Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthashastra of Kautilya), Vol. I c9: Chapter V. Means of Communication
Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya), Vol. I c9
- Language
- English
Contents
- c9.s1 § 1.—Land Routes and Conveyances — 41 parts
- c9.s2 § 2.—Waterways and Ships and Boats — 40 parts
Chapter V. Means of Communication
§ 1.—Land Routes and Conveyances
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CONSIDERING the vast extent of the empire of Chandra Gupta, embracing as it did the whole of Northern India from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea, an area wider even than that of British India, it is evident that the machinery of government by which the administration of this mighty empire was carried on was highly elaborate and developed, the product of evolution through centuries. It implied the existence of all the principal factors on which depends the efficiency of such governments, viz., a well-disciplined army of sufficient strength, a well-organized system of administration, and a well-developed system of communication by which the heart of the empire was brought into constant and vital connexion with its distant and various parts. We shall have occasion to speak in another place of the organization of Chandra Gupta’s army and administration. In the present chapter we shall confine ourselves to an account of the means of communication that existed in Chandra Gupta’s time, the network of roads, trade routes and water routes, etc., that, radiating from the centre at Pāṭaliputra towards the four quarters of the empire, covered up the entire territory embraced by it. Among the principal agencies of transport, we shall have to refer to vehicles and conveyances as also to ships and boats which established and carried on the intercourse not only between the different parts of the country along the recognized water routes, but also the intercourse of the empire with the outside world across the seas.
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As already pointed out, the trade routes led towards all the four quarters of the empire—north, south, east and west, as is apparent from the passages quoted below. The number of routes in each direction seems to have been determined by consideration of traffic. From this standpoint Kauṭilya regards the routes leading to the south as more important than those leading to the Himâlayas; for while the latter brought to market the supply of blankets, skins and horses, the former facilitated the supply of such valuable commodities as diamonds and other precious stones, pearls, gold and conch-shells, of which Southern India was the noted home for ages. On the same considerations it is also stated that of the southern trade routes the more important were those that passed by a larger number of mines, carried a larger volume of traffic in merchandise of various kinds, and were hence used by a larger number of men. There were also other routes leading to the east and to the west, the importance of which was also determined as above.¹
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¹ स्थलपथेऽपि—“हैमवतो दक्षिणपथाच्छ्रेयान् हस्त्यश्व-गन्ध-दन्त-जिन-रूप्य-सुवर्ण-पण्यासारवत्तराः”—(इत्याचार्याः)। नेति कौटिल्यः—“कम्बलजिनखुरपण्याः प्रभूतरमपि सुवर्णरत्नपण्याश्च प्रभूततरा दक्षिणपथे। दक्षिणपथेऽपि वङ्ग-वङ्गिसारपण्याः प्रसिद्धतरूप-बाहामो वा वणिक्पथः। येषाम्। प्रभूतविभवो वा पणुपथः। तेन पूर्वः पश्चिमश्च वणिक्पथो व्याख्यातः।”—Bk. VII, कर्मसन्धिः, p. 298.
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One of these routes was undoubtedly what has been mentioned in Megasthenes as the “Royal Road ”² connecting Pâṭaliputra with the Indus valley, and enabling the power of Chandra Gupta to be felt even in the regions of the North-Western frontiers which had been newly wrested from the hands of Seleucus Nikator.
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² Megasthenes, Bk. IV, Fragment lvi.
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But roads and trade routes¹ had a political importance besides an economic. To have control over them meant over-reaching the enemy. They were the means of transport of troops, messengers, envoys, as well as weapons, armour, chariots, pack-animals, etc.
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¹ वणिक्पथः परातिसभाश्च योनयः ; वणिक्पथेन हि दण्डगूढपुरषातिनयनं मज्ञावरखयानवाहनक्रयश्च क्रियते । प्रवेशो निर्गमनं च ।—Bk. VII, सीमप्रतिपूरणम्, p. 305; सप्रतिविहित यानवाहनपुरुषपरिवापः प्रतिषेध, etc.—Bk. I, दूतप्रणिधिः, p. 30.
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Roads and trade routes were of various kinds, with various designations. They were classified (1) according as they were used by beasts of burden, men on foot or in conveyances, and (2) according to the destinations they led to. Thus, the राजमार्ग² (4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide) was the king’s highway. It owed its name evidently to the fact that the king used it on solemn occasions, when it was cleared of crowds and guarded by soldiers with drawn swords. There used to be six such roads in a city, three running north and south and three east and west. रथ्या was the broad road, 4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide, along which chariots could run with ease. There is also mention of a रथपथ, apparently for smaller chariots, as it was only 5 aratnis or 10 feet wide. The पशुपथ, having a width of 4 aratnis or 8 feet, was the road for cattle in general, while there were the महापशुपथ for the larger animals, and the क्षुद्रपशुपथ for the smaller ones, having a width of 2 aratnis or 4 feet.¹ There were routes called खरोष्ट्रपथ (lit., for asses and camels). They were so made that they could be used whatever the season or the nature of the soil through which they passed. Besides the aforesaid roads, there was also distinguished a चक्रपथ (cart-track) which admitted of a larger volume of traffic than the पादपथ, and the मनुष्यपथ (2 aratnis or 4 feet wide) meant for pedestrians only. The वंसपथ was a narrow road of the latter class.¹ Of these roads and routes some have been singled out in the Arthaśāstra as trade routes proper (वणिकपथ). These are the चक्रपथ, पादपथ, वंसपथ and खरोष्ट्रपथ. The reason of this distinction seems to be that the trade routes were usually of very great length and passed through a variety of soils and climes.
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² निर्व्यूहभिधाने च राजमार्गमुभयतः चतारचं दण्डिभिरपात्त-मजपथाप्रविशितपथं भवेत् । न पुरषसम्बाधमवगाहेत ।—Bk. I, आत्मारक्षितकम्, p. 45; अथः प्राचीना राजमार्गाश्च उदीचीना इति वास्तुविभागः ।—Bk. II, दुर्गनिवेशः, p. 54.
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¹ It should be noted that these roads took their names from the principal uses for which they were meant. It must not be thought that a road for the purpose which its name implies was not put to any other use for which it was fit.
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¹ दुर्गनिवेश:—Bk. II; विवीतक्षेत्रपथविभं—Bk. III; and वणिकपथ—Bk. VII; तथापि चक्रपादपथयोश्चक्रपथो विपुलतरत्वाच्छ्रेयान देशकालसभावतो वा खरोष्ट्रपथ: पाभ्याम् वंसपथो व्याख्यात:—Bk. VII, कार्यसन्धि: ।
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As has been already mentioned, there was also a class of roads that were designated according to their destinations. The राष्ट्रपथ (4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide) was the road leading to the districts. The road leading to pastures was known as विवीतपथ, and was of the same breadth. The approaches to the forts in the centre of 400 and 800 villages were known respectively as द्रोणमुखपथ and स्थानीयपथ, and were of equal breadth with the preceding.² The क्षेत्रपथ led to the fields under cultivation (बीजपथ = seed or grain). The road leading to a military station was called the व्यूहपथ. The श्मशानपथ, as the name indicates, led to the cremation-grounds, while the ग्रामपथ was a thoroughfare which led to and through a village. The above four classes of roads were all 8 daṇḍas or 64 feet wide. The paths to forests were known as वनपथ (4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide), and those leading to elephant forests were called हस्तिपथ (2 daṇḍas or 16 feet wide). The roads leading to or passing over elevated and difficult places like embankments were designated as सेतुपथ (4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide).¹
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² अष्टशतग्राममध्ये स्थानीयम्, चतु:शतग्राममध्ये द्रोणमुखम्, हिमवन्ताभ्याम् खार्बटिकम्, श्मशानमीपदेव सङ्ग्रहणम् खापयेत् । —Bk. II, जनपदनिवेश: ।
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¹ दुर्गनिवेश:—Bk. II.
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Besides the above classes, there are mentioned a few other roads peculiar to forts²:—
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² दुर्गविधानम्—Bk. II.
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(i) रथचर्यापथ, *i.e.* roads for chariots, paved with planks cut from the trunks of palms, or with broad and thick slabs of stones. (ii) प्रतौली, which was a broad passage between two towers (अट्टालक). (iii) देवपथ, which was the passage leading to a temple. (iv) Paths which were as broad as a daṇḍa (8 feet) or two and were called चर्या.
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Among other minor roads may be mentioned the खम, a defile or small path admitting passage for a single man.¹ उपाथ is a small passage through fields,² etc., and विथिका³ a road in the city on which the workshop for the State goldsmith was built.
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¹ श्मशानप्रविशपथः, वीवधासारप्रसारपथ—Bk. XII, p. 388.
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² वासुविक्रयः—Bk. III, p. 169.
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³ अवशालायां सुवर्णाध्यक्षः—Bk. II, p. 85.
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The free flow of traffic along the established roads and trade routes was naturally one of the cares of the State, and all interference with it was punishable. Suitable fines were imposed for blocking passage, which varied with the importance of the roads.⁴ The fines for blocking or digging some of the roads mentioned above are thus laid down in the Arthaśāstra : for क्षुद्रपथ and मनुष्यपथ, 12 paṇas; for महापपथ, 24 paṇas; for रथपथ, 54 paṇas; for सेतुपथ and वज्रपथ, 600 paṇas; for श्मशानपथ and ग्रामपथ, 200 paṇas; for द्रोणमुखपथ, 500 paṇas; for स्थानीयपथ, राष्ट्रपथ and विवीतपथ, 1000 paṇas; for digging the roads too deep, four times the above fines were inflicted.
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⁴ विवीतक्षेत्रपथविंशा—Bk. III, p. 171.
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We now proceed to give an account of the various types of vehicles, conveyances and other means of land carriage which were then in use. First come *chariots*, the construction of which was placed under the supervision of the superintendent of chariots (रथाध्यक्ष), who had to see that the chariots built corresponded with the various sizes and types in vogue; for there are mentioned no less than seven different sizes of chariots with a normal height of 10 purushas, *i.e.* 10 feet, but with a width ranging from 6 to 12 feet. There are also mentioned six varieties of chariots for different purposes. Thus the देवरथ was the chariot for the idols, the पुष्परथ was the festal chariot, the संग्रामिक war-chariot, the पारियात्रिक that used ordinarily for travelling. There was another class of war-chariots called the परपुराभिमानिक for use in expeditions. Lastly, there was the वेणविक or the chariot used in the period of training.¹
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¹ रथाध्यक्ष:—Bk. II. ² क्षुद्रपशुमनुष्य सवारी साधनं दद्यात्; यथा लघुयानम्, षड्-गोधिरथम्, सप्त शकटम्—Bk. II, नावध्यक्ष:, p. 127.
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Among minor *vehicles*² we have the लघुयानम्, a small cart; the गोधिरथम्, a cart of medium size drawn by bulls; and the शकट or big cart.
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The carts were in very general use, and a brisk trade in them was carried on to meet the demand.¹
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¹ धान्यरसलोहपण्याः शकटव्यवहारिणश्च विंशत्कराः.—Bk. V, कोशामिसंग्रहम्, p. 241.
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The chariots, carts² and other vehicles were usually drawn by camels, bulls or horses. The cart-driver was called चक्रचर.³
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² गवाश्व-रथोष्ट्राणां च व्रजः.—Bk. VII, दीनशक्तियुरवम् । युगवाहनशकटवहा ह्यभाः.—Bk. II, गोध्यक्षः । कुर्याद्रवाश्ववा-योगं रथेवल्पस्यो नृपः.—Bk. X, युद्धभूमयः, पत्त्यश्वरथद्विपर्काश्च च, p. 369.
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³ चक्रचराणां वा शकट-वाढे-रपनयेत्.—Bk. VII, सम्भिकर्म, सम्भिसोच्य, p. 315.
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Lastly, the शिविका⁴ or palanquin was also a means of conveyance, पीठिका being another variety of the same.
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⁴ हयभृतारथजनशिविकापीठिकार्येषु च विशेषार्थम्.—Bk. II, मविकाध्यक्षः, p. 128.
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As regards the king's conveyance, great precautions were taken to ensure his personal safety when he rode a horse, etc., or was carried in a chariot or other vehicle. Hereditary grooms and drivers were generally appointed, and stringent punishments meted out to those who stole or caused hurt to royal horses and elephants, and damage to royal carriages.¹
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¹ मौजपुरवाधितं यानवाहनमारोहेत्—Bk. I, चालरक्षित-कम्; (पथि) राजहस्त्यश्वानां हिंसकान् येषां वा प्रसाधारो-इयेयुः—Bk. IV, मुद्रिवध दण्डकम्:, p. 227.
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There were rules for the driving of vehicles to ensure the security of the passers-by. I need not, however, enter into these details.² Cart-stealing was severely punished.³ Special⁴ care was taken for repairing the roads, and favour was shown to the labourers by exempting them from taxes.
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² *Vide* Bk. IV, अतिचारदण्डः ।
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³ चक्रयुक्तं यानं क्षुद्रपशुं व्यापद्यत एकपादवधः चित्रतो वा दण्डः—Bk. IV, एकाङ्गवधनिबन्धः, p. 225.
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⁴ शोधयेत् पञ्चसङ्घं चीयमानं वणिक्पथं—Bk. II, जनपद-निवेशः, p. 49; मध्यमवरं वा दुर्गसेतुबन्धवणिक्पथग्रामनिवेश-खनिद्रव्यहस्तिवनकर्मोपकारिवं प्रत्यक्षमस्यप्रमाणं वा न याचेत—Bk. V, कोशभिसंहरवम्, p. 240.
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I conclude this account of land routes and conveyances by a reference to the facilities for travelling that were offered by the State. The supply of water and shade was one of the concerns of Government. Trees were planted along the roads, and water-storages were set up, ministering to the comfort of passers-by. There was also provision made by hotelkeepers for the supply of food and resting-place to travellers.¹ These facilities anticipated those of Asoka as set forth in his Rock Edict II.
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¹ तुष्यशीलपुंश्चलीप्रापाविक-कयावकामभोजनदाहभिः उपसर्पयेत्—Bk. IV, वास्तुकर्मानुयोगः, p. 219. सहोदकं आहार्योदकं वा सेतुं बध्नीयात्। अन्येषां वा बध्नतां भूमिमार्ग-वृक्षोपकरणानुग्रहं कुर्यात् पुण्यस्थानारामाणां च सभूय सेतुबन्धात्प्रकामतः कर्मकरबलीवर्दाः कर्मकुर्युः—Bk. II, जनपदनिवेशः, p. 47; पुण्यफलवाठपवकेदारमूलवापासेतुः—Bk. II, समाहर्तृसमुदयप्रस्थापनम्, p. 60.
§ 2.—Waterways and Ships and Boats
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From the above it appears that the vast territories over which Chandra Gupta held sway were interconnected by a system of communications, which was one of the chief means of welding them together into one mighty empire governed from its centre at Pāṭaliputra. The means of communication thus established had, as I have already said, not merely a political significance; they helped to create and carry a large volume of inland trade which was equally instrumental in uniting the different parts of the empire in ties of common material interests.
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The system of communications, however, could not be complete without the means of water-carriage, which in India, pre-eminently the land of rivers, were imperatively necessary. That these were fairly developed is quite evident from the Arthaśāstra; in fact, all matters relating to navigation, whether inland or oceanic, were dealt with by a separate admiralty department managed by various officers.
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There were several classes of water routes: first, the ordinary river routes and the artificial waterways or canals (कुल्या) which were greatly resorted to by traders on account of the undoubted cheapness of water-carriage. Kauṭilya, however, shows his preference¹ for land routes over water routes on account of the lesser risks involved in the former. Secondly, there were the routes for coastal traffic (कूलपथ)
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¹ एतेन वणिक् पथोव्याख्यातः। तत्रापि—“वारिपथपथयोर्वारिपथः श्रेयान् अल्पव्ययव्यायामः प्रभूतपखोदयश्च” इत्याचार्याः। नेति कौटिल्यः—“संभङ्गुरतिरसार्वकालिकः प्रवहणवणिज्वितिकारश्च वारिपथः; विपरीतस्थलपथः। वारिपथे तु कुल्य-संधानपथयोः कुल्यपथः पण्यपतनपत्तनाक्षेपाग्रद्वीपवी वा सातत्यादिश्रवाबाधत्वाच्च” ।—Bk. VII, कर्मसन्धिवः, p. 298. कौटिल्यः—“वारिपथपथभोगयोरनित्यो वारिपथभोगो, नित्यस्थलपथभोग इति” ।—Bk. VII, जनपदनिवेशनिः, p. 294.
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carrying on inter-portal communication. These were naturally more exposed to dangers than either the river routes or the land routes. Lastly, there were ocean routes (संयानपथ) carrying on the intercourse of India with foreign countries across the sea. The existence of definite ocean routes, clearly marked out, no doubt implies a high degree of development of the art of navigation.
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The natural risks of water-carriage were, however, overcome by the efficiency of the means of transport that were in use. Ships and boats were built of various descriptions suiting the purposes of both inland and marine navigation. In the Arthaśāstra mention is made of the following kinds of ships and boats:—
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(i) संयात्यः नावः, i.e. ocean-going vessels. These ships had to pay tolls (शुल्क) at the harbours (पत्तन) at which they touched.¹ Amarakosha defines a सांयात्रिक as a merchantman (पोतवणिक्).
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¹ संयातीर्नावः पत्तनमुपगताः शुल्कं दद्युः । —Bk. II, नावध्यक्षः, p. 128.
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(ii) प्रववहः This is another name for sea-going vessels, or more properly merchantmen, for it is thus defined in the commentary on उत्तराध्ययनटीका, p. 246: समुद्रिका: व्यापारिण: महासमुद्रं प्रवसन्तीति, i.e. “sea-going merchants cross the main in प्रवसन्.”¹
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¹ प्रवसन्विभजमेकोऽमात्य: सर्वानमात्यानाचक्षयेत् । —Bk. I, उपधाभि-स्र्द्धीचाशौचममात्यानाम्, p. 17.
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(iii) मक्तमुक्ताग्राहिव: नाव: These were the boats used for pearl-fishing in various parts of the ocean. They were generally the property of Government, but were also let out to private individuals on payment of the necessary fee (नौभाटक). But pearl-fishers were also allowed to carry on their business in their own boats (स्वनाव:).²
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² मक्तमुक्ताग्राहिवो नौभाटकम् दद्यु, स्वनीभिर्वा तरेयु: । —(स्वनाव:) ।
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(iv) महानाव: These were big vessels for use in those large rivers (महानदीषु) which could not be forded even in the dry seasons and were navigable throughout the year.³
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³ महानावो येनपक्षीजाताव्यात्तु महानदीषुप्रयोजयेत् ।—Ibid.
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(v) The royal barge was another type of boat, manned by trustworthy sailors (आप्तना-विकाधिष्ठित: नौ:). It had to be tagged on to another boat, evidently for the safety of the king. The king never used a vessel that had once been weather-beaten, and, as a further precautionary measure, soldiers were stationed on the bank or shore when he boarded a vessel.¹
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¹ नावं प्राप्तनाविकाधिष्ठितामन्यनीप्रतिबद्धां (आरुहेत्); बातवेगवशां च गोपेयात् । उदकाने सैन्यमासीत । —Bk. I, चाणक्यरचितकम्, p. 44.
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(vi) क्षुद्रकाः नावः These were small boats specially meant for use in small and shallow rivers (क्षुद्रिकासु) that overflowed in the rains.²
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² क्षुद्रकाः (नावः) क्षुद्रिकासु वर्षास्विवीयषु ।—(माधवचः) ।
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(vii) सतरवानि Besides the Government ferry-boats, there were also ferry-boats belonging to private persons. These were allowed to cross the rivers at all times and places.³
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³ Ibid.
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(viii) हिंस्रिकाः These were the pirate ships and boats. The admiralty regulation was that they should be pursued and destroyed whenever they were found. The same regulation applied to the ships and boats of an enemy's country when they crossed its limits (अमित्रविषययातिमाः) and also to vessels violating harbour rules (पण्यपतनचारिणोपघातिकाः).⁴
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⁴ हिंस्रिका हिंसितव्येत् । अमित्रविषययातिगाः पण्यपतनचारिणोपघातिकाश्च—(माधवचः) ।
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A reference has now been made to the crew for manning ships and boats. The captain of a ship was called the शाश्वक, and the steersman the नियामक. There were also the sailors, with sickles and ropes, known as दावरसिकपाशकाः. Lastly, there was a staff of sailors whose duty it was to bale out water (उत्तृचकाः).¹
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¹ *Vide* नावधः. Cf. the list of crew as given by अमरकोष:—"कर्णधारनुनाविकः नियामकः पोतवाहाः।"
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Besides the regular ships and boats, there were devised various other means of water-carriage. These were (a) काष्ठप्लव—pieces of timber tied together, serving the purposes of a boat; (b) वेणुप्लव—a boat made of bamboos tied together; (c) पलाण्डु—a vessel made of the bottle-gourd; (d) चर्मकरण—a basket covered with skin; (e) दृति—a leather bag that could be floated and used as a boat; (f) प्लव—canoe; (g) गञ्जिका—a floating device made of the leather of the rhinoceros; (h) वेणिका—a float of reeds, etc., woven together.²
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Other means² of crossing water were the bridges of various kinds. Besides the ordinary bridges (सेतुबन्ध) there were also the bridges of boats as well as the bridges formed by elephants standing in a row.
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² चर्मप्लवप्लवप्लववेणुप्लवकाः पलाण्डुचर्म-करणदृतिप्लवगञ्जिकावेणिकाभिरुदकानि तारयेत्—Bk. X, सभा-
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In the chapter नावध्यक्ष: there are a few rules relating to the duties of the नावध्यक्ष (the superintendent of the admiralty department), of the खन्यध्यक्ष (the superintendent of ocean-mines) and of the पत्तनाध्यक्ष (the superintendent of ports). There are also mentioned the regulations as to the collection of taxes and ferry charges (तरदेय), repair of ships and boats, time and place for crossing rivers, entrance of foreign merchants into the country, arrest of suspected persons, and concessions made to some classes of persons as regards crossing and ferry fees, e.g. children, old men, etc.
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वारप्रयाणम्, p. 363; वर्षारात्रमनूपग्रामाः पूरवेलामुत्सृज्य वसेयुः । काष्ठवेणुनावश्चाप्यष्टीयुः।—Bk. IV, उपनिपातप्रतीकारः, p. 206.
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उद्यमानमनावृतं शित्रमखिकावेषिकाभिसारयेयुः । अनभिसरतां द्वादशपणो दण्डः, अन्यत्र प्लवहीनेभ्यः।—Bk. IV, उपनिपातप्रतीकारः, p. 206.
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नदीदुर्गं हि सलिलस्तम्भसेतुबन्धमौभिस्र्याधमजित्यगाभीर्य्य-मपबाधुरकं च—Bk. VII, भूमिसन्धिः, p. 292.
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शिविरमात्रं सेतुं रूपतीर्थशोधनकं कर्मन्त्वायुधावरबोधकरव्यास-वहनमाबोघनाय प्रस्तरखवरप्रतिविद्वापनयजनमिति विहित-कर्माधि—Bk. X, पत्त्यश्वरथकर्माधिच, p. 369.
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Besides these, there were a few other rules regarding deposits in ships, the rate of interest for money lent or borrowed by sea traders (सामुद्राः) and the punishment for stealing boats.¹
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¹ नाविकविनिमयार्थां सुविहितायां सवमुपरूढो नोपनिधिमभ्याभवेत्—Bk. III, नौपनिधिकम्, p. 177; विंशतिपणा सामुद्राणां । ततः परं कर्तुः कारयितुश्च पूर्वसाहसदण्डः—Bk. III, जहादानम्, p. 174; नाविकसार्थवाहेभ्यश्च परिहारमातिथ्यं दद्यात् । अनभियोगसार्थेभ्यामूनामन्वय सभ्योपकारिभ्यः—Bk.II, पण्याध्यक्षः, p. 98. चक्रयुक्तां नावं क्षुद्रकां वाऽपहरत एकपादवधः विशतो वा दण्डः—Bk. IV, एकाङ्गवधनिबन्धः, p. 225.
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It is apparent from the above that intercourse was established in that ancient time between the empire of Chandra Gupta and very distant places. That foreign merchants used to come to his empire and that commerce was carried on with distant countries are evident from references made to them in several passages under the names of पारविषयिकाः,² सामुद्राः,³ सार्थवाणपाणि,⁴ and also by the use of such expressions as “देशकालात्तराणां तु पण्यानां,”⁵ etc. Lastly, in the chapter entitled कोशप्रवेश-रत्नपरीक्षा in Book II, among other things it is mentioned that कालेयक, a kind of sandal, came from स्वर्णभूमि, i.e. Burma; चीनभूमिजाः चीनपट्टाः, fabrics of Chinese manufacture, came from that distant country; and gems of various kinds, as well as अगुरु (the fragrant Aloe-wood) of several sorts, came from Ceylon (पारसमुद्र).¹ There are mentioned many other names of distant countries the products of which were brought into the empire by the means of intercourse that were established, but those already quoted are sufficient for our purpose.
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² Vide नावध्यक्षः ।
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³ Bk. III, जहादानम् ।
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⁴ Bk. I, अवमर्दनसमवस्थे च हस्तिः ।
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⁵ Bk. IV, वैदेहक-रक्षणम्; see also पण्याध्यक्षः—Bk. II; कर्मा-सन्धिः—Bk. VII, etc.
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¹ Mr. N. L. Dey has very rightly restored the word Palæsimundu of the Periplus of the Erythræan Sea to its proper form as Pârasamudra (पारसमुद्र) in the second edition of his Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediæval India, the manuscript of which he has kindly allowed me to consult. His restoration of the word is confirmed by Bhaṭṭasvâmi's Commentary, which says that the fragrant Aloe-wood, called Pârasâmudraka after the place where it grows, is obtained in Siṃhala (Ceylon).
Linked texts (4)
- Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
- Tibetan translation ('Chi med mdzod) — Classical Tibetan
- Ἰνδικά — Μεγασθένης, Ancient Greek
- Uttarādhyayanaśiṣyahitā — Śāntisūri, Sanskrit