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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c14: Chapter VI: Religious Conditions

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c14

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Contents

Chapter VI: Religious Conditions

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THE SAMANAS

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India has been a land of religions. From the earliest times religion forms a central motif in the pattern of ancient Indian life.

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According to Megasthanes, the Indian sages were divided into two sects, Brahmans and Sarmans; among the latter the Hylobioi (living in woods) were honoured most¹ The term Samana or the recluse philosopher and Māhaṇa or the hermits are referred with equal respect in the old texts of the Jains as has been stated already. The Samanas played a very important role in moulding the material as well as the spiritual life of the people. They were highly respected by the common-folk as well as by kings and nobility These ascetics wandered about eight or nine months of every year from country to country (janavayavhāra) engaging themselves in religious discussions and preaching the dharma We meet them usually in the groves adjoining the settlement set up by the people for the common use of the travellers The common people paid them respects, called on them in their temporary residence at the parks, put them their queries, offered them food, provided them with shelter (vasahi), seat (pīdha), a piece of a wooden board (phalaga), a bedding (sejja), a mat (santhāraya), and other necessities of life. We are told that, when Mahāvīra arrived in Campā there arose a great uproar in the town and many people set out to pay a visit to the Lord ; some went to pay him reverence, some simply to see him, some to satisfy their curiosity, some to ascertain the truth and some simply to put questions² The same enthusiasm is noticed among the citizens when the mendicant Suya visited the town of Sogandhiyā³ In fact, people considered it a great privilege even to hear the name and title (nāmagoya) of such saintly lords, how much more to approach them, pay reverence to them and wait upon them.⁴

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¹ Mc Crindle, *The invasion of Alexander the Great* p 358, See also *Parmatthadipani* the com on the Udāna, p 338, The *Anguttara* (IV, p 35, I, p 157) mentions two classes of Paribbājakas, the *Aññatitthya Paribbājakas* and the *Brāhmana Paribbājakas* (Law *Historical Gleanings*, p 9); Law, Gautama Buddha and the Paribbājakas, *Buddhistic Studies*, pp 89 ff, also see Winternitz's, article "Jainas in Indian literature" (*Indian Culture* Vol I, 1-4, p 145.

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² Ovā 27, pp 107-111.

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³ Nāyā 5, p. 73

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⁴ Ovā., 27, p. 108.

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The Nisītha cūrṇi mentions five classes of the Samanas : (1) Niggantha, Sādhu or Khamana, (2) Sakka, (3) Tāvasa, (4) Gerua (Parivrājaka) and (5) Ājīvika⁵ We shall deal with them one by one.

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⁵ 13, p. 865.

(1) The Samaṇa Nigganthas

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Monasticism

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Persons desiring to renounce the world and embrace the life of a monk or a nun were allowed to be admitted in the Jain congregation without any distinction of rank or caste Not only the world-sick ordinary people renounced the world but also warriors and bankers, who were members of the upper class and who were endowed with personal grace, learning, valour and splendour. They left their riches, corn, and the family, and considering sensual pleasures worthless and life transitory as the water bubbles and dew drops, exchanged the glitter and pomp of worldly life for the homeless condition of the ascetics.⁶

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⁶ Ovā, 14, p 49

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People dissatisfied with the condition of society around them such as the political conflicts, resulting in tyranny and lawlessness, domination of one class over another, the ruthlessness of criminal laws, the system of usury etc, and disappointed in their cherished expectations, fled away from deceptive pleasures and wickedness of the world and sought quietude and peace of mind in solitude in a wood The question is asked :—

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By what acts can I escape a sorrowful lot in this unstable internal samsāra, which is full of misery?

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The answer is :—

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Severing your former connections, place your affection on nothing; a monk who loves not even those who love him, will be freed from sin and hatred.⁷

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⁷ Uttarā 8. 1, 2. trans. by Jacobi, p. 31

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This is the keynote of the whole pessimistic philosophy.

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Causes of Renunciation

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Various causes are assigned to renunciation. The Thāṇāṅga mentions the following ten kinds of renunciation (pavvajjā) :

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(1) Voluntary renunciation of the world, (2) renunciation due to sudden anger, (3) renunciation due to poverty, (4) renunciation on seeing a dream, (5) renunciation in fulfilment of a vow (padisuga), (6) renunciation because of recollecting previous birth, (7) renunciation due to sickness, (8) renunciation due to insult, (9) renunciation by being enlightened by gods and (10) renunciation out of affection for a son who had already taken to order.⁸ We come across instances when sentimental people escaped from the worldly state at the slightest provocation. We are told that the queen of Devilāsatta of Ujjenī saw a grey hair on her husband's head, which she took out coiling round her finger. The king said that an envoy of old age had come, and keeping it in a golden plate, covering it with a pair of silken garment, took it around the city. The king anointed his son on the throne and pronouncing “our forefathers renounced before their hair turned grey”, retired from the world along with his queen.⁹

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⁸ 10. 712.

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⁹ Ava cū II, p 202 f, cf “Dharmadūta” in the Sthavirāvalīcarita, I 94 f, also Cullasutasena Jātaka (No 525), V, p 177 , Nimi Jātaka (541) VI, p 95

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Even at times very trifling causes and incidents stirred deep religious feelings. Bharata, for instance, saw his finger devoid of the ring and it looked ugly and this cause was sufficient enough to make him renounce the world¹⁰ King Dummuha beheld the banner of Indra fall down and adopted the ascetic life.¹¹ Aritthanemi saw the animals kept in enclosures for slaughtering purposes and it induced in him a sense of the transitoriness of things.¹²

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¹⁰ Uttarā Ṭī 18, p 232a

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¹¹ Ibid 9, p 136

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¹² See Supra, p 126 f

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Although we have seen that the membership of the Jain ascetic order was open to all, there were exceptions to the general rule and the following persons were excluded from entering the monastic order — Children,¹³ old man,¹⁴ eunuchs, dull (*jada*), timid (*kīva*) and sick persons, robbers, king’s enemies, lunatics (*unmatta*), blind, slaves, wicked and stupid persons (*mūdha*), debtors, deformed persons (*jātyanga-hīna*), attendants (*obaddhaā*), servants, forcibly converted (*sehanipphedia*), pregnant women, and young girls (*bālavaccha*).¹⁵

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¹³ The exceptions are Aimuttakumāra, managa and Vaira It is stated that a child may be ordained under the following circumstances (1) If the whole family wants to join the ascetic order, (2) if the whole family of the monk has expired and only a child has been left, (3) an orphan child of a sammaditthi (one who has right vision), (4) an orphan child of a sejjātara (one who gives shelter to the monk), (5) a child of a nun, who might have been raped and (6) if there is possibility of any good being done to the kula, gana or the sangha through minister or other state servants (Nisi cū 11, p 717 ff) Six years is stated to be the minimum period for pavvajā, otherwise in ordinary course no one can be ordained before eight years (Bhag Ṭī 5 3)

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¹⁴ The exceptions are Somila Brāhmana, the father of Mahāvīra in his previous birth, Usabhadatta, the father of Jambu, and Somadeva, the father of Ajja Rakkahia, (Nisi cū 11, p 718)

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¹⁵ Thā 3 202

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The Renunciation Ceremonies

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The renunciation ceremony (*nikkhamanasaṅkāra*) was held with great pomp and show in ancient India Great enthusiasm was displayed on such occasions and even kings took active part in the ceremony and encouraged people to embrace asceticism. We hear of an announcement made by Kanha Vāsudeva that if any king, heir-apparent, queen, prince, chief (*īsara*), knight (*talavara*), head of a family (*koḍumbiya*), headman of a village (*mādambiya*), rich men (*ibbha*), foremen of guilds (*seṭṭhi*), commander-in-chief and the leader of caravan would join the monastic order, he would look after his family and relations who might be left behind¹⁶ *Pavvajā* or “leaving the world, adopting the ascetic life” was conferred near a lotus-pond or a caitya shrine with a sikhara. An auspicious day under a favourable planet was selected except caturthī and aṣṭamī which were avoided¹⁷. An essential condition for the admission into the monastic order was securing the permission of the parents or the guardians. Frequently we hear of gifts of a male or a female disciple (sissabhikkham, sissinībhikkham) offered to the teather by the guardian of a person who wished to join the order¹⁸.

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¹⁶ Nāyā 5, p. 71,

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¹⁷ Brh Bhā Pi, 413.

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¹⁸ See Nāyā 1, 33, Anta. 5, 28

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The Nāyādhammakahā gives a description of the renouncement of prince Meghakumāra. After listening to the preachings of Mahāvīra, Meghakumāra returned home and requested his parents to allow him to enter the order of the Teacher. When the mother of Meghakumāra heard this, she was overcome by grief and became unconscious. Meghakumāra’s parents tried to dissuade him by various ways but he showed his stern determination towards renunciation. Then a sweeping duster (rayoharana) and a bowl (padiggaha) were bought from the shop (kutṭiyā-vana) and a barber (kāsāvaya) was called for hair-cutting. Then Meghakumāra was given a bath, his body was anointed with gosīsa sandal and was beautifully dressed and ornamented. He sat in the palanquin with his mother on the right and his foster-mother with a sweeping duster and a bowl on the left. Meghakumāra arrived at the Gunasīlaya shrine where he was presented to Mahāvīra to be initiated as his disciple. Then the prince with his own hands plucked out his hair in five handfuls and approached Mahāvīra and walking round him thrice praised and worshipped him. Mahāvīra admitted the prince into the order and preached him the law showing him how he should walk, stand, sit, lie, feed, speak, show forbearance towards living beings and pursue the path without negligence¹⁹.

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¹⁹ pp 24-34

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A beautiful dialogue between Nemi and the Sakka is recorded in the Uttarādhyayana. When the former giving up his kingdom and renouncing all his pomp and show, retired from the world, the Sakka approached him and tried to dissuade him from his determination, but Nemi remained steadfast in his purpose.²⁰

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²⁰ 9. 20-22 trans Jacobi, p. 37 f.

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The Samaṇa Sangha

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The religious corporation of the Jain monks was an important and unique organisation in ancient India. In fact, the Jains have remained as an organised community all through the history of India even before the rise of Buddhism down to the present day. The Jain sangha as it has been pointed out included the monks (samana), the nuns (samaṇī), the laymen (sāvaya) and the laywomen (sāviyā). Jain texts furnish us evidence about the existence of collective bodies of ascetics, who lived together under the leadership of one teacher in an *uvassaya* or a *vasati*, and who followed a code of rules and regulations laid down for them. We have seen that Pārśva and Mahāvīra had a large number of followers Likewise Vairasāmi had a *gana* of five hundred monks under his supervision.²¹

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²¹ *Āva cū* p 394

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The rule of a Samana *Niggantha* is stated to have been most difficult (*paramaduccara*) to practise. He had to keep a watchful eye over his observances The path is compared to treading on the edge of a sword.²² There were two classes of Jain monks : (1) those who wandered about naked and used the hollow of their palms for an alms-bowl, (2) and those who put on clothes and kept an alms-bowl, sweeping-duster, a piece of cloth called *mukhavastrikā* and other necessary articles. They came out daily begging their food, and plucked their hair unlike the Buddhist monks²³ They were called *Nigganthas* because they were unfettered It is said that a monk had to guard himself against (1) destroying life, (2) telling a lie, (3) stealing, (4) sexual intercourse, (5) possessions, (6) taking meals at night, (7) injuring "earth-bodied" living beings, (8) "water-bodied" living beings, (9) "fire-bodied" living beings (10) "air-bodied" living beings, (11) "vegetable-bodied" living beings, (12) immobile beings (*tasa*), (13) prohibited things, (14) taking meals in a householder's utensil, (15) using sofa (*paliyanka*), (16) seat (*nisajjā*), (17) taking bath, and (18) decoration²⁴

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²² *Nāyā* 1, p 28

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²³ According to Prof Rhys Davids the *Bhukku* order of homeless persons evolved originally from the *Brahmacārins* who did not enter upon the stage of the householder and who customarily begged their food (*Dialogues of the Buddha*, I, pp 215 ff).

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²⁴ *Das. sū* 6 8

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The *Nigganthas* were not allowed to eat or drink anything specially prepared for them, purchased for them, set aside for them or cooked for them ; neither they were allowed to eat food meant for famine-stricken persons; food for foresters, food stored for rainy season, food meant for the sick persons, or roots, bulbous roots, fruits, seeds and green vegetables²⁵ Thus the conduct of a Jain monk, down to the minutest detail, was regulated by specific ordinances and even the slightest violation of which was sure to bring down upon him the appropriate punishment It is a difficult work to narrate these ordinances in detail, but it would suffice to say that these touched even the minutest details regarding their conduct in begging alms, their residence, medical treatment, their duty at the time of distress, lawlessness in the country, pestilence, behaviour towards the king, and the like

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²⁵ *Nāyā* 1, p. 28.

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The Hardships Undergone by the Samaṇas

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There were days of endless troubles and difficulties for the Jain Samanas, who had to pass through various calamities to get on with them religious life. Travelling was extremely difficult, organised bands of robbers and dacoits moved freely, there were political disturbances when lawlessness prevailed throughout the country, getting a shelter was no less difficult a problem, rivalry between the Jain Samanas and other heretical monks and the Brāhmaṇas was common, there was famine, flood, pestilence, sickness when the Samanas suffered to a great extent Under such circumstances, however, the Jain Samanas tried hard to maintain the usual course of procedure laid down for them Frequently there came critical moments in their life when they hovered between life and death, and ultimately they contented themselves by laying down their lives quietly uttering a word

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Travelling

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²⁶ See Brh sū. 1 46 and its Bhāsya, pp 856-880 (chapter on adhvaprakaraṇa)

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Travelling was considered an important means of spreading religion It is stated that a sādhu or a religious mendicant should be accomplished in various regional languages and in correct utterance and expounding of the Sūtras in different provincial languages He should learn the regional languages and then convert the people of the land He should also meet the great āryas in his travel for the better understanding of the Sūtras²⁷ The Samanas had to traverse long and dreary distances when travelling was most insecure and painful They had to cross big wild forests, vast deserts and big mountains and rivers taking their lives in their own hands Some lost their way in endless jungles, some were overpowered by snow and thorny bushes, some were devoured by wild beasts, some were done to death by robbers and dacoits, and some lost their lives for want of food and drink

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²⁷ Bṛh Bhā 1.1230 f, 1234

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It is stated that in the course of the journey the sādhus should not transgress the fence laid by the caravan. Sometimes the caravan in deep forest came face to face with lions or robbers and the whole caravan was destroyed by wild beasts and robbers and if a sādhu was separated from the caravan, then he could ask the help of the sylvan deity, who would by means of a tremor show him the way or lead him to a janapada.²⁸ They were tied up²⁹ and there was risk of being put to death and flogged and, therefore, it is said that the boundary of the enemy territory should not be crossed by the sādhus³⁰

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²⁸ Ibid 1.3104-9

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²⁹ Cf. ibid, 3.3901

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³⁰ Ibid, 1 2783, also cf 1 3113

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The journey of boats was also a problem to the Samanas We hear that considering the Samana as an unrenumerative encumbrance for the boat, people took hold of him and threw him into water³¹

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³¹ Ācā Sū II, 3 2 344 Also Āva. Nir 470, cf Avāriya Jātaka (No 376), III, pp. 230 f.

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Robbers

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³² See *Br̥h Sū* I 45 and its *Bhāṣya* pp 848 to 856, chapter on *harivāhadivaprakrta*

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There were organised bands of robbers, already referred to, who attacked the travelling tradesmen and made good their escape. The robbers were not content with this, they also kidnapped men and women. They destroyed shrines and the articles thereof, they massacred the whole *gaccha* including the *ācārya* and carried off the nuns.³³ These robbers entered the residence of the *sādhus* and exacted trouble The *Br̥hatkalpa Bhāṣya* refers to a robber who snatched an excellent blanket *kambala-yana* from an *ācārya* at the point of a dagger ³⁴

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³³ *Nisi. cū* Pi, p 99

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³⁴ 3 3903, 4, also cf *Mahāvagga* VIII 22

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Political Disturbances

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³⁵ See *Br̥h. sū.* I 37 and its *Bhāṣya* pp 778-787 (chapter on *varājya* and *arājaka* prakrtam)

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There was another hardship caused by political disturbances in the country The *Br̥hatkalpa Bhāṣya* divides the kingless state *arājaka* into four groups 1) after the death of the king if there were two heirs-apparent and none of them so far anointed as the king *anuvāya*, 2) when one prince who had already appointed an heir-apparent in his turn took another joint ruler *juvarāja*, 3) when the army of the enemy occupied the country (*verajjaya*), 4) when there was warfare between the two opponents claiming the throne *rājja*.³⁶

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³⁶ I 2763

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Frequently the *Samaṇas* moving about during disturbances were mistaken for spies and were arrested.³⁷ It is for this reason that the *Nigganthas* or *Nigganthinis* are prohibited from wandering about during the time of political disturbances (*kuddhavaya*) in the country.³⁸

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³⁷ Cf. *Uttarā Ṭī* 2, p 25a

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³⁸ *Br̥h sū.* I 37.

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Then it was alright if the king was a devotee of the Jain faith in that case the *Niggantha Samaṇas* were given facilities by the king and the state servants But if the king belonged to a different faith, the lot of the *Samaṇas* was deplorable. Frequently they were banished, their food and drink were stopped and their ritualistic paraphernalia were confiscated and there were occasions when they were put to death ³⁹ It was a custom that at the time of the king's coronation everybody including the eighteen corporations and the *Samaṇas* should visit the king with respectful offerings *argha* ; if the *Nigganthas* (*seyabhikkus*) failed to do so they were dealt with severely ⁴⁰ Under such circumstances the *Nigganthas* had to go in the disguise of Buddhist monks and live on prohibited food, such as roots, flesh, stale food *dosina*, oil-cakes, and the food offered to the crows. In the absence of the ritualistic paraphernalia they picked up rags from the dunghill, took a peacock feather broom (*pehunda*) used hide to cover their body, hid themselves behind the lotus-ponds or the *palāsa* tree during day time and travelled at night.⁴¹

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³⁹ *Br̥h. Bhā.* 1 3221

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⁴⁰ *Nisi. cū* 9, p. 518; also cf *Uttarā Ṭī.* 18, p. 248a

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⁴¹ *Vya Bhā.* 1, p. 122 f, *Brh Bhā* 1 3120-3136.

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Residence

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Shelter was another problem before the *sādhus*. In some countries it was very difficult for the monks to get shelter and under such conditions they had to put up in the shrine or a deserted house (*sunnaghara*) where there was trouble from women, eunuchs, wild beasts, snakes, mosquitoes, ants, dogs, and robbers.⁴² It is ordered that the monks should supervise their residence thrice a day, because it may so happen that the women might leave their new born babe there, or the robbers might leave the stolen property, or a person might murder his enemy and leave him, or a woman might commit suicide near their residence.⁴³ Nuns were more troubled due to want of residence and so often they lost their morals.⁴⁴

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⁴² *Nisi cū* 5, p 397

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⁴³ *Brh Bhā* 3 4747-4749

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⁴⁴ *Brh. sū* 2 11, *Bhā* 3484 ff

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Sickness

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⁴⁵ Vide *ibid*, (1 1900-1972)

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During the period of sickness the *Samanas* had to depend solely on others for treatment. If a monk was seriously ill and the physician was not willing to come to *vasahi*, the *sādhus* had to carry him to the physician's house. The *Samanas* approached him at an auspicious time and talked when he was seated happily. Sometimes the physicians prescribed such medicines and diets for the patients which were difficult to procure for the monks. In case the physician attended the patient in the *uvassaya* the monks had to make arrangements for his bath, food and drink etc. Then the question of paying fees worried the *sādhus*. The greedy physician would not be contented without getting his dues and the poor *sādhu* had to provide for it getting it either from the treasure that one might have kept hidden under the earth before taking to the ascetic life or from the unclaimed treasure-trove found in a palace or a well or by earning by making mechanical swans and such other toys.⁴⁶

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⁴⁶ *Vya Bhā* 5 89 f, p 20, cf the Buddhist monks who were allowed to the use of a loom and shuttles etc. as a handicraft by Buddha (*Cullavagga* V 28 2.).

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Famine

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There were long famines in the country and it was extremely difficult for the *sādhus* to get their lawful alms during this period. We have seen how Ajja Vaira used to get alms by magical practices during famine and thereby maintained other monks. We hear from the *Brhathalpa Bhāsya* how the monks fell a prey to women at such times of distress and lived with them as husband and wife.⁴⁷

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⁴⁷ 4.4955-58,

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Prostitutes

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Then there were prostitutes who entered the residence of the Samanas during night and invited them to enjoy sexual intercourse. Sometimes the monks were forced to tie them and keep them there overnight and set them free in the morning. If the prostitutes made a case with the king, the monks had to appear in the court for self-defence.⁴⁸

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⁴⁸ Ibid, 4.4923-25, also Sūya 4.1.2, also cf Dhammapada A, II, p 201

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Women

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Then we come to women. Throughout the Jain texts the Jain monks are warned not to have any association with women. It is stated that as a pot filled with lac thrown into fire melts quickly and is destroyed, so the monks are lost through association (*samvāsa*) with women.⁴⁹ A woman is compared to a poisoned thorn⁵⁰ and the monks are instructed to avoid a woman even if her hands and feet are cut off and her ears and nose mutilated.⁵¹

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⁴⁹ Sūya. 4.1.27

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⁵⁰ Ibid, 4.1.11

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⁵¹ Das. sū 8.56.

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But it was no easy matter to have a thorough control over one's sex instinct. After all the monks had to come in contact with women-folk. They had to go out begging alms to them and preaching them religion. If a monk was living singly, there were chances of his breaking the law and falling into the snares of women. Sometimes the monks lived together with householders, when the householder's wives, daughters, daughters-in-law, nurses and slave girls approached them and requested them to indulge in sexual intercourse with them so that they might have a strong and illustrious son.⁵² The Sūyagadanga beautifully describes a monk, who, being absorbed by the passion towards a woman, became subject to her. Afterwards the woman scolds him, lifts her foot, and tramples on his head, saying "O monk, if you will not live with me as a woman who has still her hair, I shall tear it out; but do not live separated from me." Then she asks the monk to bring wood to cook vegetable, to paint her feet, to rub her back, to get clothes, food, drink, perfume, collyrium-box, ornaments, powders, oils, pills, lipsalve, umbrella, slippers, comb, ribbon, looking-glass, tooth-brush and various other articles for use. If the woman got pregnant she ordered her husbands like slaves to fulfil her cravings. If a child was born to her, she asked the monk to hold the baby, and getting up in the night they both lulled the baby to sleep like nurses, and, though they are ashamed of themselves, they washed the clothes of the baby like washerfolk.⁵³

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⁵² Ācā II.2.1.294, p 332 f; cf Vinaya (III p 134) where sexual union with a Bhikkhu is recommended as a remedy for sterility or a means to procure a son or the husband's love.

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⁵³ 4.2.

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A number of monks are mentioned who fell into the snares of women. We have already seen how the monk Rahanemi fell in love with Rājimati and courted her Then the monk Sambhūya, who, being touched by the hair of the queen Sunandā lost his self-control and resolved to be born as a cakravartin in the next birth as a reward of his penance.⁵⁴ A similar story is told about the monk Addaya who gave up asceticism and married a merchant's daughter After his wife gave birth to two sons, Addaya asked her permission to resume his wandering career But at this time his wife was spinning When her child asked her mother what she was doing, she replied that as his father wanted to become an ascetic, she was spinning in order to support her family Then the child tied his father with twelve rounds of a cord and listening his child's request Addaya remained in the house for a further period of twelve years 55 Then we read of the monk Āsādhabūi, who, inspite of his teacher's warning, abandoned his ascetic life and married the two daughters of Viśvakmā, an acrobat of Rāyagiha 56

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⁵⁴ Uttarā Ṭī 13, p 186 af

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The Ideal of the Jain Samaṇas

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It is stated in Jain texts that a sādhu should not be negligent in his duties, and it is commendable for him to enter into fire rather than to violate his long-cherished vow 57 But it should be borne in mind that the ideal of sramanahood was not to be followed literally It is laid down that in order to cherish the greater vow one can sacrifice the lesser one, just like a merchant who abandons the lesser quantity of wealth in preference to the greater quantity 58 The Jain Sramanas are strictly warned against violating their religious vows, but at the same time it is stated that the life is not without merit and it must be guarded thoroughly even at the risk of sañjama (sañamaṁ appāṇameva rakkhanto), for, it is said that if a person came out safe from the calamity, he could purify himself by making confessions (pacchitta) and could practise more religious tenets 59 It is stated that one's body must be guarded with care as it were a mountain, as a mountain is the source of water so is the body of religion 60

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On many occasions the Nigganthas or Nigganthunis were oppressed by wicked kings and ministers Under such circumstances, failing to pacify the oppressor by peaceful means, it was the duty of the Samana Sangha to punish the evil-doer properly It is stated that Cānakya uprooted the Nanda family, or the weaver Naladāma the species of ants, so a hostile king must not be spared It is laid down that the holy persons who help the cause of religion in this way, or those who render help to such holy persons in their enterprise, are entitled to achieve liberation within a short period (acirānmokṣagamanam) The saint Viṇhukumāra is cited as an example of a great saviour of Jain religion⁶¹ There are other examples when under extreme circumstances the sādhuṣ were forced to violate their vows. It is stated that in order to save an ācārya from the hands of a robber-leader, a weak-bodied Samana might declare himself as an ācārya and offer his life for the sake of his teacher⁶² We have seen how a monk concealed his disciple in a nunnery when the latter was chased by the royal servants Then, if a Sramana failed to control his sexual urge he could indulge in sexual enjoyment by way of masturbation⁶³ (hatthakamma), associating with a woman or by visiting a public woman by paying fees⁶⁴ Similarly at the time of emergency the Samanas were forced to take medicine at night and to use hide, bone teeth or ivory, nails, hair, goat-dung or cow-urine as medicine⁶⁵ But as it has been pointed out, this was not the usual course of conduct of the Samanas. It should be treated as apavādamārga or exception to the rule when a monk under extreme distress had to set aside the utsaigamārga or a general rule for which he had to undergo a pāyacchitta⁶⁶ It is stated that as magical spells removed the effect of poison, similarly if violence is committed according to law (vidhi) purified by chanting magical formulae, sacrifice (janna) and recitation (japa), it does not lead to baneful result; in this way what is permissible (kappa) becomes impermissible and vice versa.⁶⁷ Thus a Samana could violate the general rules only under exceptional circumstances with the idea of practising greater sañjama, i.e, with the idea of doing greater good, which was the ideal of Sramana-hood.

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⁵⁵ Sūya Ṭī II, 6, p 388, also cf Bandhanāgāra Jātaka (201) (I, p 139 f), Dhammapada A. I, pp 306 f, IV, pp 54 f

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⁵⁶ Piṇḍa Nir. 474 ff

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⁵⁷ Brh Bhā. 4 4949

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⁵⁸ Nisi cū pi p 138

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⁵⁹ Ibid cf Jivandharmam caryyāmi (Mahābhā XII 141. 67).

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⁶⁰ Brh Bhā Vr 1 2900

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⁶¹ Vya Bhā 7.545-547, 1. 90 f, p 76 f

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⁶² Brh Bhā 1 3005 f

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⁶³ Cf Vinaya (III, pp 112, 117) where emission of semen with a desire to remove nervous tension by using the hand or other methods is referred to as an offence for the Buddhist monks

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⁶⁴ Vya Bhā 2 245-254, p 52 f 2 257 f, p 57 f. 5 71 f, p 17, Nisi cū 6, pp 451 ff, 464, Brh Bhā 4 4952-4956

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⁶⁵ Pinda Nir 50 f

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⁶⁶ The Oā (sū 20, p 77) describes ten kinds of pāyacchitta aloara, padikkhamana tudu-bhaya, vivega, tussagga. tava, cheda, mūla, anavatthappa and parañcia

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⁶⁷ Nisi cū 15, pp 935, 957, also p 1036

(2) The Sakka Samaṇas

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The Sākya Sramanas are very frequently referred to in Jain texts They were also known as rattavadas or taccannyas A discussion between Addayaputta and the Sākyaputrīyas has been already mentioned⁶⁸ The Buddhist doctrine of five skandhas is also referred to⁶⁹ The Buddhist were known as akriyāvādins as we shall see later on⁷⁰ The doctrines of Buddha (*Buddhasāsanam*) have been included among those false beliefs which are said to be the products of false knowledge.⁷¹ As a matter of fact, the *Śākya Śramaṇas* were the worst opponents of the *Nigganthas*, who suffered most at their hands, specially after Mahāvīra's death.

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⁶⁸ See Supra, p 127.

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⁶⁹ Sūya I, 1. 17.

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⁷⁰ For other references see Amulyachandrasen, schools and sects in Jaina literature pp. 23 ff

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⁷¹ Supia, p 288

(3) The Tāvasa Samaṇas

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The institution of hermits or *Tāvasas* is very old. We hear that on one of the journeys he made during his ascetic life, Mahāvīra put up in a hermitage (*āsamapada*) in Morāga Sannivesa.⁷² Mahāvīra came across another hermitage named Kanakakhala in Uttaravācāla where five hundred hermits were staying;⁷³ still another hermitage is referred to in Poyanapura where Vakkalacī was born.⁷⁴

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⁷² Āva Nir 463

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⁷³ Āia cū p 979

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⁷⁴ Ibid, p 157; cf Bāhuya Dāruciya in the *Dhammapada* 4. II, p p 209 1

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The hermits lived in the forest⁷⁵ where they occupied themselves either in meditation or in sacrificial rites, or in practice of self-torture or studying the *Suttas* containing the texts of their school. Much of their time was spent in gathering fruits and roots for their sustenance, or in going into villages for alms. The *Vyavahāra Bhāṣya* tells us that the *Tāvasas* picked up rice-grains scattered around the mortar (*udukkhala*), or the threshing floor (*khalaya*) and ate them after cooking. Sometimes they collected as little quantity of grains as could be held in a spoon (*darvī*) or stick (*daṇḍa*) or between the thumb and the forefinger (*sandāsaya*) or as much as adhered to a piece of cloth (*pottiya*).⁷⁶

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⁷⁵ Nisi cū 965

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⁷⁶ 10 23

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The *Ovāiya*⁷⁷ mentions the following classes of *Vānapatha Tāvasas* residing on the bank of the Ganges: Hottiya—They offered sacrifice. Kottiya—They slept on the bare ground. Pottiya—They belonged to the class of ascetics who wore clothes. Jannai—They performed sacrifice. Saddhai—They belonged to the devotional class of ascetics. Thālai—They carried all their belongings with them (*gṛhitabhāṇḍa*). Humbauttha—They carried a vessel with them (*kuṇḍikāsamana*). Dantukkhaliya⁷⁸—They used their teeth for a mortar, grinding the grain to be eaten between their teeth. Ummajjaka—They bathed taking only a dip. Sammajjaka—They bathed by taking dips several times. Nimajjaka—They remained in water only for a short while. Sampakkhāla—They rubbed and cleansed their body with mud.

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⁷⁷ Sū 38, p 170, also Nisi 3, p 39

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⁷⁸ Dantukkhaliya and ummajjaka hermits are also mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa, III, 6.3; also Dīgha Nikāya VI. 1, p 270, have eight kinds of ascetics are mentioned

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Dakkhiṇakūlaga—They dwelt on the south bank of the Ganges Uttarakūlaga—They dwelt on the north bank of the Ganges Sankhadhamaga—They had meals after blowing a conch-shell to keep people away Kūladhamaga—They blew a conch-shell on the river bank to keep people away while they took their meal Miyaluddhaya—They killed animals Hatthitāvasa—They killed an elephant with arrows and made their livelihood by eating its flesh for months together The Hatthitāvasas claimed that they committed but one sin, the killing of the elephant in a year or so which was counterbalanced by the merit earned by not killing other lives during this time. They are also mentioned in the Sūyagaḍaṅga According to the commentary, they were Buddhist monks ⁷⁹

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⁷⁹ II, 6, The Lalitavistara (p. 248) mentions ‘Hastirata’ ascetics.

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Uddandaga—They moved about raising their staff They are referred to along with Boḍiya and Sasarakkha mendicants who went about naked and used the hollow of their hands as alms-bowl.⁸⁰

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⁸⁰ Ācā cū p 169.

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Disāpokkhī—They sanctified all sides by sprinkling water and then collected flowers and fruits The Bhagavatī⁸¹ refers to the royal sage Siva of Hatthināpura, who joined the order of the Disāpokkhiyas on the bank of the Ganges. He practised chatthama (a fast, broken at the sixth meal) and on the day on which he broke fast, he sprinkled the eastern quarter, propitiated Soma, the lord of east, and collected bulbous roots, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds and green vegetables Then he returned to his hut, cleaned the sacrificial altar (vedikā) and went to bathe in the Ganges He made another altar with grass and sand, kindled a fire by the friction of pieces of wood, and keeping ritualistic paraphernalia by his side, offered honey, ghee and rice to the fire Then he prepared caru (oblation), worshipped Vāssadeva and the guests and then took his meal Then Siva observed the chatthama fast again and proceeded to the south to propitiate Yama, then to the west to propitiate Varuna and finally to the north to propitiate Vesamāna Somila was another hermit of Vārānasī who belonged to the same order and was a worshipper of the four disās ⁸² King Pasannacanda also belonged to the same order; he joined the order along with his queen and the nurse ⁸³

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⁸¹ 11 9

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⁸² Niryā 3, pp 39 ff

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⁸³ Āva. cū p. 457.

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Vakavāsī—They put on dress of bark Ambuvāsī—They lived in water Bilavāsī—They lived in caves Jalavāsī—They remained submerged in water Velavāsī—They lived on the sea-coast Rukkhamūlia—They lived under the trees. Ambubhakkhī—They lived by drinking water only.

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*Vāubhakkhī*⁸⁴—They lived by inhaling air only *Serālabhakkhī*⁸⁵—They lived by eating moss Other hermits lived on roots, bulbous roots, peels, leaves, flowers and seeds, some on rotten roots, bulbous roots, skin, leaves, flowers and fruits,⁸⁶ their body became rough due to constant bathing and they practised the *pañcaggi* penance. These *Tāvasas* followed the rules of the *Vānaprastha āśrama*. Like other ascetics the *Tāvasas* also moved in a body. We hear of three hermits named Koḍinna, Dinna and Sevāli, who were followed by a body of five hundred disciples each. They lived on roots, bulbs, decayed leaves and moss; they set out to pay a visit to Atthāvaya.⁸⁷

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⁸⁴ The Rāmāyaṇa, III, 11 13 mentions Māṇḍakarṇi a hermit, who lived on air; also Mahābhārata (I 96 42)

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⁸⁵ Cf Lalitavistara, p 218

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⁸⁶ Cf the ascetic pictures in the Dīgha I pp 106 f

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⁸⁷ Uttarā T, 10, 151a

(4) The Geruya or Parivrājaka Samaṇas

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The *Parivrājakas* or the wanderers were great teachers of the Brāhmanic lore and were greatly respected throughout the country. It is stated in the *Vasistha Dharmaśūtra* that a *Parivrājaka* should shave his head, clothe himself with one piece of cloth or skin or cover his body with grass pulled off by cows or he should sleep on bare ground.⁸⁸ They maintained their regular monasteries (*avasaha*) and they wandered about in a body with the object of engaging themselves in conversational discussions on matters of ethics, philosophy and various other topics of public interest. They allowed even women to enter their order. The *Oṭṭāya*⁸⁹ gives the following description of the wandering mendicants.

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⁸⁸ 10 6-11, also see Malalasekara, op cit Vol II, p 159 f, Malathā XII 190,3.

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⁸⁹ Sū 38, p. 172.

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They were versed in the four *Vedas*, *Itihāsa*, *Nigghantu*, six *Vedāngas* and six *Upāngas* noted already. They preached the doctrine of charity (*dānadhamma*), purity (*soadhamma*) and that of bathing at holy places (*titthābhiseya*). According to them whatever was impure became pure by applying mud and washing with water. They believed that they were pure themselves and by taking bath they would attain heaven. They never travelled in a cart or a litter, never entered a lake or a river for bathing, never rode on a horse or an elephant, never visited the performance of a dancer or a bard, never trampled upon or rubbed the green vegetables (*hariāna*), never indulged in talks regarding women, food, country, king and thieves, never kept any costly pots except a bottle-gourd, wooden or an earthen pot, never put on garments of various colours except one pair dyed with red-clay (*dhāmalla*), never wore any ornaments except one copper ring (*pavillaya*), never wore any garland except a pair of flower earings, never besmeared their body with any fragrant substance except the clay of the Ganges, and they took only one Magadha *prastha* (a measure used in Magadha) filtered (*paripūya*) water for drinking purposes.

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Jain Texts describe some prominent wandering mendicants and nuns who seem to have exercised considerable influence on the public. We hear of Ajjakhaṇḍa of Kaccāyana gotta, who was putting up in Sāvatthī. Once he took his ritualistic paraphernalia viz., triple staves, water pot (kuṇḍī), rosary (kañcanīyā), earthen bowl (karoḍiyā), seat (bhisiya), sweeping duster (kesariyā), teapoy (chaṇṇaliyā), hook (ankusaya), ring (pavittaya) and the forearm ornament (kalācikā) and putting on an umbrella and wearing shoes and dyed robes proceeded to pay a visit to Mahāvīra.⁹⁰ Suya was another wandering mendicant who was well-versed in the four Vedas, Saṭṭhitanta and the Sāmkhya system. He preached ten kinds of a mendicant's religion (parivvāyagadhamma) based on purity. When Suya arrived in the company of one thousand mendicants in Sogandhiyā, people set out to pay him reverence with great enthusiasm.⁹¹ Then the Ovāiya⁹² describes the mendicant Ammaḍa and his seven disciples. It is said that Ammaḍa and his disciples did not pay respect to any other deity except the Arhat and they attained heaven after death. Ammaḍa sojourned in Kampillapura and he received alms from hundred houses (gharasaya). He observed the chatthamachattha fast with his alms stretched and his face turned towards the sun. He never accepted food which was prepared for him or brought for him or set aside for him or cooked for him; neither he was allowed to eat food, meant for famine-stricken persons, for rich persons, or roots, bulbs, fruits, seeds and green vegetables. Once the seven disciples of Ammaḍa were travelling from Kampillapura to Purimatāla in summer; they arrived in a dense forest and felt extremely thirsty. They did not get water to drink and so setting aside their ritualistic paraphernalia they went to the sand of the Ganges and by giving up food and drink submitted to pāovagamana. Puggala is mentioned as another mendicant who sojourned in ⁹³ Ālabhiyā. We have already referred to the nun Cokkhā who was wandering about in the company of other nuns in Mithilā.

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⁹⁰ Bhag 2.1.

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⁹¹ Nāyā 5, p 73 ff

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⁹² Sū. 39f Ambaṭṭha, a learned Brahmin is referred to in the Dīgha I, pp 87 ff

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⁹³ Bhag. 11 12

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Besides, other parivrājakas are mentioned⁹⁴.— Caraka⁹⁵—It is said that they begged alms while moving in company (dhāṭivāhaka) and they moved on while eating. They accepted cleansed (dhōvuta) alms and put on a lion-cloth (kacchotaka). It is said that these mendicants were the direct descendants (sūnu) of Kapilamuni.⁹⁶ These mendicants got up in the morning and swept the shrines of Skanda and other deities, anointed them and burnt incense in the temple 97 The *Vyavahāra Bhāṣya* records religious discussion between a *Caraka* and the *Kṣullakas*98

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⁹⁴ Anu Sū 20, Nāyā Ṭi 15

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⁹⁵ Caraka is mentioned in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka upaniṣad where it denotes a wandering student (Vedic Index I, p 256).

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⁹⁶ Paṇṇa Ṭi II, 20 p 405; also cf. Ācā cū p. 265.

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*Cirika*—They picked up rags from the roadside, or according to another interpretation their religious requisites were made of cloth

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*Cammakhaṇḍia*—They put on a dress of hide or their religious requisites were made of hide

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*Bhikkahuṇḍa*—They would eat nothing except what had been obtained by alms and would not take cow-milk etc, they are considered as identical with the Buddhist monks

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*Paṇḍuraṅga* or *Paṇḍaraṅga*—They besmeared their body with ashes, they were Saiva mendicants According to the *Nisītha cūrṇi*,¹⁰⁰ however, the disciples of Gosāla were called *Paṇḍarabhikkhu* The *Anuyogadvāra cūrṇi* identifies them with the *Sasa akkhu saṃyasa* Bhikkhus 11

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¹⁰⁰ p 865, also mentioned in the com of the *Dhammat di* (IV, p 8)

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Then they were other *Paṇḍaraṅgas* 1

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*Saṅkha*—They followed the Sāṃkhya system

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*Joi*—They followed the Yoga system

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*Kaila Kapila*s then lord they followed the theistic Sāṃkhya system

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*Bhṛgu*—They were the disciple of Bhṛgu

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*Haṃsa*102—They lived in mountain caves, roads, hermitages, shrines and gardens and entered a village only to beg

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*Paramahaṃsa*103—They lived on river banks, the confluence of streams, and discarded clothes before they died

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*Bahūdaga*103—They lived one night in a village and five nights in a town

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*Kuṭīvaya*103—They lived in their own house and considered getting victory over greed illusion and egotism as their goal

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*Kaṇhapaṇḍaraga*—They worshipped the Nārāyaṇa 104

II Ājīvika Samaṇas

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The order of the *Ājīvikas* is of older standing than that of Gosāla himself, who is considered as the third leader of the sect 105 It is evident from the *Bhagavatī*106 that the history of the *Ājīvikas* commenced one hundred and seventeen years before Gosāla. It is stated that Gosāla lived twenty two years in the body of Enejjaga, twenty one in that of Mallārāma, twenty in that of Maṇḍiya, nineteen in that of Roha, eighteen in that of Bhāraddāja, and seventeen in that of Ajjuna Goyamaputta.

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⁹⁷ Ava Ti p 87

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⁹⁸ 2, 29a

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⁹⁹ The Digha I, p 166 also mentions such ascetics (*f un ukula*)

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¹⁰¹ p 12

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¹⁰² O a 35, p 172

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¹⁰³ Also Haribhadra *Saddarsanasamuccaya* p 81 V S 1971 Bombay, mentioned in the Hindu religion as well, see *R hgn of the Hindu*, Vol I p 231 f by II II Wilson, London 1862

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¹⁰⁴ Kan lu (or Kunna) *Aarakana* Anba'n Pu sara (also mentioned in the *Therigatha* (116), *M thal ha* I 114 )) Kanhidivym (also in the *kenhade ayana Jataka* IV pp, 83 87, *Mal lhi*, I 114 45 Devagutta and Ni va are mentioned as Brahmanical mendicants (O 3b p 172) Then Sular Sasil 13 (or Masihari) Nagga Phaggu, Vidhi Rayanya Rayuma and Bila were the *khattiya* mendicants (ibid)

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¹⁰⁵ *Majhima* I, pp 524, 238 For a treatment of the subject see Dr Barua The *Ajivikas*, also Pre-Buddhist Indian Philos *fl*, p 297 318 by the the same author, also Law, Historical Gleanings pp 374 15

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Gosāla was well-versed in the eightfold *Mahānimittas* which he learned from the six *Disācara* ascetics. It seems that other *Ājīvika Samanas* also were adepts in this science, and so we are told that Ajja Kālaya, a great Jain saint, learned this science from them.¹⁰⁷

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¹⁰⁷ Pancakalpa cūrṇi, after S B. M , p 260

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Another characteristic of the *Ājīvika Sramanas* was that they practised severe penance. The *Ṭhāṇāṅga*¹⁰⁸ mentions four kinds of austerities practised by them such as severe austerities, fierce austerities, abstention from ghee and other delicacies and indifference to pleasant and unpleasant food. The *Ovāiya*¹⁰⁹ describes the following classes of the *Ājīvikas* those who begged food at every second house, third house, fourth house, sixth house, seventh house, those who accepted lotus-stalk only those who begged in every house, those who did not beg if there was a flash of lightning, and those who practised penance by entering big earthen vessels (*uttiyāsamana*). The *Ājīvika Sramanas* lived alone, used cold water, lived on seeds, accepted things prepared for them, had intercourse with women,¹¹⁰ and wandered about naked (*nāgnyadhānam*)¹¹¹

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¹⁰⁸ 4 309, cf Naṅguttha Jātaka (I, No. 144), p 493.

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¹⁰⁹ Sū 41, p 196

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¹¹⁰ Ibid II 6 7f

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¹¹¹ Bhag Ti 1 2 p 87. Makkhalī Gosāla is enumerated as one of the six teachers of renown others being Pūraṇa Kassapa, Ajita Kesakambli, Pakudhakaccāyana, Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta and Nāṭaputta, see Digha I, p 48ff

The Lay Followers of the Ājīviyas

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The names of the twelve adherents of the *Ājīvika* faith are given as follows :—

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Tāla, Tālapalamba, Uvviha, Samviha, Udaya, Nāmudava, Nammudaya, Anuvālaya, Saṅkhavālaya and Kāyaraya They considered Arhat Gosāla as their God, were devoted to their parents, abstained from five kinds of fruits viz, *umbara, vada, bora, satara* and *pilaṅkhu*, gave up eating roots, bulbous roots, onions and maintained themselves by trade which did not involve killing and by means of uncastrated bulls They did not indulge in the fifteen occupations mentioned above ¹¹² The potter Saddālaputta¹¹³ and his wife Hālāhalā are mentioned as other lay followers of the *Ājīvikas* Sāvitthī and Polāsapura seem to be the centres of activities of the *Ājīvikas* where an *Ājīviya*-hall is mentioned.¹¹⁴

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¹¹² See supra, p 106

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¹¹³ Uvā 7.

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¹¹⁴ Ibid.

Doctrines

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From the story of Saddālaputta we learn that according to the doctrine of Gosāla Mankhaliputta, there is no such thing as exertion or labour or power of vigour or human strength, but that all things are caused by destiny which is unalterably fixed ¹¹⁵ The Sūyagaḍanga refers to the doctrine of niyaivāda, according to which pleasure and pain are not caused by the souls themselves, nor by others, but the individual souls experience them, it is the lot assigned to them by destiny ¹¹⁶

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¹¹⁵ Ibid 6, p 44 cf the Dīgha, I p 53 where it is stated that according to Gosāla there is no cause for the depravity of beings, they become pure without any cause Nothing depends on human effort for there is no such thing as power or energy or human exertion or human strength Every thing that thinks or every thing that lives is destitute of power or energy Then varying conditions are due to fate then environment and then own nature

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¹¹⁶ 2. 2-3

Gosāla and His Association with Mahāvīra

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The Bhagavatī gives the following details of the life of Gosāla —

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