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An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v2.c40: N

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v2.c40

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N

v2.c40.1

**Nabavad**, Dt Dhule. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] tools. *IAR 1958-9*.

v2.c40.2

**Nachalhalli**, Kolar. Megalithic [4.17.8] site with stone circles and cists. Information from C. Krishnamurthy through A. Sundara.

v2.c40.3

**Nachandapalli**, Dt Kolar. Megalithic [4.17.8] stone circles. (Same as NACHANDAPALLI?). *IAR 1972-3*.

v2.c40.4

**Nachanshada**, Dt Birbhum. Black-and-red ware (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1967-8*.

v2.c40.5

**Nachanthapalli**, Dt Kolar. Megalithic [4.17.8] site. (Same as NACHANDAPALLI?). *IAR 1971-2*.

v2.c40.6

**Nachchiarpettaimedu**, Dt S. Arcot. Extensive urn burial site. *IAR 1960-1*.

v2.c40.7

**Nadattara**, Dt Trichur. Megalithic [4.17.10] site. *IAR 1966-7*.

v2.c40.8

**Nadaun**, Dt Hamirpur. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] site in the BEAS VALLEY. Mohapatra, G.C., 1966, in *Bull. Deccan College Res. Inst.*, pp. 221-36.

v2.c40.9

**Nadia**, Dt Nadia. Painted-butt polished stone axes [4.6] from near the town. *AI*, 4, 1947-8, p. 298.

v2.c40.10

**Nadigudiketar**, Dt Belgaum. Megalithic [4.17.8] site. Sundara, A., 1975, *Early Chamber Tombs of s. India*, Delhi, pp 15-22.

v2.c40.11

**Nadiharalhalli**, Dt Dharwar. Palaeolithic and microliths (both of unspecified nature) and Chalcolithic [4.17.8] remains of BRAHMAGIRI affiliation and polished stone axes. *IAR 1960-1*.

v2.c40.12

**Nadimipalli**, Dt Mahbubnagar. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] site yielding hundreds of pebble choppers, a few cleavers and proto-handaxes of the Abbevillio-Acheulian stage. Gururaja Rao, B.K., ed., 1978, *Decade of Arch. Studies in s India*, Dharwar, p. 47.

v2.c40.13

**Nadisai**, Dt Panch Mahals. Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) site. *IAR 1971-2*.

v2.c40.14

**Nadivi**, Dt Bellary. Early historical [4.18.11] site. *IAR 1962-3*.

v2.c40.15

**Nadner**, Dt Sehore. Early historical [4.18.7] site on the bank of the Narmada with black-and-red, Black-slipped Ware [11.13], NBPW [11.16] and other associated wares. *IAR 1970-1*.

v2.c40.16

**Nadoha nullah**, Dt Allahabad (?). Early, Middle (Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]) and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) tools were obtained from the bank of the nullah. *IAR 1966-7*.

v2.c40.17

**Nadse**, Dt Dhule. Chalcolithic [4.14.6] site. *IAR 1963-4*.

v2.c40.18

**Nadubetta**, Dt Nilgiri. Megalithic [4.17.9] site with cairns. Sewell, R., 1882, *Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras*, Madras.

v2.c40.19

**Naduvattom Dosam**, Dt Palghat. Megalithic [4.17.10] site with burial jars and circular pits. *IAR 1968-9*.

v2.c40.20

**NaduviI-Amsom**, Dt Cannanore. Megalithic [4.17.10] cist circles *IAR 1961-2*

v2.c40.21

**Nagai**, Dt Gulbarga. Megalithic [4.17.8] site with dolmens. *Jour. Geological Survey of Hyderabad*, 5, 1, p. 56.

v2.c40.22

**Nagaiwari**, Dt Nagpur. Megalithic [4.17.6] site with stone circles. *IAR 1970-1*.

v2.c40.23

**Nagakuppa**, Dt Kolar. Megalithic [4.17.8] stone circles and cists. *IAR 1972-3*. Also information from C. Krishnamurthy through A. Sundara.

v2.c40.24

**Nagal** (21°37′; 72°55′), Dt Bharuch, excavated by the M.S. Univ. of Baroda. The excavation has revealed three Pds. Previous exploration had yielded the black-and-red ware [11.6] (*IAR 1957-8*, p. 66).

v2.c40.25

*Pd I*. The black-and-red ware as well as the NBPW [11.16] occur. The main occupation of the black-and-red ware itself can be broadly divided into three phases. The ware of the earliest phase is of medium fabric and is represented by the dish, deep bowl, *loṭā*-shaped vessel, wide basin with recurved rim, carinated dish, etc. A silver piece which may be a punch-marked coin [3.1] with one face beaten flat and the other carrying some symbols(?) has been found in the lowest phase.

v2.c40.26

*Pd II*. The black-and-red ware shows sophistication and competence in technique and continues in greater frequency along with the plain ware with profuse incised decoration, mostly of basket and reed pattern, deserving special mention. A distinctive decorative feature of the black-and-red ware consists of designs executed on the inner flat base of the dish or lid. Among the other antiquities are grey-coloured terracotta animal figurines including the cow, bull, buffalo, dog, etc.

v2.c40.27

*Pd III*. Pd III is characterized by a slightly coarser black-and-red ware associated with some grey as well as local red wares. There are also etched carnelian beads, bone points, stone pestles [6.19], legged querns [6.19], copper antimony rods [18.1], bangles of shell, ivory and bone and net-sinkers [6.16]. A unique double-barbed and tanged arrowhead is an outstanding find. The NBPW and its associated types are completely absent.

v2.c40.28

On the analogy of BHARUCH the upper levels of Nagal may be dated to about the 2nd century B.C. —R.N. MEHTA

v2.c40.29

**Nagaladinne**, Dt Kurnool. Neolithic flake and cores. Foote, R.B., 1916, *Indian Prehistoric & Protohistoric Antiquities*. Madras

v2.c40.30

**Negalapuram**, Dt Anantapur. Ash-mound [14.3]. Reddy, V.R., 1968, unpublished thesis.

v2.c40.31

**Nagalassery**, Dt Palghat. Megalithic [4.17.10] site with urn burial. *IAR 1968-9*.

v2.c40.32

**Nagaldinna**, Dt Bellary. Russet-coated Painted Ware [11.22]. *AI*, 4, 1947-8, p. 308.

v2.c40.33

**Nagalwadi**, Dt Nagpur. Megaliths [4.17.6]. *IAR 1961-2*.

v2.c40.34

**Nagamalai**, Pudukkottai, Dt Madurai. Urn burials and cairn circles [4.17.9]. *IAR 1957-8*.

v2.c40.35

**Nagamangalam**, Dt Dharmapuri. Dolmenoid cists [4.17.9]. *IAR 1965-6*.

v2.c40.36

**Nagaon**, Dt Dhule. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1960-1*.

v2.c40.37

**Nagapalli**, Dt Mahbubnagar. Megalithic [4.17.7] site. Sreenivasan, P., 1963, *Arch. Bulletin*, Hyderabad, 5, p. 3.

v2.c40.38

**Nagaparambu**, Dt Malappuram. Rock-cut cave [4.17.10] with Black-and-red Ware [11.15.3]. *IAR 1964-5*.

v2.c40.39

**Nagar**¹ (31°5′; 75°50′), Dt Jullundur, 9 km n.-e. of Phillaur (*AI*, 10 & 11; 1954 & 1955, p. 140; *IAR 1963-4*, p. 28) with a threefold sequence of culture, excavated by the writer on behalf of the ASI in 1976-7. Pd I is represented by the PGW [11.14] with a sprinkling of the late Harappa [11.4] sturdy red ware (cf. similar overlap at BHAGWANPURA², DADHERI, KATPALON and MANDA). Semicircular huts and two oval structures of burnt earth, probably of a religious nature, have been noticed. Copper objects, bone styli [20.5], terracotta ear ornaments and animal figures, besides beads and bangles, have been found. Pd II has the typical Kushan pottery, terracottas and coins. A terracotta seal [3.2] reads *śrī-mahāsenāpati-Rāmaguptasya* in characters of the 3rd century. In Pd III there was a prosperous medieval occupation. (Black-slipped ware, 11.13, is also reported.) —J.P. JOSHI

v2.c40.40

**Nagar**², Dt Tonk. Late historical [4.18.2] site excavated by Krishna Deva on behalf of the Jaipur State Dept of Arch. Unpublished.

v2.c40.41

**Nagara** (70°38′; 21°41′), Dt Kaira, about 3 km to the n. of Cambay, with many mounds out of which vertical excavation of three, Hanumandhado, Varai-Mata-no-Dhado and Ratankhad was undertaken by the M.S. Univ. of Baroda in 1963-5.

v2.c40.42

*Pd I* (middle 1st millennium B.C.). This Pd is marked by the presence of iron and bone objects, black-and-red ware [11.6], plain red ware, etc. Bones of the cow, sheep, goat, pig, ass and camel have been obtained. The presence of *Lacromina croix* indicates the natural vegetation. An earthen embankment belongs to this Pd.

v2.c40.43

*Pd II* (3rd century B.C. to the beginning of the Christian era). The materials of Pd I continue in this Pd. NBPW [11.16] and punch-marked coins [3.1] are introduced for the first time. Mud floors and channel hearths have been found, as also terracotta figurines, beads of stone and shell objects. This Pd indicates that the habitation was gaining in importance.

v2.c40.44

*Pd III* (beginning of the Christian era to *c.* 8th-9th century). This was the era of foreign contacts and the growth of the settlement as a city. Roman antiquities, specially amphora [11.19], have been obtained. The Red Polished Ware [11.23], plain and burnished red ware, crude gritty red ware, inscribed seals with Brāhmī legends, Kṣatrapa coins, ivory and shell objects, such as bangles and beads, stone objects and beads of glass, lapis lazuli and other materials indicate far-flung contacts of this place. The buildings of brick, series of channel hearths with charcoal and charred grains and marks of cart-track indicate heavy activity during this Pd. The remains have been obtained from the trench at Ratan-khad, indicating the expansion of the site in this Pd.

v2.c40.45

*Pd IV*. At the close of Pd III the town began to shrink and large parts remained without much habitation in the succeeding centuries. Remains however can be traced in the village. Significantly this feature indicates that the habitation continued on a small part of the original town that has shrunk.

v2.c40.46

*Pd V* (14th to 16th centuries). After the 14th century habitation was resumed. Glass slag, glazed pottery, burnished as well as black and plain burnished and plain red ware, half-round tiles, structures of brickbats, etc., have been found. The remains of the Pd are covered by the modern land surface. Mehta, R.N., & Shah, D.R., 1968, *Excavation at Nagara*, Baroda.—R.N. MEHTA

v2.c40.47

**Nagaram**, Dt Chanda. Tools of Series I and II (Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]), a number of microliths (of unspecified nature) and black polished sherds. *IAR 1958-9*.

v2.c40.48

**Nagarhalli¹**, Dt Bijapur. Chalcolithic [4.14.8] habitation site rich in microlithic blades along with fluted cores, Jorwe Ware [11.11] and grey ware similar to that from BRAHMAGIRI. *IAR 1958-9*.

v2.c40.49

**Nagarhalli²**, Dt Dharwar. Black-and-red Ware [11.15.3] site. *IAR 1967-8*.

v2.c40.50

**Nagari**, Dt Chittaurgarh, on the right bank of the Berach, 13 km n. of the Dt headquarters, identified as Madhyamikā or Mādhyamika, the capital of the *Janapada* of the Śibis, a fairly large-sized fortified town. Exploration of Kaviraja Shyamal Das, 1887, near the site at Ghosundi (HATHIBARKALA) led to the discovery of Vaisṇavite inscriptions of the 3rd century B.C. Later on D.R. Bhandarkar found other inscriptions, one recording the performance of an *aśva-medha* sacrifice by one Sarvatāta and another of *vajapeya* sacrifice and a third the erection of a Viṣṇu temple—all of the first quarter of the 5th century.

v2.c40.51

Coins occur profusely on the surface. A.C.L. Carlleyle (*ASI—AR*, 6, p. 198) found 175 of then and D.R. Bhandarkar 24, out of which some were punch-marked [3.1] Kṣatrapa and four of the *Śibi-janapada* with the legend *Majhamikāye Sivi-janapadasa*, giving the clue of the identification of Nagari with Madhyamika.

v2.c40.52

The site was superficially excavated by Bhandarkar in the second decade of the century (Bhandarkar, 1920) and limitedly but more systematically by K.V. Soundara Rajan of the ASI in 1962-3 (*IAR 1962-3*, p. 19). Out of the large number of loose sculptures found by Bhandarkar two are carved pillars of the Gupta period having lion and bull capitals respectively. The others comprise old railings, coping stones and a sculpture representing Revanta on horse. Moulded bricks showing ripple and date-palm decorations, the lower part of a human figure seated on a chair, lotus, flying birds and human heads formed the architectural components of the temple.

v2.c40.53

In the excavation of 1962-3 three Pds were distinguished, the first two being anterior to the stone fortification and seemingly without baked-brick structures, though limestone structures were known. They had both red and grey wares; the occurrence of the NBPW [11.16] was negligible, though the associated red ware was available. The settlement seems to have originated in *c*. 400 B.C., but both on the surface and sporadically in the lower levels fluted cores and flakes were found. Pd III was marked by the presence of the Red Polished Ware [11.23]. The other finds of the site include terracotta human and animal figures in Śuṅga and Gupta styles, toys and flesh-rubbers [18.4], an ivory seal with *svastika* and taurine symbols and copper antimony rods [18.1] and rings. The fortification probably originated in Gupta times. Bhandarkar, D.R., 1920, *Arch. Remains & Excavation at Nagari*, Mem. ASI, 4. Jain, K.C., 1972, *Cities & Towns of Rajasthan*, Delhi, pp. 94-100. Kaviraj Shyamal Das Ram Prasad, 1887, in *Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal*, 56, 1, pp. 77-9.—R.P. SHARMA

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**Nagari Kheri**, Dt Jind. Late Harappa [4.10] site. Suraj Bhan, & Shaffer, J.G., 1978, in *Man & Environment*, 2, p. 62.

v2.c40.55

**Nagarjunakonda**, **Nagarjunikonda**, (16°31'; 79°14'), Dt Guntur, on the right bank of the Krishna, the valley now submerged, first brought to light in 1926 by A.R. Saraswati of the ASI. Explorations by Kuraishi and Sastri in the same year and excavations carried out subsequently by Longhurst (1927-31) and then by Ramachandran (1938) created the impression that it was an extensive Buddhist settlement that came up during the rule of the Ikṣvākus who had their capital Vijayapuri in this valley itself. But the large-scale excavations, which commenced in 1954 consequent on the decision of turning the hill-girt valley into a reservoir of the Nagarjunasagar Dam across the Krishna, revealed a cultural sequence from the Lower Palaeolithic to the medieval times, besides unearthing the remains of the city of Vijayapurī, which flourished mainly in the 3rd and the 4th centuries A.D.

v2.c40.56

Sites numbering more than 130 were spread over an area of 23 sq km inside the valley, closed on all sides by the hills of the Nallamalai Range. These sites may broadly be divided into seven Pds: Pd I, Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]; Pd II, Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]; Pd III, Mesolithic [4.5]; Pd IV, Neolithic [4.6.8]; Pd V, Megalithic [4.17.7]; Pd VI, early historical [4.18.10]; and Pd VII, medieval. Though Lower Palaeolithic tools could be picked up from any part of the valley, it was Site 129 that exposed an advanced Acheulian industry in a stratigraphical context since tools in good state of preservation were found overlying the pebble bed resting on a fossil river-bank. The pebble bed was followed by a thick talus deposit of shingles over which was discovered a Middle Palaeolithic assemblage dominated by blade flakes made mostly on quartzite.

v2.c40.57

A more developed Acheulian industry was brought to light from trenches laid near the *ghāt* road leading into the valley. Here tools were found in a thin deposit of calcareous tufa overlying the deposit of brecciated sandstone. The occurrence of calcareous tufa in different parts of the valley indicated the presence of marshy condition which again was perhaps the result of the increased river action that was responsible for the deposit of the pebble bed at Site 128. Evidently the tools occurring in the thin deposit of the calcareous tufa suggesting a drier condition have to be dated later than those of Site 128. In both the industries tools were fashioned exclusively on flakes struck off from river-worn quartzite pebbles and in the technique no preparation of the core was involved. Significantly cleavers constituted the dominant type at Site 128 accounting for 46% of the tools, the percentages of handaxes and choppers being 37·0% , and 12·7% respectively. On the other hand at the other site choppers formed 42·6% , followed by scrapers, 30·9%, handaxes, 17·6% and cleavers, 8·8%. It is worth noting that Levallois technique [16.15] was absent in them though prepared cores were found in the early post-Acheulian industry from Veerla Bodu, the adjacent valley. The Middle Palaeolithic industry encountered at Nagarjunakonda appears to be later than that of VEERLA BODU.

v2.c40.58

The Middle Palaeolithic tradition with its blades, blade flakes, points, scrapers, etc. seems to have continued even in the Mesolithic cultures. Like the Lower Palaeolithic tools Mesolithic microliths abounded in the valley. However surface collections revealed certain areas of concentration disclosing at the same time several typo-technological differences. For instance the industry noticed in the n.-e. part (Locality A) of the valley was in the main a non-geometric assemblage consisting of backed blades, crude lunates, scrapers, points, etc., whereas the site located close to the quartz reef Tallarallabodu yielded geometric tools like lunates, triangles, trapezes, etc., made on rock crystal. True blades were absent in them as in several other assemblages of the valley. In the excavations at Sites 45 A and 53 microliths came from a stratigraphical context and blade flakes seemed to have been part of such facies. Site 53 produced an industry dominated by geometric tools types with a high incidence of retouched implements, while that of Site 45 A was basically non-geometric in character with unretouched blades constituting a higher percentage. The tradition of Site 45 A appeared to be the precursor of a microlithic tradition associated with some Neolithic culture.

v2.c40.59

There were at least five Neolithic sites—Sites 45, 46, 46 A, 47 and 68—the last-mentioned being a cemetery with two strata of burials. All these sites, except Site 68, were situated along the foot of a doleritic dyke that traversed along the centre of the valley. Site 45, representing the earliest Neolithic phase (earlier than 2500 B C ), revealed a short-blade microlithic industry accompanied by a crude reddish-brown handmade pottery, basaltic or quartzite flakes and a few crudely fashioned neoliths probably used for tillage operation. It did not yield burnished grey ware, disc beads and animal bones which became the dominant features in the evolved Neolithic phase of Nagarjunakonda. Phase II of the Neolithic culture, which did not evolve out of the earlier one, was characterized by the higher frequency of red ware over the burnished grey ware, besides the occurrence of pits, animal bones. microliths on chert and rock crystal, flake tools on greyish quartzite and disc beads. The occupants seem to have lived in some sort of semisubterranean dwellings, and one such pit contained the skeleton of an adult male, tall and robust and having a dolichocephalic head. It was covered by a cairn heap; in fact all the pits in the same alignment were packed with boulders. This was the period when Neolithic tools were used quite commonly. The earlier stratum of Site 68, yielding only extended inhumation burial, was perhaps coeval with this phase.

v2.c40.60

The evolved phase (*c.* 1500 B.C) at Site 46, which again did not develop out of the earlier tradition in the valley, showed predominance of the burnished grey ware over the red ware, occurrence of Neolithic tools of various types, microliths on rock crystal, quartzite flakes, disc beads of paste, steatite and shell, workings on bone or horn, large quantities of animal bones, pits of various sizes and urn burials for infants at the habitation site. The semisubterranean dwellings were in vogue alongside houses, mostly rectangular on plan, built on thick poles. Ascribable to this phase was the upper stratum of the cemetery at Site 68 revealing both extended inhumation and post-excarnation burials, accompanied as usual by burial pots. In this phase also the people were not wholly sedentary, as a good number of pits were found to have been packed with boulders after their use for some time. The Neolithic tool types, which included axes, adzes, elongated celts, shoe-last celts, weeding hoes, picks, sometimes with twin working ends, chisels, axe-cum-hammers, side-choppers, fabricators, etc., showed that these were used not merely for carpentry but also for tillage operations. That the people stock-breeding is evident from the animal bones, including those of cattle.

v2.c40.61

Between the last phase of the Neolithic culture and the Megalithic burials, there being no habitational site of the megalith-builders here, there must have been a time interval of about 1000 years. Megalithic monuments, a few of which were first excavated by Longhurst, were distributed into two distinctive clusters—Sites 44 and 63. The former being a disturbed area, the actual number of its stone circles could not be ascertained, but most of them yielded no cultural remains. At the same time the one that had disarticulated remains of at least three adult individuals, all of them buried in a rectangular cist, accompanied by grave goods in the form of pottery and iron objects, proved to be the richest megalith of Nagarjunakonda. The only other cist, at Site 64, produced two human femurs and an armlet. Site 63 was a cluster of 18 megaliths, of which all the examples except one were pit circles. At this site 13 megaliths were opened, but barring two, Megs. XIV and XV which disclosed primary extended inhumation burials, all of them entombed the remains of post-excarnation burials. The dead were laid in a n.-s. orientation as in the Neolithic cemetery but the skeletal remains in Meg. XV were placed in an e.-w. orientation. Very often animal bones were also found; in fact the evidence from Meg. XII proved beyond doubt that the actual interment was preceded or succeeded by elaborate rituals including animal sacrifice. Thus two articulated skeletons of animals, one of them a calf, were placed at different levels but far above the floor-level of the pit having the disarticulated remains of an adult individual. It is interesting to note that in the 14 megaliths that were opened the remains of at least 19 individuals—17 adults and two children—could be identified. These people were tall in stature, sturdy and wide-nosed; a brachycephalic element was also present.

v2.c40.62

A time interval has again to be assumed between the Megalithic culture and the early historical phase commencing in about A.D. 200. Indeed the written history of Nagarjunakonda is ushered in at the time of the later Sātavāhanas whose archaeological vestiges are represented by coins of Gautamī-putra Sātakarṇi, Pulumāvi, Yajña Sātakarṇi, etc., and the pillar-inscription, perhaps coming from one of the earliest Buddhist establishments of the valley, of Gautamīputra Vijaya Sātakarṇi, dated in his 6th regnal year. The name Vijayapurī, which became later the capital of the Ikṣvākus, was after Vijaya Sātakarṇi, who might have been the real founder of the city. It was the Ikṣvāku king Vāsiṣṭhīputra Cāṁtamūla who had snatched a portion of the kingdom of the tottering Sātavāhanas sometime in the second quarter of the 3rd century. So far the names of the four Ikṣvāku rulers—Vāsiṣṭhīputra Cāṁtamūla, Māṭharīputra Vīrapuruṣadatta, Vāsiṣṭhīputra Ehuvala Cāṁtamūla and Vāsiṣṭhīputra Rudrapuruṣadatta—are known from epigraphs, which, in addition to their coins, are the main sources of their dynastic history. These kings, who were worshippers of Mahāsena, though many of their queens and princesses were patrons of Buddhism, ruled for about 100 years or so. Significantly no inscription of Vāsiṣṭhīputra Cāṁtamūla, except his memorial pillar set up in the reign of his son, came from Nagarjunakonda. The fact that his inscriptions were discovered at Kesanapalli and Rentala may indicate that Nagarjunakonda came under his sway at a later part of his rule and he might have wrested the control of Nagarjunakonda from Vijaya Sātakarṇi. An inscription from the Aṣṭabhujasvāmin temple, Site 29, provides the name of another king, Vāsiṣṭhīputra Vasuṣeṇa, but he belonged to the Ābhīra dynasty of the Nasik region; perhaps this king extended his territory over this region only for a brief period in *c.* 278. It is worth noting that the Ikṣvākus had throughout matrimonial connections with the Śakas of Ujjain.

v2.c40.63

Under the Ikṣvākus Vijayapurī became an important centre of political and cultural activities. It had a well-thoughtout plan, within which civic needs and security received equal consideration. The citadel proper enclosing the king's area had rampart walls with moats on the three sides save partially on the w., i.e. towards the river. Structures (Sites 90-92, 94-95, 100-104, etc.) inside included, residential buildings, barracks, stables, cisterns, baths and square wells or soak-pits. Unfortunately it has not been possible to identify with certainty the palace but the building-complex, part of which was known as the Aśvamedha site (Site 93) was in fact the bathing establishment attached to the palace-complex. The site had two ornamental tanks connected with underground drains, apart from wells and paved cisterns. One of them was tortoise-shaped, while the other, square and stepped, had originally a wooden superstructure that was destroyed in fire.

v2.c40.64

The bulk of the population had its residence (Sites 58, 69, 72, 89, 109, 112, 115, 117-119) outside the citadel; houses consisting of rooms arranged in one alignment with a common veranda were generally built of rubble, mud serving as the binding material. Incidentally lime was used whenever the particular structure was to come in contact with water. Some of the buildings were shops or centres of craft: one of the rubble-built houses (Site 58) disclosed the entire stock-in-trade of a goldsmith. Richer people built houses in brick (Sites 48, 74) but following the same house-plan. In all likelihood wealthy persons built houses, like the one of Site 49, consisting of rooms of halls arranged all around a central pillared hall. There is no doubt that the settlements followed a linear pattern and that they came up along broad roads intercepted by cross-roads and bylanes. Some of the wealthy houses came up along the bank of a canal (Site 19 A), with rubble-built ramps on either side. The most imposing of the secular structures here, the open-air theatre or amphitheatre (Site 17) [14.2], with a tiered brick-built gallery on all the sides, was situated on the bank of this canal passing along the foot of the hill. Built on a Roman or Greek prototype, it enclosed a rectangular area and had seating arrangements for over 1000 spectators. A novel feature of the Ikṣvāku town-planning was the provision of about a dozen wayside rest-houses, in the form of pillared halls (Sites 13, 18, 36, 39A, 50, 70, 81, 88, 107, 111, 114, and 121) and public baths (Sites 19, 70A and 100). Some of the rest-houses were in close proximity of *chāyā-stambhas*, [12.7] or memorial pillars (Sites 27, 59, 113, etc.) raised in honour of kings, queens, generals, artisans, religious teachers and so on.

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Far more impressive edifices were the Brāhmaṇical temples and the Buddhist establishments built mostly in burnt brick. There were about 18 Brāhmaṇical temples (Sites 29, 34-35, 39, 56-57, 64, 74, 78, 80, 82-84, 97, 99, 122, 126-127) situated mostly along the n.-flowing Krishna and around the citadel. Four of them were undoubtedly Śaiva, meant for either Śiva or Kārttikeya; inscriptions give us the names of two Śiva temples—of Puṣpabhadrasvāmin (Site 34), built on apsidal plan, and ot Noḍagīśvarasvāmin (Site 127)—having a square sanctum, while two temples of Kārttikeya—one with a square sanctum. (Site 82) and the other oblong (Site 34) on plan—were identified on the basis of discovered icons. An inscribed image of the mother goddess [12.6] from Site 126 and terracotta plaques depicting the same torm may show the presence of such a temple. There was also a temple (Site 39), rectangular on plan, for Devī though the image found at this site has been identified as Devasenā, the consort of Kārttikeya or Mahāsena. The only Vaiṣṇava temple (Site 29) was that of Aṣṭabhujasvāmin whose wooden image having eight arms might have been fixed on a stone pedestal containing the inscription of Ābhīra Vasuseṇa. One of the conch-shells discovered at this site, which consisted of two shrines, one apsidal and the other rectangular, besides pillared halls, bore the design of a *cakra*-capital with the inscription *bhagavato Aṭhabhuja-sāmisa*; a flag-staff surmounted by a *cakra* also came to light. Likewise the Puṣpabhadrasvāmin temple (Site 34) has an inscribed *dhvaja-stambha* but without a capital. The Bathing Ghat [14.10] (Site 34), fully encased in stone, was in front of this temple, and like the open-air theatre was a wonder of Ikṣvāku architecture. These temples are referred to in the inscriptions as *devakula*, but the temples of Sarvadeva (Site 99) has been mentioned as *prāsāda*. The latter seemed to have been a double-storeyed structure, associated with several versions of a Sanskrit inscription and situated close to a huge tank, perhaps a *eppakulam* (Site 122) used for the annual floating ceremony of gods. Architecturally the Brāhmaṇical shrines built on apsidal, rectangular or square plan may be divided into two groups: (1) single shrine and (ii) complex with more than one shrine, both the groups having front *maṇḍapas*, sometimes even with a 100-pillared hall. Invariably the sanctums were smaller in dimensions than the *maṇḍapas* in front.

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More than 30 Buddhist establishments (Sites 1-9, 14-15, 15A, 16, 20-24, 26-28, 30, 32A, 32B, 36, 38, 43, 51-52, 54, 59, 85-86, 105-106, 108) belonging to various sects like the Aparamahāvinaseliya (Sites 1, 9) and Bahuśrutīya (Site 5) of the Mahāsāṅghika Order and Mahīśāka (Sites 7, 8) and Mahāvihāravāsin (Site 38) of the Theravādin Order were exposed. These monasteries were spread throughout the valley except the river-bank. The earliest of them was the *mahā-caitya*, Site 1, built in the 6th regnal year of Vīrapuruṣadatta, for the monks ot the Aparamahāvinaseliya sect. In the beginning this sect did not accept the idea of image-worship but after a period of about three decades some of its adherents built a monsterty (Site 9) where an apsidal chapel enshrined the image of Buddha. The simple layout consisting of the principal *stūpa* and *vihāra* attained considerable elaboration at the latter site, the monastic establishment of which consisted of a *stūpa*, two apsidal shrines, one meant for the *stūpa* and the other for the image of Buddha, a pillared hall surrounded by a three-winged *vihāra* and two small *stūpas*. Some of the evolved monasteries (Site 85) had two chapels—one oblong and the other apsidal—each enshrining an image of Buddha. Not all monsteries accepted the idea of worshipping the image of Buddha, for the establishment of the Mahīśāsakas (Sites 7, 8) was without it. Incidentally Nagarjunakonda also yielded circular image shirnes, the best example of which came from Site 24, associated with a memorial pillar (*chāyā-stambha*) of Śrī-Vammabhaṭṭa, the Śaka mother of Rudrapuruṣadatta.

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Most of the *stūpas* were wheel-shaped on plan, the number of spokes varying from four, six, eight to ten, and had *āyaka* platforms surmounted by five *āyaka* pillars at four cardinal directions. The wheel-shaped plan, which may be the outcome of a long series of experiments in different parts of, India, including Andhra, reached its perfection here. In the construction of such *stūpas*, the like of which is the Dharmarājikā Stūpa at Taxila of the first century A.D., the architects successfully translated a sacred Buddhist symbol into an architectural entity, besides attaining constructional perfection. That ideology influenced the plan of the *stūpa* was evident from the example with *svastika* inset in the centre (Sites 20, 59, 108). But not all *stūpas* of Nagarjunakonda, and for that matter, of the entire Andhra country, were wheel-shaped on plan or had *āyakas*. For example, the one of the Mahāvihāravāsins (Site 38) had a solid construction without the *āyaka*-platforms. Quite a good number of *stūpas* yielded relics [12.8] and may therefore be called *śārīrika* (corporeal) *stūpas* but isolated ones (Sites 15A, 16 and 22) may belong to the *auddeśika* type. Many *stūpas* had their drums and other parts encased with exquisitely sculptured slabs depicting episodes from Buddha's life, Jātaka stories and sometimes even scenes of secular import. Some were built on a raised platform (Site 4), whereas in some (Site 3) a railing either carved or uncarved was also provided. In sculptural wealth some (Sites 2, 3, 6, 9, 32A, etc.) may rival any site in India; in fact taken collectively the Nagarjunakonda phase represents the culmination of the Krishna valley art that had its beginning at AMARAVATI in the second century B.C.

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What happened atter the fall of the Ikṣvākus is not known, though in the post-Ikṣvāku times a few Brāhmaṇical establishments were built, the most important of which are the so-called Hāritī temple-complex (Site 17) consisting of at least three square shrines and the Kārttikeya temple-complex (Site 57), the latter also having three or four square shrines, apart from a stepped well. That some of the early temple complexes were in use till at least the 7th century may be gathered from the pilgrims’ records. At the same time Nagarjunakonda lost its importance after the Ikṣvākus though many subsequent dynasties like the Pallava, Cāḷukya, Reddi of Koṇḍavīḍu, Gajapati of Orissa, Vijayanagara, etc., had a nominal hold over the valley.

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The medieval hill fort that came up on the hill, Nagarjunakonda, because of its strategic location near the fordable point, contains three medieval temples which have escaped submergence. It may be mentioned here that the name Nagarjunakonda occurs only in medieval records and does not seem to have any connection with Nāgārjuna, the Buddhist philosopher of the second century A.D. Anyway it is on this hill, now transformed into an island, that some of the reconstructed monuments like the Bathing Ghat, Sites 4, 93, etc., have been built; the museum on this island contains not only the salvaged relics but also scale-models of the sites, now under water. A few reconstructed monuments, including the open-air theatre, may also be seen on the e. bank of the modern reservoir near the jetty. The programme of reconstruction of transplantation of ruins of monuments has been a unique venture, the first in India.

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Longhurst, A.H., 1938, *Buddhist Antiquities of Nagarjunakonda*, *Madras Presidency Mem. ASI*, 54. Ramachandran, T.N., 1953, *Nagarjunakonda 1938*, *Mem. ASI*, 71, Sarkar, H., 1962, in *AI*, 16, pp. 65-84. Sarkar, H., and Misra, B.N., 1972, *Nagarjunakonda*. Subrahmanyam, R., *et al.*, 1975, *Nagarjunakonda, 1954-60*, 1, *Mem. ASI*, 75. New Delhi:—H. SARKAR

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**Nagarmadu,** Dt Dharwar. Early historical [4.18.1] site. *IAR 1960-1.*

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**Nagasamudra,** Dt Shimoga. Neolithic [4.6.9] site. *Gazetteer of India, Karnataka*, p. 36.

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**Nagatti,** Dt Thanjavur. Megalithic [4.17.10] Black-and-red Ware [11.15.3], all-black and coarse red wares, bangle pieces and beads of glass. *IAR 1964-5.*

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**Nagavanda,** Dt Dharwar. Early historical [4.18.11] site. *Progress of Karnataka Res. in Bombay State, 1947-52*, p. 21. *Jour. Karnataka Univ.*, 8, pp. 1-8. Sundara, A., 1975, *Early Chamber Tombs of s. India*, Delhi, pp. 43-5, 131-3.

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**Nagda,** Dt Ujjain, on the e. bank of the Chambal, excavated by the ASI under N.R. Banerjee in 1955-6 (*IAR 1955-6*, p. 11). Rising to a height of over 27 m from the surrounding plains the occupational deposit reaches a depth of 9·75 m and is divisible into three Pds, in all of which the structures follow a common alignment bespeaking a continuity of occupation.

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Pd I has a depth of over 5 m (elsewhere it is stated to be 6·70 m). It is Chalcolithic [4.14.5] in character and is marked by massive structures of mud and mud brick, most of them residential, though one may be a rampart bastion. It has black-painted red pottery, microliths and a limited quantity of copper. The pottery is red or cream, almost invariably with paintings in red on the exterior, the designs comprising horizontal bands, the intervening space sometimes filled with various designs, concentric semicircles, connected loops, vertical or horizontal wavy lines, radiating lines, filled or hatched triangles, single or double sun symbol and animals like antelope, spotted deer and peacock. A black-and-cream ware, also painted, and a crude grey ware are also present. The stone tools comprise parallel-sided blades produced by the crested-ridge technique and are sometimes serrated. The other finds are stone sling balls or pounders, terracotta beads, whorls [6.25] and animal and human figurines, including a fiddle-shaped one [17.2]. The Pd thus partakes of the characteristics of the c. Indian Chalcolithic culture, though definite comparative stratigraphy has yet to be worked out. It should however be noted that the white-slipped ware of NAVDATOLI and the typical Jorwe Ware [11.11] are absent. Towards the end of the Pd a sturdy and well-fired pale-red and a creamy-slipped ware usually painted in black but sometimes alternately with black and red is met with.

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Pd II, pre-NBPW [11.16], a 2·10 m thick deposit after a hiatus, is marked by the use of iron, though it continues some of the earlier Chalcolithic features. Among the iron objects there are tanged and non-tanged arrowheads, spearheads, daggers, axes including socketed ones, knife-blades, blades, celts, sickles, spoons, nails and rings. Black-slipped Ware [11.13] and black-and-red ware [11.6.2] are dominant. The Pd corresponds to Pd I of UJJAIN.

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Pd III, ascribed to 500-200 B.C. is characterized by the NBPW and associated wares and has produced a rich repertoire of iron objects, such as knives including a curved one, chisels, sickles with curved blades, arrowheads of square, rectangular and hexagonal cross-sections, occasionally tanged, double-edge daggers, hoes, chisels, nails and bowls. Terracotta skin-rubbers [18.4], polished stone discs, ivory pendants and hairpins, bone styli [20.5], copper antimony rods [18.1], rings and bangles, toys like leopard on wheels, pestles and mortars [6.19], etc. constitute the other finds of the Pd. An inscribed potsherd and terracotta ball would fix the terminal date of the site as the 2nd century B.C. Benerjee, N.R., 1965, *Iron Age in India*, Delhi (where the periodization is different from that given in the initial report in *IAR 1955-6*).—A. BANERJI

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**Nagdiha,** Dt Saran. Early historical [4.18.3] site. *IAR 1965-6.*

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**Nagiari,** Dt Rupnagar. PGW [11.14] site. *IAR 1962-3*; 1964-5. Suraj Bhan, 1975, *Excavation at Mitathal & Other Explorations in the Sutlej-Yamuna Divide*, Kurukshetra, p. 133.

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**Nagini,** Dt Ahmadabad? Early historical [4.18.2] site with Red Polished Ware [11.23].

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**Nagla Firoz Mohanpur,** Dt Meerut. PGW [11.14] site.

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**Nagla Hareru,** Dt Meerut. PGW [11.14] site. *IAR 1970-1.*

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**Nagla-ki-Rani,** Dt Bulandshahr. Early historical [4.18.1] and medieval site. *IAR 1963-4.*

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**Nagnoli,** Dt Una. Site with early historical [4.18.1] pottery. *IAR 1970-1.*

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**Nagoor,** Dt Bidar. Neolithic [4.6.9] site. *Karnataka Bharati*, 11, 3.

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**Nagpur¹**, Dt Dhule. Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) tools. *IAR 1962-3.*

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**Nagpur²**, Dt Nagpur. Megaliths [4.17.6] on the Seminary hill. *IAR 1961-2.*

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**Nagrota,** Dt Jammu. Sohanian pebble tools and flakes [4.2] were found on the terraces on the river Tawi. *IAR 1966-7.*

v2.c40.90

**Nagsar,** Dt Dhule. Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) and microlithic (of unspecified nature) tools. Also an open-air camp site yielding large irregular as well as fluted cores [16.15.2]; blades, points, scrapers, etc. *IAR 1960-1.*

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**Nagur,** Dt Bijapur. Microliths and remains of the Chalcolithic [4.17.8] period. *IAR 1961-2.*

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**Nagwa,** Dt Mirzapur. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1962-3.*

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**Nahargarh,** Dt Mandsaur. Site with Kayatha Ware [11.7]) (Same as following?). Wakankar, V.S., 1976, in *Arch. Congress & Seminar 1972*, Kurukshetra.

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**Nahargarh,** Dt Mandsaur. A single loose gravel was noticed on the e. bank of the Shivna. Here a few cleavers and discoids [4.2] were found over the gravel which also yielded a few Series II (Middle Palaeolithic [4.2]) tools comprising scrapers and fluted cores. (Same as preceding? See SHIVNA VALLEY.) *IAR 1959-60.*

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**Nahli,** Dt Meerut. OCW [11.15] site. *IAR 1968-9.*

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**Nahush-ka-Tila**, See GHOSI.

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**Naikund.** See 4.17.6.

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**Naipora,** Dt Jaunpur. Site on the n. bank of the Gomati yielding sherds of Black-slipped Ware [11.13], NBPW [11.16] and red wares. *IAR 1966-7.*

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**Nakara,** Dt Hamirpur. Neolithic [4.6.3] celt. *IAR 1963-4.*

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**Nakhtarana,** Dt Kutch. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) site on the Bhukhi. *IAR 1967-8.*

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**Nakhjur,** Dt Sidhi. Early and Middle Stone Age (Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2,3] tools. *IAR 1962-3.*

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**Nakloi,** Dt Rohtak. Nakloi-I (Gujralikheda) yielded PGW [11.14] and Black-slipped Ware [11.13], while Nakloi-II (Shakmirakheda) yielded grey ware. *Jour. Haryana Studies*, 3, 1, p. 6.

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**Nakodar,** Dt Jullundur. Late historical [4.19.1] mound yielding knife-edged bowls, shallow dish-*cum*-bowls, deep basins and vases in red ware. *IAR 1972-3*, p. 28.

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**Nakode,** Dt Nasik, Middle (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) site. *IAR 1965-6.*

v2.c40.105

**Nakora** (29°30'; 74°44'), Dt Hissar. Site with PGW [11.14], grey ware, Black-slipped Ware [11.13], black-and-red ware (of unspecified nature), Rang Mahal Ware [11.24] and medieval ware. *IAR 1967-8*. Suraj Bhan, 1975, *Excavation at Mitathal & Other Explorations in the Sutlej-Yamuna Divide*, Kurukshetra, p. 123.

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**Nakrahia,** Dt Sitapur. Four shouldered celts of copper [4.11]. *Arch. Congress & Seminar: 1972*, Kurukshetra, p. 98. Information from S. Asthana.

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**Nalagarh,** Dt Solan. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] site. See SIRSA VALLEY. Mohapatra, G.C., 1966, in *Bull. Deccan College Res. Inst.*, p. 224.

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**Nālandā,** (23°8'; 85°27'), Dt Nalanda, near village Bargaon, with extensive ruins of a great Buddhist establishment, 85 km s.-e. of Patna and 11 km n. of RAJGIR, first reported on by F. Buchanan in the early years of the last century (Martin, 1838) and identified as such by A. Cunningham (*ASI—AR*, I, p. 28) on the basis of the bearings given by Chinese pilgrims. Apart from minor explorations, Broadley probably carried out some unsystematic excavation at what is now known as Caitya Site 12 and published a monograph on the ruins (Broadley, 1872). From 1915-16 to 1935-6 the ASI, under H. Sastri and later on under J.A. Page and others, carried out extensive excavations here laying bare monasteries, temples and minor structures (*ASI—AR 1915-6* and onwards).

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The traditional history of Nālandā goes back to the times of Buddha and Mahāvīra and it is said to be the birth-place of Śāriputra, a chief disciple of Buddha. Later Buddhist saints are also associated with it. But excavations have not revealed anything earlier than the Gupta period, the main focus of activity being during the time of the Pālas (8th-12th centuries). Fa Hien, early 5th century, does not mention any monastic establishment here except a *stūpa* (Legge, 1886, p. 31). But by the 7th century Nālandā had established its reputation as a centre of learning as Hiuen Tsang spent here a few years studying Mahālandā Buddhism and mentions a few monasteries supposedly built by later Gupta rulers. During his time Nālandā was humming with literary and religious activities presided over by distinguished priests (Beal, 1884, 2; p. 118), though attempts to identify the monasteries seen by him with their later counterparts as excavated have met with scanty success. So great was the celebrity of Nālandā during those days that within 30 years of Hiuen Tsang’s departure no less than 11 Chinese and Korean travellers, including I-Tsing, are known to have visited the centre. The Pāla rulers of e. India (8th to 12th century) continued their benevolence towards Nālandā though the establishment of other monasteries by them, including VIKRAMAŚĪLĀ, must have affected the importance of Nālandā.

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The structural remains of Nālandā as excavated generally belong to the Pāla period, though in some cases those of the lowest levels may belong to earlier times. The portable antiquities also mostly belong to that period, the earlier ones having been found generally in dumps or hidden hoards. Of these early antiquities may be mentioned seals [3.2] of Gupta and Maukhari rulers, Harṣavardhana, rulers of Assam and others of unknown lineage, administrative seals and coins of Gupta rulers and clay coin moulds [3.1].

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The temples and monasteries are in two parallel rows, the temple facing e. and the monasteries w., the wide space in between sometimes occupied by stray shrines. Temple 3, the tallest of the monuments of Nālandā represents the result of seven accumulations, the earliest three of modest dimensions being buried deep under the later ones. The temple of the fifth stage, with four corner towers, had its facade ornamented with stucco figures of Buddha and the Bodhisattvas in Gupta tradition, which were encased within the extension of the sixth stage. The level of the shrine at the top rose with each reconstruction with a resultant higher flight of steps at each stage. The ruins of the shrine of the last stage with a pedestal for the installed Buddha image are seen at the top. Each stage had its own votive *stūpas* all round, often engulfed in the later extensions. One of such *stūpas*, of the fifth stage, contained in its core a clay tablet inscribed with the sacred text *Pratītya-samut pāda-sūtra* and dated A.D. 516-7. Another manifestation of devotion is the enshrinement within votive *stūpas* of clay lumps or miniature clay *stūpas*, each having in its core two clay tablets impressed with the Buddhist creed. The temple of the seventh stage externally measures 130 × 80 ft. In previous accounts the edifice is described as a *stūpa* but the existence of a Buddha shrine at the top of each of at least the fifth, sixth and seventh stages indicates it to be a temple.

v2.c40.112

Temples 12, 13 and 14, square on plan, are almost similar and measure about 50 m sq each. Each has two periods, with stucco Buddha images installed in shrines on a high podium Temples 12 and 13 have the usual votive *stūpas* around but Temple 14 has none. Its central shrine has mural paintings.

v2.c40.113

Temple 2, outside the row of main temples, has a dado of 211 sculptured panels of about the 7th century.

v2.c40.114

Monasteries IA, IB, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 and 11 have two levels each, while Monasteries 1, 4 and 7 have nine, six and three respectively. They are usually squarish and are separated from each other by a passage. They were double-storeyed with staircase perhaps originally of wood, burnt sleepers having been found in excavation, but later on of concrete or stone. They follow the usual monastic plan [14.12] of a central court surrounded by a veranda on each side, beyond which are the monastic cells; the shrine, larger than the ordinary cells and projecting outside, is situated in the centre of the back row, usually fronted by a portico. The courtyards are paved with bricks, stone or concrete (jars with dried-up mortar and a cell used as a cistern in Monastery 11 are indicative of the preparation of concrete), though it appears that brick was the material for the earlier ones. The cells in Monastery 1 have corbelled doorways and vaulted roofs, while the entrances to cells in Monastery 10 have semicircular arches. Most of the cells have a single bed each (a brick platform along one of the walls) but some cells in Monastery 1 have two each. Some monasteries are thickly plastered and bear traces of painting.

v2.c40.115

The walls of the temples and votive *stūpas* are not always plain. Sometimes they show carved bricks, *kinnaras*, *āmalakas*, bead-and-reel decorations, triangles, squares, rope designs, vases-with-foliage, inverted flasks, etc. Neatly jointed bricks present dentils, pots-with-foliage, arches, *kīrthi-mukhas* and geometric designs. Bricks have straw and rice husk in the core.

v2.c40.116

The clay for the manufacture of myriads of bricks required for the buildings was dug up from the local alluvial soil, which left a large number of water reservoirs, many of them now dried up. Some of them are referred to by Hiuen Tsang.

v2.c40.117

Seals are common. The official monastic seals bear as usual the wheel-and-deer insignia and the legend *śrī-Nālandā-mahā-vihārīyārya-bhikṣu-saṅghasya*. Secular seals belong to rulers, offices, officers, territorial units, etc.

v2.c40.118

Stone sculptures, large and small, are not lacking, though Nālandā does not seem to have had a lapidary atelier. But it was certainly an important centre of bronze-casting. Over 500 bronzes of Buddha and Buddhist divinities of Tantrayāna-Vajrayāna, of which Nālandā became the focus in Pāla times, have been recovered. They form a distinctive school, the influence of which spread, along with Buddhism itself, to s.-e. Asia (Barnet Kempers, 1933). A brick-built smelting furnace has been found near Temple 13; it is made of four chambers in one square divided by short walls, each of the chambers provided with two flues for fire to burn and air to pass. The find of burnt metal pieces, slag of metal and similar objects within it shows that it was used for casting metal.

v2.c40.119

At an ecclesiastical site like Nālandā it is futile to expect manifold objects of material interest. Nevertheless the following deserve mention, though their stratigraphical position is uncertain: iron flat bars, knives, axes, sickles, tongs, hoes, spades and nails (also of copper); iron *svastikas*; metal and clay lamps [6.11]; censers [12.2]; plain or gilded conches; pottery bowls; bronze cups and jugs; stone pestles, querns [6.19] and ladles; metal scissors; stone-cutter’s and artisan’s tools, such as iron chisels and honing stones [16.18]; potter’s dabbers [16.11]; clay moulds of seals, *stūpas* and plaques; inkpots [20.2] of clay and metal; cowries for exchange; ornamental gold leaves and beads; bone and ivory game pieces [6.7.2]; bangles and rings; rubies for inlaying in bronzes; glass beads and rings; crucibles [16.4]; cattle balls [6.3] of metal; iron elephant goads; and cattle-branding iron stamps. Chain armours, quivers, spearheads, daggers, sword-hilts, etc., as well as glazed pottery, were probably left behind by foreign invaders.

v2.c40.120

Little is known about the pottery, except that short-spouted earthen jars with mica dust adhering to the surface and with animal and floral designs were in common use.

v2.c40.121

Beal, S., 1884, *Buddhist Records of the W. World*, London, 2. Bernet Kempers, A.J., 1933, *Bronzes of Nālandā and Hindu-Javanese Art*, Leiden. Broadley, A.M., 1872, *Ruins of the Nalanda Monasteries at Burgaon, Sub-Division Bihar, Zillah Patna*, Calcutta. Ghosh, A., 1939 and subsequent editions, *Nālandā*, Delhi and New Delhi. Legge, J., 1886 *Travels of Fa-Hien*, Oxford. Martin, A.M., 1838, *Eastern India*, London.—B.N. MISRA

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**Naldeo Kuldeo**, Dt Jaunpur. Mound with sherds of Black-slipped Ware [11.13], fine grey and red wares, fragmentary of ring-well [14.15] and baked-brick structures.

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*IAR 1966-7.*

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