The Philosophy of the Upanishads c12.s3.t2: 2. Ethics of the Upanishads

The Philosophy of the Upanishads c12.s3.t2

Language: English

2. Ethics of the Upanishads

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Europeans, practical and shrewd as they are, are wont to estimate the merits of an action above all by its objective worth, that is by the resultant profit for neighbours, for the multitude, or for all men. He who has obtained the greatest results by this standard passes for the greatest man of his time; and the widow's mite is never anything more than a mite. But this objective worth of a good action is too entirely dependent on the favourable or unfavourable character of environment, on mental endowment, on position in life, on the accessory forces of trade and other accidents, to be capable of serving as a standard of moral value. Such a standard must have regard rather to the subjective worth of an action, which consists in the greatness of the personal sacrifice which is involved, or more strictly speaking in the actor's consciousness of the greatness of the sacrifice which he believes himself to be making, and consequently in the degree of self-denial (*tapas*), and self-renunciation (*nyâsa*), which is exhibited in the action, whether in other respects it be of great or little or absolutely no value for others.

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This distinction may save us from being betrayed into an unjust judgement when we note, at first with some surprise, that amongst the ancient Indians, whose consciousness of human solidarity, of common needs and interests, was but slightly developed, the sense of the objective worth of moral action (that is, the worth it possesses for others) is very inferior to ours, while their estimate of its subjective worth (that is, its significance for the actor himself) was advanced to a degree from which we may learn much. In this sense the ethical system of the Upanishads concerns itself especially with the subjective interpretation of moral action, and less with their external results; although this latter consideration is by no means absolutely wanting, but is merely subordinated to the first. This we propose to show in the first place by a few examples.

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In Chând. 3. 17 life is regarded allegorically as a great soma festival. In this a miniature ethical system in five words is incidentally interwoven, when as the reward of the sacrifice (*dakshiṇâ*), which is to be offered at the great sacrificial feast of life, are named:—(1) *tapas*, asceticism; (2) *dânam*, liberality; (3) *ârjavam*, right dealing; (4) *ahiṃsâ*, no injury to life; and (5) *satyavac'anam*, truthfulness.

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In Taitt. 1. 9 twelve duties are enumerated, by the side of each of which the "learning and teaching of the Veda" are constantly enjoined. These are:—Right dealing and truthfulness; asceticism, self-restraint, and tranquillity; and as duties of a householder,—Maintenance of the sacred fire and the agnihotram, hospitality and courtesy, duties to children wives and grandchildren.

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In India also, in other countries, men believed that they heard the voice of the moral law-giver (Prajâpati) in the roll of the thunder, whose *da! da! da!* is explained in the myth of Bṛih. 5. 2 as *dâmyata! datta! daya-dhvam!* (be self-restrained, liberal, pitiful).

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The beneficent results of good actions are beautifully expressed in Mahânâr. 9.¹ "As the scent is wafted afar from a tree laden with flowers, so also is wafted afar the scent of a good deed."

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¹ In the Atharva Recension 8. 2.

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On the other hand, the wicked act is sternly condemned in the verse preserved in Chând. 5. 10. 9 :—

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The thief of gold, and the spirit drinker,
The murderer of a Brâhman, the defiler of his teacher's bed,
These four perish, and he who associates with them as the fifth.

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The fact that only special cases are cited here instead of universal prohibitions of theft, drunkenness, murder and adultery, thus showing lack of generalisation, as well as the rarity of such warnings in Upanishad literature, proves that offences of this character were not common, and that many an Indian chieftain might make in substance his own the honourable testimony which As'vapati Kaikeya bears to his subjects :—

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In my kingdom there is no thief,
No churl, no drunkard,
None who neglects the sacrifice or the sacred lore,
No adulterer or courtesan.¹

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¹ Chând. 5. 11. 5.

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This is in keeping with the gentle humane tone which we see adopted in the Upanishads in the intercourse of husband and wife, father and son, teacher and student, prince and subject.

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Where ethics found so little external work to do, they could give the more undivided attention to the internal, in the spirit of the proverb :—

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In thyself know thy friend,
In thyself know thy enemy.²

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² Bhag. Gîtâ 6. 5.

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The strife with this internal foe is *tapas* (asceticism), the victory over it *nyâsa* (self-renunciation), and in these are contained the two fundamental ideas, around which the ethical thought of the Upanishads moves. *Tapas* has been already discussed in detail;³ and we will only add here that in Mahânâr. 8 all virtues are quite correctly explained as *tapas*, while according to Mahânâr. 62. 11 “all these lower mortifications”¹ are surpassed by *nyâsa*, self-renunciation. More importance than to isolated expressions of this character attaches to the fact that in course of time the ancient traditional life-stages of the *brahmac'ârin* and *grihastha* had a third and a fourth added to them, in which these two supreme virtues were incorporated as it were, *tapas* as *vânaprastha*, and *nyâsa* as *sannyâsin*. These four life-stages of the Brahman—as student, householder, anchorite and wandering beggar—in which according to a subsequent view the life of every Indian Brâhman should be spent, were at a later time very significantly named *âs'ramas*, i.e. “places of mortification.”² The whole life should be passed in a series of gradually intensifying ascetic stages, through which a man, more and more purified from all earthly attachment, should become fitted for his “home” (*astam*), as the other world is designated as early as Rigv. X. 14. 8. The entire history of mankind does not produce much that approaches in grandeur to this thought.

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³ sup. pp. 65-70.

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¹ A list of which is given like the similar series of virtues in Taitt. 1. 9, sup. p. 365, and Mahânâr. 8.

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² First, as far as our knowledge goes, in the *atyâs'ramin* of S'vet. 6. 21, followed by Maitr. 4. 3, etc.

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In the older Upanishads the theory of the four *âs'ramas* is seen in course of formation. Chând. 8. 15 mentions only the Brahman-student and householder, and promises to these in return for study, the begetting of children, the practice of yoga, abstinence from doing injury, and sacrifice, a departure hence without return. Chând. 2. 23. 1 names the *tapas* (of the anchorite) side by side with these as a third “branch of duty.” There is still no progressive series. Rather according to this passage the Brahman-students, in so far as they do not elect to remain permanently in the house of the teacher, appear to have devoted themselves partly to the householder's state, partly to the life in the forest. It is in harmony with this that in Chând. 5. 10 among the dying the anchorite in the forest and the sacrificer in the village appear side by side. Chând. 2. 23. 1 contrasts all three branches of duty with the position of the man who "stands fast in Brahman." So too in Bṛih. 4. 2. 22, those who practise (1) the study of the Veda, (2) sacrifice and almsgiving, (3) penance and fasting, are contrasted with the man who has learnt to know the âtman, and in consequence becomes a muni and pravrâjin (pilgrim). Both have attained the knowledge of the âtman, and therefore the supreme goal. In the cognate passage Bṛih. 3. 5, on the contrary the Brâhmaṇa is still distinguished from the muni as a higher grade. In Bṛih. 3. 8. 10 also the knowledge of the âtman as the highest aim is differentiated both from the sacrifices and benefactions (of the householder), and from the practices of tapas (of the anchorite). All these passages assume only the three stages of Brahman-student, householder and anchorite, and contrast with them the men who know the âtman. The last were originally "exalted above the (three) âśramas."¹ This very position however of exaltation above the âśramas became in course of time a fourth and highest âśrama, which was naturally assigned to the end of life, so that studentship, and the positions of householder and anchorite (which stood side by side) preceded it as temporary grades in this successive order. Until a late period however the separation between the third and fourth âśramas, between the vânaprastha practising tapas, and the sannyâsin who has succeeded in attaining nyâsa, was not strictly carried out. An intimation of the fourfold number of the âśramas is perhaps already afforded by the words of Muṇḍ. 2. 1. 7:—" mortification, truth, the life of a Brâhman, instruction." Otherwise the oldest passage, which names all four âs'ramas in the correct order, would be Jâbâla Up. 4 :—" When the period of Brahman-studentship is ended, a man becomes a householder; after he has been a householder, he becomes an anchorite; after he has been an anchorite, let him travel about on pilgrimage."

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¹ atyâśramin, as it is said in S'vet. 6. 21, Kaiv. 24.

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The further development of the theory of the four âs'ramas belongs to the later period of the dharmasûtras and dharmas'âstras. Here we propose merely to take a brief survey of the substance of the teaching of the Upanishads on this subject.

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(1) The *Brahmac'ârin*. "S'vetaketu was the son of (Uddâlaka) Âruṇi. To him said his father, 'S'vetaketu, go forth to study the Brahman, for none of our family, my dear son, is wont to remain unlearned, and a (mere) hanger-on of the Brâhman order.'"¹ From this remark it seems to follow that at that time entrance upon the life of a Brahman-student, while it was a commendable custom, was not yet universally enjoined upon Brâhmans. The entrance also of Satyakâma upon studentship appears to be his voluntary determination.² It was possible for a man to receive instruction from his father, as S'vetaketu,³ or at the hands of other teachers, as the same S'vetaketu.⁴ The request to be received must follow duly (*tîrthena*, cp. *vidhivat*, Muṇḍ. 1. 1. 3), *i.e.* according to Bṛih. 6. 2. 7, with the words,—*upaimi aham bhavantam*. The student takes the fuel in his hand as a token that he is willing to serve the teacher, and especially to maintain the sacred fires.⁵ Before receiving him, the teacher makes inquiry into his birth and family,¹ but yet, as this example shows, in a very indulgent manner. Sometimes instruction is given even without formal reception (*anupanîya*).² The duration of the period of instruction is twelve years,³ or “a series of years.”⁴ S’vetaketu also begins to receive instruction at the age of twelve,⁵ and continues his study for twelve years. During this time he has “thoroughly studied all the Vedas,”⁶ namely the verses of the Rigveda, the formulas of the sacrifice, and the hymns of the Sâma,⁷ apparently therefore only the saṃhitâs. In other instances there appears to have been at first no mention of study. In one example Upakosala has tended the sacred fires for twelve years, and yet the teacher can never make up his mind to impart to him “the knowledge.”⁸ Satyakâma is sent at first with the teacher’s herds of cattle into a distant country, where he remains for a succession of years.⁹ A further act of service on the part of the brahmacârin consists in his going to beg for the teacher.¹⁰ On festival occasions also we find him in the train of the teacher and awaiting his commands.¹¹ Together with and after these acts of service “in the time remaining over from work for the teacher” (*guroḥ karma-atis’eṣeṇa*) the study of the Veda is prosecuted.¹² The consequence was sometimes rather darkening of knowledge than real enlightenment.¹³ We further find the students wandering from place to place; “they hasten from all sides” to famous teachers, like water down the hill;¹⁴ they roam as far as the land of the Madras (on the Hyphasis) “in order to learn the sacrifice.”¹⁵ As a rule however they live as *antevâsins* in the house of the teacher, and not a few found this manner of life so congenial that they “settled permanently in the teacher’s house.”¹ The others were dismissed at the close of the period of studentship with advice² or admonitions:— “After he has studied the Veda with him the teacher admonishes his pupil,—‘Speak the truth, do your duty, forsake not the study of the Veda; after you have presented the appropriate gifts to the teacher, take care that the line of your race be not broken.’”³ Further admonitions follow, not to neglect health and possessions, to honour father, mother, teacher and guest, to be blameless in act and life, to honour superiors, to bestow alms in the appropriate manner, and in all doubtful cases to order himself according to the judgement of approved authorities.

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¹ Chând. 6. 1. 1.

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² Chând. 4. 4. 1.

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³ Chând. 5. 3. 1, Bṛih. 6. 2. 1, Kaush. 1. 1.

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⁴ Chând. 6. 1. 1, differing from the passages just quoted.

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⁵ Kaush. 4. 19, Chând. 4. 4. 5, 5. 13. 7, 8. 7. 2, 8. 10. 3, 8. 11. 2, Muṇḍ. 1. 2. 12, Pras'na 1. 1.

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¹ Chând. 4. 4. 4.

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² Chând. 5. 11. 7.

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³ Chând. 4. 10. 1.

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⁴ Chând. 4. 4. 5.

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⁵ Chând. 6. 1. 2.

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⁶ Chând. 6. 1. 2.

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⁷ Chând. 6. 7. 2.

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⁸ Chând. 4. 10. 1–2.

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⁹ Chând. 4. 4. 5.

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¹⁰ Chând. 4. 3. 5.

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¹¹ Bṛih. 3. 1. 2.

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¹² Chând. 8. 15.

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¹³ Chând. 6. 1. 2.

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¹⁴ Taitt. 1. 4. 3.

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¹⁵ Bṛih. 3. 7. 1, 3. 3. 1.

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¹ Chând. 2. 23. 1.

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² Bṛih. 6. 4.

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³ Taitt. 1. 11.

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(2) The Gṛihastha. “He who returns home from the family of the teacher, after the prescribed study of the Veda in the time remaining over from work for the teacher, and pursues the private study of the Veda in (his own) household in a pure neighbourhood (where Brâhmans are permitted to live), trains up pious (sons and pupils), subdues all his organs in the âtman, and besides injures no living thing except on sacred ground (at the sacrifice), he in truth, if he maintains this manner of life all his days, enters into the world of Brâhman and does not return back.”⁴ According to this passage, the householder may remain in that state all his life long without doing injury to his soul. According to Chând. 5. 10, on the contrary, for those “who in the village observe the rites with the words—‘Sacrifice and works of piety are our service,’” for those therefore who continue in the householder’s state to the end of life, the transient reward in the moon is appointed and a return to a new earthly existence. The most imperative duty of the householder is to establish a family and to beget a son to continue his father's works. This subject has been already considered.¹ Several wives are permitted, as in fact Yâjñavalkhya himself had two.² Further duties of the grihastha are named,—sacrifice, study of the Veda, and almsgiving.³ How far the obligation of sacrifice suffered prejudice through the ideas of the Upanishads has been already discussed.⁴

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⁴ Chând. 8. 15.

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¹ sup. p. 293 ff.

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² Bṛih. 2. 4, 4. 5.

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³ Chând. 2. 23. 1, 8. 5. 1-2, Bṛih. 4. 4. 22, 3. 8. 10.

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⁴ sup. p. 61-65.

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(3) The Vânaprastha and (4) the Sannyâsin (bhikshu, parivrâjaka). A distinction between these two periods of life was established at first gradually. Originally the solitary life in the forest existed as a special “kind of vocation” (dharmaskandha) side by side with the position of householder.⁵ Later it may have become usual to retire into the solitude of the forest on the approach of old age, after the obligations of the householder had been satisfied. Yâjñavalkhya is an example, when he addresses his wife Maitreyî:—“I will now abandon this state (of householder), and will therefore make a division between thee and Kâtyâyanî.”⁶ With Yâjñavalkhya this step means the putting into practice of his teaching in Bṛih. 3. 5. 1:—“In truth, after that Brâhmans have gained the knowledge of this soul, they abstain from desire for children and desire for possessions and desire for the world, and wander about as beggars.” Here the third and the fourth states are not yet distinguished. The case is otherwise with the king Bṛihadratha, who surrenders his kingdom, journeys into the forest, and gives himself up to the most painful mortifications, gazing fixedly at the sun and standing with arms crossed, and yet is obliged to confess:—“I am not acquainted with the âtman.”⁷ Here the anchorite, who devotes himself to ascetic practices with meditation,¹ has not yet attained the highest goal; if anyone without knowing the âtman “practises asceticism for a full thousand years, to him it brings only finite (reward).”² Asceticism leads only to the Pitṛiyâna,³ and the case is different only with those who can say :—“Faith is our asceticism.”⁴ Penance and fasting are only the means by which Brâhmans “seek to know” the âtman.⁵ According to some, tapas is indispensable as a means to the knowledge of the âtman;⁶ according to others, it is superfluous as far as any fruits of the system are concerned.⁷ For as long as the goal was future the hope might be cherished of approaching near to it by severing by means of asceticism the tie that binds to this life. If however emancipation is the discovery of oneself as the âtman, and therefore something that only needs to be recognised as already existing, not to be brought about as though it were future, the asceticism of the vânaprastha becomes as superfluous as the gṛihastha’s sacrifice and study of the Veda.⁸ He who knows the âtman is atyâs’ramin, “exalted above the (three) âs’ramas.”⁹ He has attained that which the ascetic only strives after, complete release from his individuality and from all that pertains to it, as family, possessions and the world.¹⁰ He is called sannyâsin, because he “casts off everything from himself” (sam-ni-as), because he “wanders around” homeless (parivrâj, parivrâjaka), because without possessions he lives only as a “beggar” (bhikshu).

Linked texts (13)

Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Chāndogyopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Mahānārāyaṇopaniṣad (Taittirīya) — Sanskrit
Maitrāyaṇīyopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Taittirīyopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Jābālopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Śvetāśvataropaniṣad — Śvetāśvatara, Sanskrit
Muṇḍakopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Kauṣītakibrāhmaṇopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Praśnopaniṣad — Pippalāda, Sanskrit
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Bhagavadgītā — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Kaivalyopaniṣad — Sanskrit