra. Later on, gradually Kharoṣṭrī disappeared from India and was replaced by Brāhmī from which all other alphabets used in India have evolved. Buhler has adopted the designation Brāhmī for the characters in which the majority of the Asoka edicts are written. According to him, the Brāhmī alphabet has been formed by phonologist or grammarians for scientific use.¹⁶

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¹⁵ The Lalitavistara (p 125f) mentions sixty four livis, the first two being Brāhmī and Kharoṣṭrī

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¹⁶ Ojha, op cit pp. 17-36, 1, 4, Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p 124.

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In Jain texts Bambhī occupies the first and fundamental place in the enumeration of the eighteen livis to which homage is paid in the beginning of the Bhagavai.¹⁷ According to the Samavāyāṅga, Bāmblī livi comprises forty six māyakkharas (mātrkāsaras) or the original letters excluding four liquid vowels, viz. Ṛ (ऋ), Ṝ (ॠ), ḷ (ऌ), Ḹ (ॡ), and L (ळ).¹⁸

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¹⁷ According to Muni Punyavijayaji, it commemorates the fact that the Jain Āgamas were first written in the Brāhmī script, op cit, p 5

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¹⁸ Dr Gaurishankar Ojha admits Kṣa as an alternative for L (ळ), op. cit., p. 46

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It is stated that Bambhī was not only a specific name of a script but a generic name which stood for the eighteen scripts mentioned above.¹⁹

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¹⁹ According to Muni Punyavijayaji, however, all the eighteen lipis are not necessarily the varieties of Bambhī (ibid. p. 5).

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The rest of the livis seem to have disappeared and no trace of these has been found so far.

Language

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As we have seen among various classes of Āryans, Bhāsāiyas or the Āryans by language are mentioned. It is said that they spoke Ardhamāgadhī and knew the Brāhmī script ²⁰

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²⁰ Panna. 1. 37.

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It is stated that Mahāvīra preached his religion in *Ardhamāgadhī*.²¹ The Jain saints are said to have preached in this language for the benefit of women, children, old men and illiterate people.²² The Jain authors, however, explain the term *Ardhamāgadhī* differently. According to the *Nisītha cūṇi*,²³ *Ardhamāgadhī* either was the language of half of Magadha or it comprised the eighteen kinds of *Desībhāsā*.

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²¹ *Sama* p 57, also *O ā sū* 34, p 146

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²² *Ācā cū* 7, p 255. According to the Jain mythology, the preachings of Mahāvīra in *Ardhamāgadhī* were understood by all alike without any distinction whatsoever, (*Sama* p 57), cf *Vibhanga* com (387f) where it is stated that if children grow up without being taught any language, they will spontaneously use the Magadha language, it is spread all over *mṛṣa*, among, lower animals *pasu*, human beings and *devas*

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²³ 11, p 733. According to Hemacandra, the main characteristic of *Māgadhī* noticed in *Ardhamāgadhī* is the termination 'e' in nominative singular in masculine (*Prākṛta Vyākaraṇa*, sū 287), also *Bhag ṭ*, *O ā sū* 17, 34

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It may be noted, however, that Hemacandra in his *Prākṛta Vyākaraṇa* deals with *Prākṛta*, *Śaurasenī*, *Māgadhī*, *Paiśācī* and *Apabhraṃśa* languages, but not with *Ardhamāgadhī* or *Ārṣa Prākṛta*. Haribhadra sūri also quotes a verse in his commentary on the *Dasaveyāliya*²⁴ which indicates that the language of the Jain Canons was known as *Prākṛta* and not *Ardhamāgadhī*. However, it must be admitted that the language of the present Jain Canons has undergone considerable changes and should be considered different from that in which the canons were originally composed.²⁵

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²⁴ p 203

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²⁵ See Pt Bechudas's article on *Ardhamāgadhī Bhāsā* in the *Purātattva* 3 4 p 346, also *Gujarātī Bhāsā nu Uthanti* pp 107-20, Bombay 1943, also B V Bapat, *I H Q*, 1928, p 23, A B Keith, the *Home of Pali*, *Buddhist Studies*, pp 728ff

(2) Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology

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The Jains have memorable achievements in secular sciences, such as mathematics, astronomy and astrology. The *Suriyapannatti* and the *Candapannatti*, the fifth and the seventh *Upāṅgas* of the Jain Canon respectively, deal with astronomy, the latter being completely identical with the former. The *Suriyapannatti* deals with various astronomical views of the Jains such as the orbits which the sun circumscribes during the year, the rising and the setting of the sun, the speed of the course of the sun through each of its 184 cubits, the light of the sun and moon, the measure of the shadow at various seasons of the year, the connection of the moon with the lunar mansions (*naksatra*), the waxing and waning of the moon, the velocity of the five kinds of heavenly bodies (the sun, the moon, planets, *naksatras* and *tārās*), the qualities of the moon light, the number of suns in Jambudvīpa, etc.²⁶ *Vivāhapadala* was another work on astrology.²⁷ Then we had *Joṇipāhuḍa*²⁸ and *Cūḍāmaṇi*²⁹ dealing with astrology.

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²⁶ Winternitz, *History of Indian Literature*, Vol II, p 457, also see Thibaut, *Astronomische Astro-logic und Mathematic* in Buhler-Kielhorn's *Groundress der Indo-Arischen Philologie*, *J A S B*, Vol 49, pt I 1880, Sukumar Ranjan Das, *School of Astronomy*, *I H Q*, Vol VIII, pp 30ff, and 565 ff. For the knowledge of astronomy among the Buddhists see Dr F J Thomas's article Sun, Moon, and Stars (Buddhists, in Hasting's *Ency. of Religion and Ethics*).

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²⁷ *Nisī cū* 12, p 854.

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²⁸ *Brh Bhā* 1. 1303.

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²⁹ Ibid. 1. 1313.

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The knowledge of astronomy was considered necessary to find the time and place for the religious ceremonies.⁸⁰ *Saṅkhāna* (arithmetic) and *joisa* (astronomy) are mentioned in the *Bhagavatī*⁸¹ and the *Uttarādhyayana*⁸² and are included among the fourteen branches of learning stated above.

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⁸⁰ Jambu Ṭī p 2, cf Dīgha I p 10f where the study of astronomy and other arts is condemned by Buddha to the monks

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⁸¹ 2 1.

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The early Jain and Buddhist texts provide ample testimony to the progress made by *jyotiṣa*. The science was otherwise known as *nakkhatta-vijjā*.⁸²ᵃ The experts in *joisa* were required to make forecasts of all coming events. It is said that Mahāvīra was versed in arithmetic and astronomy.⁸³ Arithmetic (*gaṇiya*) is counted among the seventy two arts already referred to, which is said to have been taught by Usabha to Sundarī.⁸⁴ *Gaṇita* is also described as one of the four expositions of the principle (*anuyoga*) in the Jain texts.⁸⁵ The *Thāṇaṅga* mentions ten kinds of science of numbers, *viz* *parikamma* (fundamental operation), *vavahāra* (subject of treatment), *rajju* ("rope" meaning geometry), *rāsi* ("heap" meaning measurement of solid bodies), *kalāsavanna* (fractions), *jāvam tāvam* ("as may as" meaning simple equations), *vagga* ("square" meaning quadratic equation), *ghana* ("cube" meaning cubic equation), *vaggavagga* (liquidratic equation) and *vikappa* (permutation and combination).⁸⁶

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⁸² 25 7, 36.

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⁸³ Kalpa. 1. 10

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⁸⁴ Āva cū, p 156.

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⁸⁵ Das cū p 2

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⁸⁶ 10. 747, Bibhutibhusan Datta, The Jaina School of Mathematics, The Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society, Vol XXI, p 115ff, 1929, also Sukumar Ranjan Das, A short Chronology of Indian Astronomy, I H Q 1931, H R Kapadia, Introduction to Gaṇitatilaka (G O S No LXXVIII), D M Roy Annals of the Bhandarkar Institute, 1920-7, pp 145 ff

(3) Medicines, Diseases and Treatment

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*Ayurveda* is defined as the science and art of life. It deals with life in all its phases—philosophical and biological—and comprises both preventive and curative medicine and surgery It is the great healing art of ancient India which aims at giving us "a happy and benevolent life" by showing the ways and means to it.⁸⁷

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⁸⁷ The Spirit and Culture of Āyurveda, p 411f, The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol III

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The science of Medicine (*tegicchaya* or *āyuvveya*), which is counted among the nine false sciences (*pāvasuya*) in the Jain texts,⁸⁸ is said to have been discovered by Dhannantari.⁸⁹ Dhannantari was well-versed in the medical science which comprises eight branches : Pediatrics (*kumāra-bhicca*), surgery and midwifery (*salāga*), the treatment of eye, ear, nose and throat (*sallahaltha*), the treatment of bodily diseases (*kāyaticchā*), toxicology (*jangola*), demonology (*bhūyavijyā*), the science and art of restoring health in old age (*rasāyana*) and sexual rejuvenation (*vājīkarana* or *khāratanta*).⁴⁰

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82a Das sū 8 5.

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⁸⁸ Thā 9. 678.

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⁸⁹ Nisī cū 15, p. 944, cf. Milindapañha, p. 272, also Ayoghara Jātaka (No. 510). IV, pp 496, 498.

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⁴⁰ *Vivā* 7 p. 41, also cf *Susruta Samhitā*, ch 1. 8, p 4f

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The physicians carried their bags of surgical instruments⁴¹ (*satthakosa*) and gave various treatment according to the nature of the disease by treating the patient by methods such as rubbing with oil (*abbhanga*), rubbing with powder (*uvvattana*), oil drinks (*sinehapāna*), vomiting (*vamana*) purging, (*vireyana*), branding (*avaddahana*), medicated baths (*avanhāna*), oil enema (*anuvāsana*), head bath (*bathikamma*), purging by drugs (*nirūha*), opening veins (*sirāveha*), cutting (*tacchana*), scrapping (*pacchana*), bathing the head with oils (*sirobathi*), nourishing the body with oils (*tappana*), by means of ingredients roasted on fire by *putapāka* method, barks, roots, bulbs, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, bitters (*silikā*), pills, drugs (*osaha*) and mixtures (*bhesajja*).⁴²

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⁴¹ The following instruments are mentioned *angulisatthaya*, *sirāvehasatthaya*, *pacchana*, *kap-pana*, *lohakantiyā*, *sandāsaa*, *anuvehasalāgā*, *vimuha* and *sūmuha* (*Nisi* cū. 11, p 701.)

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⁴² *Vivā*. 1, p. 8.

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We are told how a Jain monk, when suffering from sickness, should procure the services of a physician. It is said that the physician was to be approached in an auspicious moment and his advice was to be carefully followed. Sometimes, the sick persons were taken to the physician's residence. After examining the case, the *vaidya* made a diagnosis and suggested appropriate treatment and diet. If a *vaidya* was brought to the home of the patient he was provided with a hot bath and other comforts. He was to be fed on old rice and was provided with costly utensils. After the examination the physician was to be given his proper fees.⁴³

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⁴³ *Bth* *Bhā* 1, 1910-70, cf. for a similar description *Susruta Samhitā*, ch. 29, sū. 13 p. 175 ff.

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There were state physicians as well. It is said that once a physician did not treat the queen of a certain king properly and so he was put to death.⁴⁴ Another physician was addicted to gambling and he did not attend to his work. His book on medicine was stolen by robbers and his surgical instruments rusted. When this was brought to the notice of the king, he stopped his salary.⁴⁵

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⁴⁴ *Bth*. *Bhā* pī. 376.

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⁴⁵ *Vya*. *Bhā*. 5 21.

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Hospitals (*tigicchayasālā*) are freely mentioned. The *Nāyādhammakahā* mentions that a hospital was built on hundred pillars where a number of physicians and surgeons were employed who treated various kinds of patients with various kinds of medicines and herbs.⁴⁶

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⁴⁶ 13. p. 143.

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The *Ācārānga* mentions the following sixteen diseases: boils (*gandi*), leprosy (*kuttha* of eighteen kinds),⁴⁷ consumption (*rāyamsī*), epilepsy (*avamārīya*), blindness (*kāṇīya*), stiffness (*jhimīya*), lameness (*kuṇīya*), humpback (khujiya), dropsy (udari), dumbness (mūya), swelling (sūniya), over-appetite (gulāsaṃ), trembling (vevaṛ), disablement (pīdhasa-ppi), elephantiasis (sīlivaya) and diabetes (madhumeha).⁴⁸

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⁴⁷ For eighteen kinds of *kustha* also see *Susruta Samhitā*, *Nidānasthāna*, 3. 4-5, p. 342, *Caraka*, ch. 7, pp. 2069-73.

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⁴⁸ 6. 1. 173 Cf the list in the Vivā (1, p 7) asthama (sāsa), cough (kāsa), fever (jara), inflamation (dāha), intestinal colic (kucchsūla), fistula (bhagandara), piles (arisā), indigestion (ajīraa), optic neuralgia (ditthisūla), cerebral neuralgia (muddhasūla), loss of appetite (ahāraya), pain in th eye (acchiveyanā), pain in the ear (kannaveyanā), itches (kandu), and dropsy (uyara) The Jambu (Sū 24, p 120) adds family disease (kularoga), village disease (gāma), country disease (mandala), pain in the lips (otthaveyanā), pain in the nose (nakkaveyanā), toothache (dantaveyanā), jaundice (panduroga), intermitent fever coming at the interval of one, two, three or four days (egāha, beāha, teāha, cautthāha), obsession by Indra (Indaggaha), paralysis (dhanuggaha), obsession by Skanda (khandaggaha), Kumāra (kumārraggaha), heartache (hiyayasūla), stomachache (pottasūla) vaginal pain, (jonisūla), and pestilence (māri), also Nisī cū II, p 737 f Jivā 3, p 153, Bhag (Abhaya ), 3 6, p 353, also cf Law B. C, History of Palı Literature, p. 281. Also see Mahābhārata, III 230, 44 ff

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The following are mentioned as the causes of diseases. Over-eating, eating unwholesome food, over-sleeping, over-walking, checking calls of nature, travelling, irregularity of food, and indulgence in sexual intercourse.⁴⁹

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⁴⁹ Thā 9 667 Compare ten causes of disease in the Milindapañha, p 135

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Meat and wine were freely prescribed as diet by physicians ⁵⁰ The practice of using skin with or without hair (saloma-nilloma) for the Jain monks and nuns is pretty old and is referred to in the Brhatkalpa sūtra. It is laid down that if a nun suffered from flatulence (uddhavāta) or from paralysis (dhanuggāha), or from piles or from acute pain, or her hand or foot was dislocated, or her whole or a part of the body was affected by ‘wind’, she was made to lie down on a skin ⁵¹ Similarly, if her waist or hand was affected by rheumatism (vāta) the skin of a hyena (taraccha) was wrapped around the affected part, and if she were bitten by a dog she was made to lie down on a tiger skin (divicamma).⁵² In the same way the hairless skin was prescribed for the Jain monks, who suffered from bad leprosy (galantakodha), piles, kacchu⁵³ or kilibha (a kind of leprosy).⁵⁴ Droppings of a ram and cow urine were used to cure leprosy known as pāmā ⁵⁵ The leg of a vulture was tied to cure paralysis (vāyu) ; the teeth and the nails of the bear and the hair of the ram were also used for similar purposes ⁵⁶ Then gosīsa sandal was used to cure leprosy full of maggots (kimikuttha).⁵⁷

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⁵⁰ Cf. Vivā 7, Nāyā 5,p 80, cf also Mahāvagga, VI, 10 2 where in the cace of a disease not human, Buddha allowed them the use of raw flesh and blood

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⁵¹ 3 3-6, Bhā 3839-41.

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⁵² Bṛh Bhā 3816-18

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⁵³ Kacchu is also mentioned in the Dhammapada A. I, p 299.

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⁵⁴ Bṛh Bhā. 3839-40

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⁵⁵ Ogha. p 134 a.

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⁵⁶ Ibid. p 134 a; also Pinda. Nir. 48 ff.

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⁵⁷ Ava. cū p 133.

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The drinking of urine (moya) was another old practice described in the Brhatkalpa sūtra.⁵⁸ The Jain monks and the nuns drank each other’s (annamannassa) urine to cure snake-bite,⁵⁹ cholera and fever The mud from the ant-hill, salt, gold and incantations were other means to cure snake-bite ⁶⁰ Water was sprinkled over the blisters caused by the spider and snake-bite.⁶¹ The fly dropping was used in case of vomitting, and the horse-fly (*āsamakkhyā*) to remove dirt from the eye ⁶² There were pills to cure eye-sore ⁶³ Flesh was used to cure fistula and in its absence rice powder (*kaṇukkā*) mixed with honey and *ghee* was used ⁶⁴ For madness, it is stated that if a monk or a nun became mad, they were tied gently and were kept in a room or a well without water ⁶⁵ A novel method of curing the madness of a nun due to her attachment to the sexual part of a person is mentioned A slave was made drunk and made to sleep. His body besmeared with vomit, attracted flies, seeing which the nun was cured of her obsession ⁶⁶

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⁵⁸ 5. 37.

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⁵⁹ In Buddhist texts in case of snake biting four kinds of filth were given : dung, urines, ashes and clay; Mahāvagga, VI. 14.6.

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⁶⁰ *Nisī cū* Pi. pp 58, 121, *Ogh* pp. 129a, 134 a.

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⁶¹ *Ogh.* p 129 a

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⁶² *Ibid.* p 134 a.

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⁶³ *Brh Bhā.* 1. 1277.

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⁶⁴ *Nisī.* *cū.*, p. 89

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⁶⁵ *Vya.* *Bhā* 2. 122-5.

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⁶⁶ *Brh.* *Bhā.* 6 6267.

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Besides, various oils such as *hamsatella*, *satapāgatella*, *sahassapāgatella* and *marutella* are mentioned in Jain canonical literature ⁶⁷

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⁶⁷ *Nisī.* *cū.* Pi. p 109, *Brh.* *Bhā* 5. 6031.

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Sores were healed by applying oil, *ghee* and powder, by bandaging the injured parts and by stitching them properly. In the battle field the physicians carried these articles with them ⁶⁸ The fringe of the garments was used in case a monk was suffering from carbuncle (*visakumbha*).⁶⁹

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⁶⁸ *Vya.* *Bhā.* 5. 100-103, *cf* *Arthaśāstra*, p 397.

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⁶⁹ *Brh.* *Bhā.* 3 3907.

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Pearl oysters (*suktikā*) were used for storing medicine.⁷⁰

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⁷⁰ *Ogh.* *Nir.* p. 134 a.

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Besides medicinal treatment, surgical operations also seem to have been carried out We read that once a fish bone (*maccha-kaṇṭaka*) stuck into the throat of a fisherman; the surgeons were called. They tried to extract the bone with an instrument (*salla*) and tried other means but could not succeed.⁷¹

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⁷¹ *Vivā* 8, p 48; also *Brh.* *Bhā.* 1051. That medical science including, surgery was fairly developed in ancient India, is revealed from the stories of the physician Jivaka told in the *Vinaya-vastu* of the Mūlasarvāstivāda, pp. 27-43.

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Lastly, the knowledge of physical science was not confined only to human beings, but it was also applied to animals. We read in the *Nisītha cūrṇi* how a thorn was extracted from the body of a horse.⁷²

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⁷² p. 1244; cf. *Susruta Samhitā*, 26. 13, p. 163.

(4) Archery

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The science of archery (*dhanuvveya*) was highly advanced in ancient India and heroism in this country is invariably associated with proficiency in this art.¹³ *Dhanuveya* and *īsattha*, as the sciences of archery, are counted among the seventy two arts, as we have already seen. We have seen hunters running here and there with bow and arrow in their hand in search of a forest-animal. The archer took the bow, chose a suitable position, pulled it up to the ear and shot the arrow. Various terms such as the back of the bow (*dhanupittha*), bow-string (*jīvā*), gut (*phāru*), arrow (*usu*),¹⁴ and awl-tipped arrow (*ārāmuha*)¹⁵ are mentioned. Shooting at a sound without seeing (*saddavehī*) is mentioned.¹⁶

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¹³ *Dhanurmaha* is mentioned as a festival by Bhāsa, Dr. A. D. Pusalkar, *Bhāsa—A study*, Lahore, 1940, p. 440 f.

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¹⁴ *Bhag.* 5 6.

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¹⁵ *Uttarā.* Ṭī. 4, p. 89.

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¹⁶ *Nāyā.* 18, p. 208, also cf. *Sarabhaṅga Jātaka* (No. 522), V, p. 129.

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It was compulsory for princes to acquire proficiency in the science of archery We come across various kings and princes who were adepts in this science. Reference has been made to king Cedaga who was a skilful archer. He used to shoot one arrow a day which proved fatal for the enemy. Cedaga’s charioteer also was an adept in archery and is said to have killed thirty two warriors with one arrow.¹⁷ Jarākumāra was another expert marksman who is said to have shot dead Kaṇhavāsudeva by his arrow.¹⁸ Then Agaḍadatta is described as another shooter versed in the science of archery.¹⁹ We also come across Jain monks who were experts in archery (*kayakaraṇa*) and who, at the time of difficulty, fought with the enemy and saved the *Saṅgha*²⁰

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¹⁷ *Ava.* cū. II, p. 173.

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¹⁸ *Uttarā.* Ṭī. 1, p. 40.

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¹⁹ *Ibid.* 4, p. 89.

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²⁰ See supra, 166, cf *Nisi.* cū. pī. p. 146.

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Proficiency in archery was greatly prized and we hear of the prince Surindadātta who obtained a princess by shooting an effigy that stood on an axle to which were attached eight wheels²¹ We are told that a shepherd who perforated the foliage of a bunyan tree with his small bow (*dhanuhiyā*), at the command of a prince shot through the eyes of the king, and was offered a village in reward.²²

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²¹ See supra, p. 158 f.

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²² *Uttarā.* Ṭī. 5, p. 102 a; cf. *Dhammapada* A II, p. 69

(5) Music and Dancing

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The people of ancient India loved music as we have already seen Not only kings and nobles were surrounded with musicians and dancers but even ordinary people loved singing and dancing or hearing and witnessing others doing so. The seventy two arts, referred to above, included the arts of dancing (*naṭṭa*), singing(*gīta*), vocal music (*saragaya*), instrumental music (*vāditta*), drum music (*pukkharagaya*), and timing in music (*samatāla*), which shows that music and dancing were widely cultivated in ancient India.²³

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²³ For characteristics of Indian music, see Coomaraswamy’s *The Dance of Śiva*, pp. 72-81.

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On the occasions of feasts and festivals we come across men and women dancing and making merry We have seen, during the festival of the god of Love in Vānārasī how Citta and Sambhūya, who were versed in the art of singing and dancing, captivated the heart of the citizens, specially of the womenfolk, by playing on tisaraya, venu (flute) and vīnā (lute).⁸⁴ Udayana is mentioned as a great musician who by his music could control the loose elephants He was asked by king Pajjoya to teach music to the princess Vāsavadattā ⁸⁵ Uddāyana was another musician king, who used to play vīnā while his queen danced ⁸⁶

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⁸⁴ Also cf Avadāna sataka III, 30, p 163, II 17, p 93, also ‘the Parts of a Vinā’, by A K Coomaraswamy, J A O S , Vol 50-3, 1930

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⁸⁵ Āa cū II, p 161.

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⁸⁶ Uttarā Ṭī 18, p 253

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Music was accompanied by pipes (vamsa), vīnā (tanti), clapping (tala) and the rhythmic beating of the drum (tālalaya), following the instrumental music (gaha).⁸⁷ Even svaras (notes) are mentioned in the Thānānga According to the Jain tradition, a full description of the svaras and the eleven alankāras (rhetoric) was contained in the Svaraprābhṛta, one of the fourteen Pūrvas, which is extinct now. It is stated that this subject should be studied from the works of Bharata, Visākhila and others which are only a part of the Pūrvas Then are mentioned the seven places of origin of the svaras, the birds and beasts that utter these notes, the musical instruments which give rise to these notes, the advantages occuring from singing these notes, three grāmas (gamut), twenty one mūrcchanās (intonation), qualities and defects of singing, and the like ⁸⁸

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⁸⁷ Rāya sū 63

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⁸⁸ Thā 7 553 , Jīvā. Ṭī , 3, p 103af, Anu sū 127, Anu cū , p 45, also see Śārngadeva's Sangita Ratnākar, ch I, Poona, 1896, Nātyasāstra, ch 28

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Various musical instruments (turiya) are referred to, which may be classified as under . tata (stringed instruments) such as vīnā etc., vitata or ānaddha (percussion) such as drums etc , ghana (concussion) such as symbols etc , and susva (wind instruments) such as lute etc The Rāyāpasenīya mentions the following sixty instruments · (1) sankha, (2) singa, (3) sankhiyā, (4) kharamuhī, (5) peyā, (6) pinpunyā, (7) panava, (8) paḍaha, (9) bhambhā (also known as dhakkā), (10) horambhā (also known as mahādhakkā), (11) bherī, (12) jhallarī, (13) dunduhī, (14) muraya, (15) munga, (16) nandī munga, (17) ālinga, (18) kulumba, (19) gomuhī, (20) maddala, (21) vīnā, (22) vipañcī, (23) vallakī, (24) mahatī, (25) kacchabhī, (26) cittavīnā, (27) baddhīsā, (28) sughosā, (29) nandighosā, (30) bhāmarī, (31) chabbhāmarī, (32) paravāyanī, (33) tūnā, (34) tumbavīnā, (35) āmota, (36) jhañjhā, (37) nakula, (38) mugunda, (39) hudukkī, (40) vicikkī, (41) karadā, (42) ḍindima, (43) kuniya, (44) kadamba, (45) daddariyā, ⁸⁹ (46) daddaragā, (47) kalasiyā, (48) maḍḍaya, (49) tala, (50) tāla, (51) kaṃsatāla, (52) ringiriyā, (53) lattiyā, (54) magariyā, (55) sumsumāriyā, (56) vaṃsa, (57) veḷu, (58) vāḷī, (59) parillī and (60) baddhagā.⁹⁰

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⁸⁹ Also known as goha

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⁹⁰ Sū 64. The Bṛh. Bhā Pi (p. 12) mentions the twelve musical instruments bham-bhā, mukunda, maddala, kadamba or kadava, jhallari, hudukka, kamsāle, kāhala, talimā, vamsa, panava and sankha, see also Bṛh Bhā Pi 24, also Bhag 5 4, Jīvā 3, p 145 a, Jambu 2, p 100 f, Anu Sū 127, Nisī cū 17, p 1158. The last mentioned work adds damaruga, vīṇā, dhankuna and the like The Ācā (II 391) adds lattiya and kirikiriyā The Sūya (4 2 7) mentions kukkayaya (lute) and venupalāsīya lute, the latter was a thin piece of bamboo or bark held between the teeth and the left hand, and played by the right hand just like a vīṇā (com) Also see Sangīta-ratnākara, chapter 6 where the details of the musical instruments are given. The Rāmāyaṇa, V 11, 38 ff. mentions madduka, pataha, vamsa, vipañcī, mṛdaṅga, panava, dindima, ādambara and kalasī, also see Mahābhā. VII 82 4.

Dance

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Music is incomplete without dance and expression. Dance has found copious mention in Indian literature from the earliest period.⁹¹ We are told that Meghakumāra after marrying eight girls passed the time happily in his palace, having before him plays of thirty two performers, accompanied with song and music of drums played by damsels.⁹²

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⁹¹ Three types of Śiva dances are mentioned in Hindu literature (1) evening dance in the Himālaya with a divine chorus which was the source of all movement within the cosmos, (2) Tāndava dance was performed in cemeteries and burning grounds which released the countless souls of men from the snare of illusion, (3) Naḍanta dance of Natarāja was performed before the assembly in the golden hall of Chidambaram or Tillai, the centre of the universe which shows that the place of dance, the centre of the universe is within the heart (Coomaraswamy, op cit, pp 56 f, 65, also C R Srīnivasa Aiyangar, Cultural aspects of Indian Music and Dancing, The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. III, p 586.

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⁹² Nāyā 1, p 23.

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The Rāyapaseniya describes thirty two kinds of dramas :

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(1) The first dance drama was shown with the accompaniment of orchestral music representing the eight symbols, viz. sotthiya (svastika*) sīrivaccha, naṃdiyāvatta,⁹³ vaddhamānaga,* bhaddāsana, kalasa, maccha and dappana.

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⁹³ Svastika, vardhamāna and naṃdyāvarta are also mentioned in the Mahābhā. (VII, 82. 20) In the com. of the Aṅguttara, naṃdyāvatta is mentioned as the name of a fish (Malalsekara, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 29).

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(2) In this dance drama were shown āvaḍa, paccāvaḍa, seḍhī, paseḍhī, sotthiya, sovatthiya, pūsa, mānavaka, vaddhamānaga, macchaṇḍa, magaranda, jāra, māra phullāvalī, paumapatta,* sāgarataranga, vasantalatā and paumalayabhatticitta.*

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(3) In this they showed īhāmiga, usabha, naraturaga, magara,* vihaga, vālaga, kinnara, ruru, sarabha, camara, kuñjara,* vanalayā, and puamalayabhatticitta.

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(4) In this they showed egao vanka, egao cakkavāla, duhao cakkavāla, cakkaddhacakkavāla.

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(5) In this was the representation of āvalis such as caṇḍāvalī, sūrāvalī, vaḷyāvalī, haṃsāvalī,* egāvalī, tārāvalī, muttāvalī, kanagāvalī, and rayaṇāvalī.

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(6) In this was shown the rise of the sun and the moon such as caṇḍuggamana and suruggamaṇa.

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(7) In this was shown the movement of sun and moon such as *candāgamana* and *sūrāgamana*
(8) It showed the lunar and solar eclipse such as *candāvaraṇa* and *sūrāvaraṇa*
(9) It showed the setting of sun and moon such as *candatthamaṇa* and *sūratthamaṇa*
(10) It showed the *candamaṇḍala, sūramaṇḍala, nāgamaṇḍala, jakkhamaṇḍala, bhūtamaṇḍala, rakkhasamaṇḍala, mahoragamaṇḍala* and *gandhabbamaṇḍala*.*
(11) It showed the gait of *usabhamaṇḍala, sīhamaṇḍala, hayavilambiya, gajavilambiya, hayavilasita, gayavilasita, mattahayavilasita, mattagajavilasita, mattahayavilambiya, mattagajavilambiya*, and *duyavilambiya*
(12) It showed *sāgarapaṇibhatti* and *nāgarapaṇibhatti*.
(13) It showed the drama of *Nandā* and *Campā*
(14) It showed *macchardapaṇibhatti, mayaraṇḍakapaṇibhatti, jārapaṇibhatti* and *mārapaṇibhatti*
(15) It showed the representation of letters from ‘ka’ to ‘ṇa’.
(16) It showed the representation of ‘ca’ to ‘ña’.
(17) It showed the representation of ‘ta’ to ‘ṇa’.
(18) It showed the representation of ‘ta’ to ‘ṇa’.
(19) It showed the representation of ‘pa’ to ‘ma’.
(20) It showed *asoyapallārapaṇibhatti, ambapallavapaṇibhatti, jambupallavapaṇibhatti*, and *kosambapallavapaṇibhatti*.
(21) It represented *paumalayāpaṇibhatti, nāga, asoga, campaka, amba, vaṇa, vāsantī, kunda, atimuttaya*, and *sāmalayāpaṇibhatti*.
(22) *Duya (druta)* dance *
(23) *Vilambiya* dance.
(24) *Duyavilambiya* dance.
(25) *Añcita* dance *
(26) *Ribhita* dance
(27) *Añcitarihita* dance
(28) *Arabhaṭa* dance *
(29) *Bhasola* dance *
(30) *Arabhaṭabhasola* dance
(31) *Uppayanivayapatta, saṅkuciya, pasāriya, rayāraiya*,† and *bhantasambhānta* dance
(32) In this drama the actors and actresses forming a row represented the story of Mahāvīra's early life, his conception, exchange of foetus, birth, lustration, boyhood, youth, sexual sport, renunciation, penance, attainment of kevalahood, the propagation of his message and finally his nirvāṇa 94

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- *Recakarecita* in the Jambū
* These are mentioned in the Bharata's *Nātyaśāstra* It mentions *gajadanta* in place of *kuñjara* (5) *hamsapakṣa* and *hamsapaksaka* in place of *hamsālikā* (6), it gives twenty kinds of *maṇḍala* (7), and mentions *bhrāmara* in place of *bhovola* (11), and *recita* instead of *recakarecita* (12); see Bhag. Pt II (Bechardas ed ), p 43.

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Then other dramas known as mahuyarīgiya and soyāmani are mentioned 95 The Pinda niryukti refers to the ratthavāla drama which was staged in Pātaliputra by the monk Āsādhabhūi It depicted the life of Bhārata, the universal monarch, and it is stated that after seeing this drama a large number of kings and princes retired from the worldly life and joined the ascetic order Later on, thinking that the drama might do great harm to the world and the earth may be devoid of the Ksatryas, it was destroyed.⁹⁶

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⁹⁶ 471-480

(6) Painting

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The art of painting was considerably developed in ancient India 97 The painters are mentioned along with brushes (tūliyāo) and colours (vannaya), first they divided the wall surface (bhūmibhāga) and then prepared the surface (bhumim sajjei). There were painters who were adepts in their profession. One painter is mentioned who, could portray the complete figure of bipeds (duvaya), quadrupeds (cauppaya) and things without foot (apaya) even if he saw a part of their body.⁹⁸

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⁹⁸ Nāyā 8, p 106 f, also cf Uttarā 35 4.

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Trees, mountains, rivers, seas, houses, creepers, full vessel and sovatthiya etc 99 were painted.

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Pictures were drawn on walls as well as on panels or boards (phalaka) A courtesan, who got painted the characteristics of different castes, different phases of the art of love depicting the reconciliation of lovers, has been already referred to 100 Paintings on panels were a very helpful medium in encouraging love affairs We are told that a panuṇāya painted the portrait of the princess Sujetthā on a board and showed it to king Seniya,¹⁰¹ who fell in love with her Similarly, prince Sāgaracanda became enamoured of Kamalāmelā when her portrait was shown to him 102

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¹⁰¹ Ava cū 11, p 165

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Picture-galleries (cittasabhā) are mentioned which were a matter of great pride for the kings in ancient India These galleries were constructed on many hundred pillars. One such picture-gallery was built by a banker of Rāyagaha in the adjoining forest of the city which was decorated with wooden (katthakamma), earthen (potthakamma)¹⁰³ and plaster decoration (leppa), wreaths (ganthima), images (vedhima), and dolls (punna)

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⁹⁵ Uttarā Ti 13, 196, 18,240

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⁹⁷ Citta or painting is mentioned in the Kuṭṭanīmata (vs 124, 236) among various arts to be studied by a courtesan The following six great requisites of painting are mentioned knowledge of appearances, correct perception, measure and structure of forms, action of feelings on forms infusion of grace or artistic representation, similitude and artistic manner of using brush and colours (P B I, p 316), see also A K Coomaraswamy's Mediaeval Sinhalese Art pp 164 ff

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⁹⁹ Brh Bhā 1 2429

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¹⁰⁰ Supra, p 275

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¹⁰² Brh Bhā Pi, 172

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¹⁰³ See also Kuṭṭanīmata (vs. 124).

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which were stuffed and made of cloth (sanghāim).¹⁰⁴ We are told that in the picture-gallery of prince Malladinna the pictures were imbued with coquettish sentiments and feelings (hā abhāva), the play of the eyes (vilāsa) and amorous gestures (hibboya).¹⁰⁵ Jiyasattu is mentioned as another king who owned a picture-gallery. We are told that, when the construction of this gallery was in progress, a painter's daughter formed the design of a peacock feather in the mosaic floor (kottimatalā). The king under the false impression of its being natural was tempted to pick it, but in his attempt the nails of his fingers struck against the floor and he hurt his hand.¹⁰⁶

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¹⁰⁴ Nāyā 13, p 142.

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¹⁰⁵ Ibid 8, p 106 ff.

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¹⁰⁶ Uttarā Tī 9, p 111 a.

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Dummuha is mentioned as still another king to have a picture-gallery. When this pinnacled gallery was ready he entered it with great ceremony.¹⁰⁷

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¹⁰⁷ Ibid, p 135. Dhanapāla has mentioned three types of hasatā; see Art notes from Dhanapāla's Tilakamanjari by C. Sivaramamurti, Indian culture, Vol II, pp 199-210, also The Indian Painter and his art in the Cultural Heritage of India, Vol III p 555 ff by the same author.

(7) Sculpture

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Sculpture or the art of image making is considerably old in ancient India.¹⁰⁸ The earliest materials for carving selected by Indian artists seems to have been wood. Katthakamma or the work in wood has been referred to above. The Vyākarāna Bhāsya refers to the sage Vāhattaka whose wooden figure was built and worshipped by his son.¹⁰⁹ We also hear of images made of plaster (puttha), ivory (danta) and stone (sela).¹¹⁰

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¹⁰⁸ For characteristic features of the sculptures of the various periods see Gopinath, The Elements of Hindu Iconography pp 33-37, O. C. Gangoly, Indian Sculpture The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol III, pp 536-554.

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¹⁰⁹ 2 11.

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¹¹⁰ Bth Bhā 1 2469.

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The Nāyādhammakahā mentions a golden image of Malli with a hole in its head which was covered with a lid.¹¹¹ Then we come across a mechanical image (jantepedumā) of a human being which could walk, open and shut its eyes. It is said that in Yavana country such images were turned out in great number.¹¹² Another specimen of fine workmanship in mechanical toy is supplied by the mechanical elephant (jamamayahatthi) manufactured by king Pajjota to capture Udayana of Kosambi.¹¹³

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¹¹¹ 8, p 95.

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¹¹² Ibid II p 177.

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¹¹³ Jambu Sū 3.55, p 229, also see Rāmāyana II, 80 1 ff.

(8) Architecture

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The art of house building (vetthuvijjā) was an important art in ancient India. There were vatthupālhagas or men qualified for testing sites for house building.¹¹⁴ Vaddhai or an architect is counted as one of the fourteen 'jewels'.¹¹⁵ In building a new house in the city it is said that, firstly, the land is examined, then it is levelled, then rings (undiyāo)

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¹¹⁴ Bth Bhā 4 4915.

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¹¹⁵ Āa cū II, p 161.

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are cast on different places fit for different constituents of the building. Then the ground is dug and the foundation is laid and a well pressed and then a platform of brick masonry is added.¹¹⁶

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¹¹⁶ Bṛh Bhā Pī 331-3, also cf Digha I, p 9, Milindapañha, pp 331, 345.

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Three kinds of buildings are mentioned: an underground cell (khāya), a palace (ūsiya), and a combination of the two (ubhaya)¹¹⁷

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¹¹⁷ Bṛh Bhā 1 827

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The Rāyapesenīya mentions a number of architectural terms, which show the development of the science to a great extent in those days Mention is made of Sūryābhadeva's Vimāna which was surrounded on all sides by a rampart (pāgāra) and which was embellished with beautiful cornices (kavisīsaga). In every direction there were gates (dāra) with cupola (thūbhiya) decorated with the figures of īhāmiga, bull (usabha), horse with a man's head (naraturaga), crocodile (magara), bird (vihaga), serpent (vālaga), kinnara,¹¹⁸ deer (ruru), sarabha, yak (camara), elephant (kuñjara), creeper (vanalayā) and lotus creeper (paumalayā). They had capitals (veiyā) decorated with the figure of the pair of the vidyādharas The doors had landings (nimma),¹¹⁹ foundation or pedestal (patthāna), pillars (khambha), thresholds (eluyā), bolts (indakīla), door-posts (cedā), lintels (uttaraṅga), small door bolts (sūi), joints (sandhi), sockets (samuggaya), wooden cross bolt pin (aggalā), sockets for wooden pin (aggalapāsāya), hinges (āvattanapedhiyā), and left wings (uttarāpāsaga). There were heavy doors fitting closely (nirantarīyaghanakavādā); in their panels (bhitti), there were globular bosses (bhittiguliyā) and cushions (gomānasayā) In the doors the figures of sālabhañjikas¹²⁰ in various playful attitudes were carved Then the doors had pinnacles (kūda), elevation (usseha), the tops (ulloya), lattices (bhoma), pinions (pakkha), pinion supports (pakkabāhā), cross beams (vamsa), ribbings (vamsakavelluya), panels (patthyā), thatches (ohāḍanī) and thatches under the ribbings (uvaripuñchanī).¹²¹

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¹¹⁸ The Kinnara motif in decorative art is mentioned by the Sinhalese painters. The Kinnaras are beings, human above and bird-like below, like a siren or harpy, with human arms and shoulders and the wings not large enough for flight, A K Coomaraswamy Med.oeval Singhalese Art, Gloucestershire, 1908, p 81f

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¹¹⁹ Dvārānām bhūmibhāgād ūrdhvam maśkrāmantah pradesah, com

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¹²⁰ For a beautiful description of sālabhañjkas read sū 101 The Avadānasataka (VI, 53, p 302) mentions sālabhañjikā, a festival celebrated in Srāvastī

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¹²¹ Rāya. sū. 97f.

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Then there were pegs (nāgadanta) on both sides of the gates, from which were hung hangers (sikkaga) and on which were suspended incense pots (dhūvaghadi).¹²²

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¹²² Ibid. sū. 100, p 164

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We learn about a Theatic hall¹²³ (paṭhāgharamanḍava) which was supported by many columns (anegakhambhasayasannivittha), and was furnished with huge altars (vedikā), arches (torana) and sālabhañjikā figures, it was decorated with īhāmiga etc., was fitted with a mechanism to show the moving figures of the pair of vidyādharas, had hundreds of figures decorating it (rūvagasahassakaḷiyam), had many domes (thūbhyā), was decorated with flags and bells, was well-plastered (ulloya) and bore the palm impression inside and outside, its gates had sandal pitchers and arches; there were flowers, garlands, perfumes and incense, and the ceiling (ulloya) was decorated with lotus creepers. In the centre of the Theatre hall there was a stage (akkhāḍaga) which had a jewelled seat (maṇipedhiya) in the centre. On that there was a throne having discs (cakkala), lions (sīha), feet (pāya), tops (pāyasīsaga), the body (gatta) and the joint (sandhi).¹²⁴

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¹²³ Almost the same description is given of a royal house (bhavana) in the Nāya 1, p 22; also cf. the description of a litter (siyā), ibid., p. 31. Also vide Mānasāra, ch. XLVII

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¹²⁴ Rāya 41 f. For the description of Sudhammā Hall and other buildings see Rāya, 120-131

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The stair-cases are mentioned which were well-equipped with landings (nemma), plinth (avalambana), balustrade (avalambanalāha), etc.¹²⁵ Then the Nāyādhammakahā describes the sleeping chamber (rāgagharaya)¹²⁶ of queen Dhāriṇī as having an outer court yard (chokattha, com. lānyātundaka), polished and well-set pillars endowed with statues (sālabhañjya), bird-perches (uḍaṅka),¹²⁷ latticed windows (jāla), circular stairs (addha-canda), brackets (nijjūha), apertures (kaṇayāli, com. sūracchasaḥ), and a room on the roof called candasālika, it was coloured with the dye of clear mineral rock (dārucela), the outside was white-washed (dūmiya) with stone and therefore it had a smooth surface (ghaṭṭamaṭṭha) and the inside was decorated with pictures (cittakammi), its floor (koṭṭimatala) was richly studded with various gems and jewels and the ceiling had a canopy of painted cloth (ulloyacitta) with lotus flowers (pamalaya) and flowering creepers laden with beautiful flowers, the door-ways were beautifully decorated with auspicious golden jars, with lotus flowers inserted in the mouth and these were worshipped with sandal, the door was decorated with pratardaka (an ornament) and hung with necklaces of pearls and jewels. Fragrant incense burnt in the room and the furniture consisted of rich upholstered beds, cushions and pillows, etc.¹²⁸

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¹²⁵ Ibid sū 30, cf three kinds of stairs, viz., brick stairs, stone stairs, and wooden stairs, Cullavagga, V 11 6

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¹²⁶ Also compare the description of dwelling place (rāsaghara) in the Kalpa sūtra, 3 32.

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¹²⁷ Vitanka is also mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa, II 80 20

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¹²⁸ 1, p. 3 f, also cf Brh Bhā Pi 582 ff

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There were lofty mansions (pāsāya arādimsaya) for rich and well-to-do people. Seven storeyed¹²⁹ mansions touching the sky and embellished with flags, banners, umbrellas and garlands are referred to.¹³⁰ Then we have reference to a post (khandha), pillar (thambha) raised platform (mañca), scaffold (mālā) and flat roof (hammiyatala).¹³¹ The city of Rāyagiha was known for buildings made of stone and bricks (kāṇilla).¹³² The mirror-house (āyamsagīha) of Bharata was well-known.¹³³ Sīyahara or the cool-house was a marvellous house of a Cakravartin which remained unaffected by rains, cold and heat¹³⁴ Then we had underground construction (bhūmihara),¹³⁵ back door (avadāra),¹³⁶ big tunnels (suranga)¹³⁷ and lac-houses (jauhara)¹³⁸

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¹²⁹ Uttarā Ti 13, p 189

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¹³⁰ Nāyā 1, 22

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¹³¹ Ācā II 1 7 260

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¹³² Brh Bhā 3 4768

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¹³³ Uttarā Ti 18, p 232 a

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¹³⁴ Āsī cū 10, p 559.

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¹³⁵ Uttarā. Tī, 13, p 185 a

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