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Aspects of Mahayana Buddhism and its Relation to Hinayana c9: Chapter V. The Vinaya of the Mahāyānists

Aspects of Mahāyāna Buddhism and its Relation to Hīnayāna c9

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Contents

Chapter V. The Vinaya of the Mahāyānists

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(How far it is an Adaptation of the Hīnayāna Vinaya)

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In the extensive literature of the Mahāyānists in Chinese and Tibetan translations, we find some sūtras, which can be classified under Vinaya, as has been done by Nanjio in his *Catalogue of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka*¹, but in any case there remains the fact that the Mahāyānists lacked a well-codified Vinaya corresponding to that of the Hīnayānists. I-tsing, who was chiefly interested in the Vinaya, remarks that the Mahāyānists had no Vinaya of their own and that theirs was the same as that of the Hīnayānists². But at the same time, one cannot ignore the fact that the Mahāyānists had a large number of sūtras, which served the purpose of the Vinaya. Nanjio refers to some of them while the *Śikṣāsamuccaya* and the *Bodhicaryāvatāra* furnish us with many such names. Some of these sūtras are:

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¹ Nanjio, *Catalogue*, col. 239f.

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² I-Tsing, Takakusu’s trans., pp. xix, xxii.

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(1) *Bodhisattvacaryānirdeśa*³, a treatise apparently dealing with the duties of a bodhisattva; and probably a work on the lines of Śāntideva’s *Bodhicaryāvatāra*.

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³ Nanjio mentions two works under this name but the literal translations of the Chinese titles are (i) *Bodhisattva-kuśala-śīla Sūtra*, and (ii) *Bodhisattva Nimimdhara Sūtra*. (Nanjio gives “bhadra” for “kuśala” and “bhūmidhara” for “nimimdhara”).

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(2) *Bodhisattva-prātimokṣa-sūtra*⁴, containing many rules of the Prātimokṣa type mixed up with admonitions characteristic of the Mahāyāna texts; it contains, e.g., rules regarding the duties of a disciple towards his Ācārya, Upādhyāya, Sahadharmika, etc., as also sermons on dāna, kṣānti, self-preservation, the duties of gṛhi-bodhisattvas and so forth.

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⁴ In the Cambridge University Library there is a Ms. entitled *Bodhisattva Prātimokṣa Sūtra* procured by Bendall from Nepal. Through the kind intervention of Dr. E. J. Thomas I have been able to secure a rotograph copy of the same. It is a small work covering ten leaves. The title of the Ms. suggests that it should correspond to the Chinese texts Nos. 1500, 1501 of the Taisho edition of the Tripitaka (Nanjio, Nos. 1096, 1098) but on collation I find that there is absolutely no agreement. It, however, agrees very closely with the Chinese text No. 1499 (of the Taisho ed. vol. 24—Nanjio, 1097). The Sanskrit restoration from the Chinese title 菩薩戒羊曷磨

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(3) Bhikṣu Vinaya, which contains among other things some regulations governing the conduct of a monk, e.g., rules regarding the collection of alms, medicines¹, etc.

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¹ See, e.g., Bodhic., p. 141; Śikṣā., p. 135.

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(4) Ākāśagarbha-sūtra, dealing with āpattis and mūlāpattis along with the ceremonies connected with the worship of Ākāśagarbha bodhisattva for absolution from sins².

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² Śikṣā., pp. 59ff.; See Nanjio, 67, 68.

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(5) Upāli-paripṛcchā, wherein Upāli is generally the interlocutor and like the previous sūtra, it also deals with āpattis and anāpattis³, pāpadeśanā (confession), etc.

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³ Bodhic., p. 139: Upāli-paripṛcchāyām āpattyanāpattivibhāgaḥ. See Nanjio, 1109. It is placed under the heading: Hīnayāna Vinaya.

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(6) Ugradattaparipṛcchā⁴, in which Ugradatta gṛhapati (householder) is the interlocutor. It contains mostly the rules to be followed by gṛhi-bodhisattvas, and refers incidentally to the life of monks in the forest and so forth.

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⁴ Nanjio, 23 (19) under Ratnakūṭa Class; see also Nos. 33, 34.

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(7) Ratnamegha sūtra⁵, dealing with the duties of a forest recluse, collection of alms, medicines and so forth.

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⁵ Nanjio, 151, 152.

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(8) Ratnarāśi sūtra⁶, which contains among other things the duties and functions of a Vaiyāvṛtya monk (i.e., a bhikṣu who wishes to undertake the duty of a secretary to the saṅgha), the rules to be observed when the monks go on their rounds for alms, etc.

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⁶ Nanjio, 23(44) places it in the Ratnakūṭa class.

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There are many other works of a like nature from which

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文 is Bodhisattva-śilakarma-paddhati (Nanjio renders it as "A composition or treatise on the Bodhisattva's śilakarma"). So the Bodhisattva Prātimokṣa Sūtra, from which passages have been cited in the Śikṣāsamuccaya and Bodhicaryāvatāra, is not the one, of which we have found the Sanskrit Ms. but is very probably the original of the Chinese translations, Nos. 1500, 1501, entitled 菩薩戒本 quotations are to be found in the Śikṣāsamuccaya and a list of which has been compiled by Bendall in his edition of the text. That the Mahāyānists looked for the rules of conduct in these sūtras is evidenced by the remark in the Śikṣāsamuccaya that “uktāni ca sūtrānteṣu bodhisattva-śikṣāpadāni” (the duties of the bodhisattvas are mentioned in the Sūtrāntas¹). In the Ratnameghasūtra it is stated likewise that bodhisattvas should know that they cannot attain bodhi by merely observing the Prātimokṣa rules and that they are to perform the duties prescribed by the Tathāgata in the Sūtrāntas². So also in the Caturdharmakasūtra it is said that the bodhisattva duties are to be found in the Sūtrāntas if they are frequently examined. How a bodhisattva is to conduct himself, and what śikṣāpadas are to be observed are all described in the Sūtrāntas³. Thus we clearly see that the Mahāyānists depended upon the rules scattered in the Mahāyāna texts and did not possess a code of the Vinaya rules.

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¹ Śikṣā., pp. 17, 41; Bodhic., pp. 91, 159.

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² Śikṣā., p. 17; Bodhic., p. 92: “kiṃ tarhi yānīmāni tathāgatena teṣu teṣu sūtrānteṣu bodhisattvasamudācārā bodhisattva-śikṣāpadāni prajñaptāni teṣu teṣu mayā śikṣitavyam iti”.

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³ Śikṣā., p. 41: sūtrāṇāṃ ca sade Kṣaṇād bodhisattvaśikṣāpadāni hi prāyaḥ sūtresv eva dṛśyante, teṣu teṣu sūtrānteṣu bodhisattva-samudācārā bodhisattvaśikṣāpadāni prajñaptāni ti vacanāt”.

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From the remarks quoted above it is evident that the Mahāyānists adopted the Prātimokṣa rules of the Hinayānists, though they pointed out their inadequacy for the attainment of Bodhi. The references in the Śikṣāsamuccaya to 5 or 10 śikṣāpadas, to 250 śikṣāpadas for bhikṣus, or to 500 śikṣāpadas for bhikṣuṇīs distinctly show that they were using some sort of a code, which was similar to, or had much in common with, the Hinayānic Prātimokṣa⁴. The name of one of their texts, viz., the Bodhisattva Prātimokṣa sūtra may lead one to think that it is an adaptation of the Hinayānic Prātimokṣa sūtra, but from the few quotations that we have in the Śikṣāsamuccaya it may be said that it is not a code of monastic rules like the Prātimokṣa sūtra but a mixture of monastic rules with those about the general conduct of the bodhisattvas both lay and ordained¹. The Śikṣāsamuccaya further hints that it is a compilation made from the Ratnarāśi and other sūtras².

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⁴ Śikṣā., pp. 174-5 (Bhaiṣajyaguru-vaiḍūryaprabhārājasūtra). About the number of the Prātimokṣa rules in the Vinayas of various schools, see E. Waldschmidt, Bruchstücke des Bhikṣuṇī-prātimokṣa, pp. 2, 3.

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¹ See e.g. Śikṣā., pp. 37, 55, 144, 188.

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² Śikṣā., p. 55.

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The Mahāyānists, however, give only a secondary place to the observance of the Prātimokṣa rules. They say that a bodhisattva would be guilty of mūlāpatti (grave offence) if he says to anybody "What will you do by following the Prātimokṣa-Vinaya? Develop your mind for samyaksambodhi, read the Mahāyāna texts. If there be any evil already done by you in word, thought, or body it will be purified by your reading the texts³". But again it is also enjoined that a bodhisattva should not wholly depend upon the Prātimokṣa-Vinaya, for if a bodhisattva observes the Prātimokṣa rules for many kalpas, living on roots and fruits of trees but with the mind attached to śrāvakayāna, he is guilty of a grave offence⁴. Besides these remarks, one can also perceive from the customs of the Dhyāna school about the ordination of monks, how the prātimokṣa is relegated to a secondary position. De Groot tells us that the Dhyāna school recognised the 250 Prātimokṣa rules as the code of their clergy⁵. The monks are first ordained according to the Prātimokṣa rules, and after two or three days, they pass through a second ordination according to the Brahmajāla sūtra, the accredited Vinaya of the later Mahāyānists, in order to attain to the dignity of a bodhisattva. Thus we see that the Mahāyānists could not or did not do away with the Prātimokṣa rules.

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³ Ibid., p. 61.

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⁴ Ibid., p. 66.

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⁵ De Groot, Le code du Mahāyāna en Chine, p. 8.

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The only Mahāyānic works accessible to us that can be called a code of disciplinary rules are the Chinese Brahmajāla sūtra and the two works of Śāntideva, viz., Śikṣāsamuccaya and Bodhicaryāvatāra. Śāntideva is a well-known figure in the Buddhist world of the seventh century, and these two works of his are collections of excerpts from a large number of Mahāyāna sūtras, gathered with a view to present a picture of the duties and functions of a bodhisattva¹. As regards the Brahmajäla sūtra, De Groot informs us that though it had existed from the first century A.D., "it was not thought much of before 730 A.D."² This book was translated by Kumārajīva and formed part of the great work Bodhisattva-hṛdaya-bhūmi³. The fact that Śāntideva had no occasion to refer to this work shows that it was not very popular in his times, or probably, it was not known to him as the other works on Bodhisattva duties were. Like other Mahāyānic sūtras on disciplinary rules, it also attempted to combine the ideal life of a bodhisattva, who might be a monk or a layman with that of a monk as a member of the saṅgha. As the preliminary practices of a bodhisattva, it speaks of the twenty cittāśayas ("sentiers du debut" ⁴) so many of which are found in the Daśabhūmikasūtra⁵, and it says that a bodhisattva must develop these before he can seriously think of attaining bodhi. These cittāśayas are followed by the mention of ten other qualities, called Vajras, which make the bodhisattva firm in his zeal and path. After acquiring these thirty qualities, the bodhisattva is to progress along the ten bhūmis.

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¹ Bendall's Intro. to Śiksā., p. v.

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² De Groot, op. cit., p. 12.

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³ Nanjio, Catalogue, No. 1087.

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⁴ De Groot, op. cit., p. 20.

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⁵ See ante, ch. iv.

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The Prātimokṣa rules are enumerated in detail after these forty acquirements. The first part of the Prātimokṣa rules deals with the ten serious offences, making a bodhisattva guilty of Pārājikā. The first four of them are identical with the four Pārājikā offences of the Pātimokkha sutta in Pāli. They are abrahmacarya (misconduct), adattādāna (stealing), vadha (killing), and uttaramanuṣyadharmālāpa (laying claim to powers and knowledge not usually possessed by human beings). The additional six are:—

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(1) trading in intoxicating drinks or inducing others to do the same;

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(2) divulging the offences committed, or the way in which they were committed by a gṛhi, bhikṣu-bodhisattva, monk, or nun;

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(3) vaunting one's own qualities and disparaging others¹;
(4) giving nothing to the destitute, and even injuring them;
(5) not forgiving a person who has injured the bodhisattva but asked for pardon; and
(10) speaking ill of the Triratna.

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¹ Cf. Śikṣā., p. 98: ātmānam utkarṣayema param vā pamsayema.

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The second part deals with forty-eight other rules, which are considered secondary². Most of them are found in the Pātimokkha sutta or the Śikṣāsamuccaya. They deal with rules regulating eating and drinking, confessing, treatment to be accorded to friends, teachers, etc., means of livelihood, forming praṇidhānas, and so forth³. The Sūtra under consideration is like many other Mahāyāna sūtras an attempt to synthesise the life and ideal of a bodhisattva with those of a Hīnayānic bhikṣu. It is also a compilation like the Śikṣāsamuccaya but it has confined itself more to the actual rules than the Śikṣāsamuccaya does.

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² De Groot, op. cit., p. 40.

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³ Ibid., pp. 33ff. for details.

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The chief reasons for the inability of the Mahāyānists to depend solely on the Hīnayāna code are the following:—
(1) The Mahāyānists kept in view the conduct not only of a bhikṣu- (or pravrajita-) bodhisattva but also that of a gṛhi-bodhisattva.
(2) The development of bodhicitta and the completion of the Pāramitās played the chief rôle in the practices of a bodhisattva.
(3) Too much stress was laid upon Karuṇā and Maitrī, which, in many cases, received approbation at the expense of the most fundamental rules of conduct⁴.

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⁴ See, e.g., Śikṣā., p. 167.

Gṛhi-Bodhisattvas

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The early Hīnayānists, as we have pointed out elsewhere⁵, gave very little attention to the spiritual needs of the laity. They adhered to the principle that the duties that should be performed by a person for the attainment of Nibbāna cannot be adequately done by one living a family life and not retiring from the world¹. The discourses suitable for the householders were, according to them, the dānakathaṃ, sīlakathaṃ, saggakathaṃ, kāmānaṃ ādīnavaṃ okāraṃ saṃkilesaṃ, and nekkhamme ānisaṃsaṃ² (discourses on gifts, moral precepts, heaven, dangers and evil consequences of desires, and the good fruits of retirement). It is only when the mind of the householders has been suitably prepared by the discourses on the last two topics that the Ariyasaccas are explained to them. The questions may be asked, viz., how could there be lay-adherents like Anāthapiṇḍika, Bimbisāra, Visākhā, who had a prominent place in the then Buddhist society, and how is it that there are a few discourses in the Nikāyas on the duties of a householder, on an ideal wife, and so forth³? Without questioning the antiquity of some of these discourses, we may assert that they contain very little except some general advice for the spiritual uplift of a person. The monks used to approach the householders more with a view to persuade them to leave the household life and become recluses than to continue to be householders and perform duties conducive to Nibbāna. Later on, of course, one finds the laity formally taking the vow of five sīlas, or temporarily eight sīlas⁴, but still they are not expected to derive the full benefits of the religion without going through ordination. Anāthapiṇḍika in spite of all his gifts and virtues was only a sotāpanna at the time of his death⁵. This state of things, of course, could not continue long, and among the Hinayānists, there arose a new movement, which could be called semi-Mahāyānic, for creating an important place for the laity in the Buddhist system by the introduction of the practice of the Pāramitās¹.

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⁵ See supra, ch. I, p. 3.

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¹ Sambādho gharāvāso rajāpatho, etc. See Majjhima, I, p. 179; Aṅguttara, II, p. 208.

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² Early History, etc., pp. 36 f.

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³ Ibid., pp. 118ff.; N. Law, Studies, etc., pp. 95 ff.

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⁴ At present this is common at Chittagong, and in Burma and Ceylon. Wieger in his Bouddhisme Chinois (I, pp. 147, 148) also refers to the ceremony performed by a layman by confessing his past sins, accepting the faith and the five precepts, and temporarily the eight precepts.

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⁵ Saṃyutta, V, p. 387.

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¹ See ante, pp. 11 ff.

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The Mahāyānists developed these Pāramitā practices a good deal and tried to persuade both householders and monks to fulfil them. In the Śikṣāsamuccaya we get glimpses of the duties of a Bodhisattva apart from the completion of Pāramitās. Some of these passages may be summarized as follows:—

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(1) Gifts result in the destruction of tṛṣṇā (desire), removal of fear, anxiety, and so forth; therefore householders should make gifts as much as possible.

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If a householder feels an excessive affection for his son but for none others, he must correct himself by reflecting that Bodhi is attained by one (i) who is samacitta (even-minded), (ii) who is exerting himself rightly (samyak-prayukta) to attain bodhi, and (iii) who does not make distinctions (anānātvacārin). He is to regard his son as an enemy (lit. not friend), as he being the object of excessive affection, is the cause of detracting his father's mind from the doctrines of Buddha. He is to correct himself by thinking that "he himself comes from one place and his son from another; that all beings are his sons, and he is the son of all beings." Thus a gṛhī bodhisattva must not regard anything as his own².

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² Śikṣā., pp. 18-19 (Ugradattaparipṛcchā).

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This is followed by an interesting passage showing how a gṛhī bodhisattva is to absolve himself from his sins when he fails to give away the thing asked for. At first he must reflect within himself that the thing, whether he gives it up or not, must one day leave him. If he can dispose of it, he will be happy at the time of his death. But even if after this reflection, he fails to give away the article, he is to confess his weakness thus: "I am of weak mind; my kuśalamūlas are not ripe; I am only a beginner (ādikarmika) in Mahāyāna; my mind as far as the gifts are concerned is not yet under control; I am still attached to upādānas and to 'I-ness' and 'Mine-ness,'" excuse me, O good man, do not be sorry; I shall develop my power of self-denial, so that I may fulfil your desire." He should also see that neither he has aprasāda (displeasure) against the seeker of the gift nor the seeker against him. But in any case, such miserliness is condemned by Buddhas¹.

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¹ Śikṣā., p. 20 (Ugradattaparipṛcchā).

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There are many admonitions with regard to the nature of gifts to be made by laymen and as to the time when and the place where they are most efficacious².

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² Ibid., pp. 87, 144, 147-8.

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(2) A gṛhī bodhisattva is to give up anunaya (supplication) and pratigha (repugnance), and remain unattached to eight lokadharmas³. He should not be elated by the gain of a wife, son, wealth and property, or depressed by misfortunes, for he is always to think that all constituted things are illusory and have the sign of appearance and disappearance (viṭhapana-pratyupasthāna=rnam-par bsgrub-pa ñe-bar-gnas-paḥi mtshan ñid)⁴. It is only a matter of practice, and the bodhisattvas can avoid both elation and despondency by making the mind invincible⁵ against passions.

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³ Mvyut. 125: Lābha, Alābha, Yaśa, Ayaśa, Nindā, Praśamsā, Sukha and Duḥkha. See Dh. S. 61.

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⁴ The English rendering is conjectural.

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⁵ Śikṣā., p. 180. Cf. Gaṇḍavyūha: na cābhyāsasya duṣkaram nāma kiñcid asti.

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(3) A gṛhī bodhisattva seeks enjoyable things "rightly and not wrongly; he has right living and not wrong living"⁶.

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⁶ Śikṣā., p. 267; Transl., p. 245.

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(4) The four evils from which a layman should refrain are:

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(a) to cause hindrance to persons desirous of renunciation, of seeking ordination, or of following the mārga to Nirvāṇa;

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(b) not to believe in the fruits of actions and stand in the way of ordination of one's own sons, wife or relatives out of affection or love of wealth;

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(c) rejection of the saddharma; and

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(d) hatred (pratigha) towards śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas.

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(5) Gṛhīs should refrain from
(a) drinking spirits, etc.,
(b) visiting places of vulgar amusements,
(c) bad temper, fickleness, wavering, garrulousness, etc., and should always be self-possessed¹.

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¹ Śikṣā., p. 120 = Bodhic., p. 123.

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(6) A gṛhī must refrain from adultery and be satisfied with his wife. Even when living with her, he should always reflect that she is a source of evil, full of impurities and so forth. He should also bear in mind that she is a companion for passion and dalliance and not for the next world, a companion at food and drink and not for the fruits of karma; and that she is a hindrance to śīla, dhyāna, prajñā, etc².

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² Ibid., p. 78 (Ugradattaparipṛcchā).

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(7) A gṛhī should be discreet about the enjoyment or giving away of wealth. He should also take into consideration whether the giving away or abstention from same would stand in the way of attaining bodhi by himself or his sons, wife, or employees³.

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³ Ibid., p. 144.

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(8) For the benefit of others, the gṛhī bodhisattva should renounce his own profit⁴.

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⁴ Ibid., p. 145.

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(9) Bodhisattvas derive great merit and even develop bodhicitta by worshipping or honouring stūpas⁵.

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⁵ Ibid., pp. 93, 94.

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(10) A kulaputra or kuladuhitṛ practises the eight śīlas for one year or three years with a view to be re-born in the Sukhāvatī-vyūha⁶.

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⁶ Ibid., p. 175.

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(11) Gṛhīs should practise the daśakuśalakarmapathas⁷.

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⁷ Ibid., p. 87.

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(12) Gṛhastha-ādikarmika-bodhisattvas should study the Buddhist scriptures.

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The Ugradattaparipṛcchā, from which the above information is mostly collected, is apparently a book of conduct for use by the lay bodhisattvas⁸. The question—"katham āśayasampannasyāpy ugradattaparipṛcchāyām gṛham anujñātam" (how is it that in the Ugradattaparipṛcchā those who have aspiration for buddhahood are also allowed to continue the family life?)—makes it clear that laymen, unlike the early Hinayānists, had a place in the disciplinary code of the Mahāyānists, though, of course, preference was given to the life of a recluse in the forest rather than to that of a dweller in the town¹. With the Hinayānists they also hold that ‘na jātu kāmān pratisevamānaḥ putreṣu dāreṣu janitvā tṛṣṇām gṛham ca sevitvā jugupsanīyam anuttarām prāpayati so’grabodhim.’ (Never will he obtain the supreme wisdom by living the detested life of a family man, by enjoying the pleasure of the world, and by hankering after wife and sons)². On the contrary, they extol life in a forest in extravagant terms³.

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⁸ Ibid., p. 62.

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¹ *Bodhic.*, p. 123: Ugraparipṛcchāyām gṛhiṇam bodhisattvam adhikṛtyoktam = *Śikṣā.*, p. 120.

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² *Śikṣā.*, p. 193: Tad evam Ugradattaparipṛcchāvidhinā gṛhadoṣān bhāvayitvā śrutavatā cittaṃ śodhayitum araṇyam āśrayaṇīyam iti.

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³ *Śikṣā.*, p. 193; *Bodhic.*, p. 285. On the virtues of forest life, see *Śikṣā.*, ch. xi.

Royal Laity

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These are a few of the rules of conduct laid down for the lay bodhisattvas and noticed incidentally in the *Śikṣāsamuccaya*. There are also many rules for developing bodhicitta or practising the pāramitās applicable to both Gṛhī and Pravrajita-bodhisattvas, to which we shall refer later on. It should be noted that the Mahāyānists were careful to consult the whims and conveniences of kings and princes by providing some special rules for them⁴. In the *Rājāvavādakāsūtra*, *e.g.*, it is stated that kings have many important duties to perform, and so they cannot practise the pāramitās fully. Therefore, when walking, sitting, lying, eating or drinking they should develop desire for sambodhi, cultivate faith in the possibility of its attainment and form resolutions accordingly. They should concentrate their minds upon qualities of all buddhas, bodhisattvas, pratyekabuddhas and śrāvakas, and transfer the merits thus acquired to the benefit of all beings and thereby help them in the attainment of omniscience. In this way, a king can discharge the duties of his kingdom as well as he can acquire merits for attaining bodhi and bodhicitta⁵.

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⁴ In the Pāli Vinaya also, one notices that kings' wishes and conveniences were consulted in the framing of rules.

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⁵ *Śikṣā.*, pp. 9-10 = *Bodhic.*, pp. 26.

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In the *Ākāśagarbhasūtra* are mentioned the five great offences (mūlāpatti) that may be committed by a king himself or through his officers, and for which he can be condemned to hell. They are.—

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(a) stealing property belonging to a saṅgha or a stūpa;
(b) reviling the dharma of any one of the three yānas;
(c) disrobing a monk, who has shaved his head and taken yellow robes according to the Buddhist law, no matter whether or not he be observant of the precepts, and make him a family man and then punish him;
(d) committing deliberately any one of the five deadly sins;
(e) disbelieving the causes of actions (ahetuvādī) and the existence of the next world; and
(f) practising the ten akuśalakarmapathas and persuading others to do the same¹.

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¹ *Śikṣā*., pp. 59-60 = *Bodhic*., pp. 159, 160.

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In the *Ratnakūṭasūtra* is shown how a monk is to receive a king or his officer if he is visited by either in the forest. He should offer him a seat, and should the king take his seat, he should also sit, otherwise not. If the king be fickle-minded (cañcalendriya) he is only to be complimented by being told that he is fortunate in having many śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas in his kingdom, and in being free from the infliction of thieves and rebels. If the king be high-principled and serious, then the dharma should be preached to him in various ways suited to his temperament².

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² *Ibid*., p. 197.

Development of Bodhicitta

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The Mahāyānists think very highly of the virtue of developing Bodhicitta which throws into the shade all disciplines. An idea about their conception of the efficacy of possessing bodhicitta can be formed from the following stanza:—

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kṛtvāpi pāpāni sudāruṇāni
yadāśrayād uttarati kṣaṇena,
śūrāśrayeṇeva mahābhayāni
nāśriyate tat katham ajñāsattvaiḥ.

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[After committing atrocious crimes, one can absolve himself from them in one moment by developing (lit. taking refuge in)]

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bodhicitta, just as some persons can escape punishments by being protected by powerful persons. It is only the ignorant who do not take to such an excellent refuge, the bodhicitta ¹. The Mahāyāna texts are replete with references to the excellences of the bodhicitta, a topic with which the early Hinayānists had no concern. By bodhicitta the Mahāyānists mean the forming of a resolution to attain bodhi and save every being of the world from misery by leading him to Nirvāṇa or Bodhi.

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¹ Bodhic., pp. 20.

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Though originally the development of bodhicitta was regarded as a matter of long practice and the outcome of qualities that one could possess rarely, it became later a matter of ceremony, and the persons seeking bodhicitta went through some formalities, an idea of which is given in the works of Śāntideva. The formalities are:—

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(i) Vandanā and Pūjana (worshipping) of Buddhas and Caityas ²;

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² According to the Śikṣā., p. 290, Vandanā is included in Pāpadeśanā (Vandanā pāpadeśanāyām antar bhavati).

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(ii) Śaraṇagamana (taking refuge) and Pāpadeśanā (confession) ³;

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³ Śikṣā., p. 290 says that in the Akṣayamatisūtra, ātmaparapāpadeśanā is included in puṇyasambhāra.

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(iii) Puṇyānumodanā (expressions of sincere approval of others' good deeds) ⁴;

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⁴ Bodhic., pp. 74-6; Śikṣā., pp. 291, 313; see Aṣṭa., pp. 135, 142, 149 for anumodanā and pariṇāmanā.

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(iv) Buddhādhyeṣaṇā or Yācanā (entreating Buddhas to be the guides of all beings, ignorant as they are ⁵; and

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⁵ Śikṣā., p. 290 : yācanam adhyeṣaṇāyām ekārthatvāt; also p. 315.

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(v) Bodhipariṇāmanā (offering up one's merits for bodhi) ⁶.

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⁶ These formalities are collectively called Triskandha. See Śikṣā., p. 290 and also pp. 13, 291 ff.; Bodhic., pp. 73, 152, 154.

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I. Vandanā or Pūjana is effected by mentally dedicating all things of the world including his own self ⁷ to Buddhas with their disciples, and the promise of repenting for past sins and refraining from committing any further evil deeds. The Pūjā¹ (worship) is to be performed by bathing the Tathāgatas and Bodhisattvas, *viz.*, Samantabhadra, Ajita, Mañjughoṣa, etc., in a magnificent bathroom (snānagṛha) with scents, unguents, flowers, incense, etc., accompanied by music. This is to be followed by the offering of robes, bowls, food and other requisites. Having thus finished the Snānapūjā, Malyapūjā and so forth², one is to perform the Dīpapūjā (illumination). Then commences the Dharmapūjā, which consists in decorating or making offerings to the caityas and images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. This is followed by Stutipūjā³ (chanting hymns in praise of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas) and Praṇāmapūjā (uttering the formulæ of salutation) addressed to Buddha Dharma, Saṅgha and Tathāgatastūpa⁴. The Śikṣāsamuccaya devotes three chapters⁵ to the description of the results obtained by worshipping a stūpa⁶, or repairing a dilapidated stūpa, by drawing a picture or making an image of Buddha, by praising a Buddha and persuading others to do the same⁷, but it gives first place to the three great pūjās, *viz.*, (i) development of bodhicitta, (ii) practising the religion, and (iii) having a compassionate heart towards all beings.

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⁷ Bodhic., p. 48: dadāmi cātmānam aham jinebhyaḥ, sarveṇa sarvam tad ātmajebhyaḥ.

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¹ Śikṣā., p. 290 does not detail the Pūjā and dismisses it simply by saying ‘tatra vandanā sarvabuddhān namasyāmīti.’

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² Cf. Śikṣā., p. 290.

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³ For an instance of stuti, see Śikṣā., pp. 318ff.

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⁴ Bodhic., pp. 44-57.

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⁵ Śikṣā., chs. xvii, xviii, xix.

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⁶ It may be observed in this connection that the Bodhic. attaches more importance to reverence shown to Bodhisattvas than to the worship of Caityas, the argument put forward being that Caityas depend for their origin on Buddhas, who issue from Bodhisattvas. For a discussion of the topic that Buddhas issue from Bodhisattvas, see M. Ava. (Le Muséon, Vol. VIII).

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⁷ Śikṣā., pp. 309, 311, 313.

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The mental pūjās were all converted into rituals, and ended in the ceremonious worship of the images and caityas of various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The underlying object of these Pūjās is, of course, to develop Śraddhā (reverential faith) in one's mind for Buddha, his Dharma and his followers. Be it Hinayāna or Mahāyāna, Śraddhā is at the basis of all practices⁸. In the Nikāyas, one of the stock passages is that a disciple must have firm faith (aveccapasādena samannāgto bhavati) in Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha¹. Perfection in the practice of Śraddhendriya is laid down in the Hinayāna works, as one of the conditions which a candidate for Arhathood must fulfil. The Śikṣāsamuccaya quotes sūtra after sūtra to establish the necessity of ‘śraddhādīnaṃ sadābhyāsaḥ’ (i.e. faith, etc., should be constantly practised)². From the Akṣayamatisūtra it cites the definition of Śraddhendriya which runs as follows: One can be said to have Śraddhendriya if he believes that (a) there is a right view (samyagdrṣṭi) for men of the world; (b) one enjoys the fruits of his actions; (c) there is merit in performing the duties of a bodhisattva; (d) things in reality are devoid of any essence (śūnya) and therefore are non-existent. The first two of these debar him from committing any evils for the sake of livelihood, the third from developing a desire for any practice other than Mahāyānic, and the fourth from following any doctrine other than Mahāyānic³. Śraddhā comprises the three anusmṛtis (i.e. constantly thinking of the excellent qualities) of Buddha⁴, Dharma⁵ and Saṅgha⁶, the Hinayānists adding to these the three others, viz., cāga (gifts), sila (precepts) and deva (gods)⁷. In short, faith (Śraddhā and Prasāda) in Buddha, Dharma and Saṅgha is the first essential to be fulfilled by a person aspiring for Buddhahood or Arhathood.

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⁸ Bodhic., p. 87; Śikṣā., p. 2.

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¹ For passages in the Nikāyas emphasising Śraddhā, see, e.g., Aṅguttara, I, p. 207; III, p. 153; Majjhima, I, p. 320; Theragāthā, 507, 1253-4.

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² Śikṣā., p. 316.

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³ Ibid., p. 316.

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⁴ Ibid., pp. 318 ff.

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⁵ Ibid., pp. 322 ff.

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⁶ Ibid., pp. 324 ff.

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⁷ Dīgha, III, p. 250.

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II. After acquiring firm faith, an adept is to take refuge (Śaraṇagamana) by uttering the formulæ of Triśaraṇa⁸ and confessing (Pāpadeśanā) his past sins. The Pāpadeśanā consists in the candidate’s formal confession of all his sins, bodily, mental or verbal, actually committed or approved by him in his previous lives and in the present one, through ignorance or delusion, and in repentance of same, being convinced of the fact that akuśalakarmas lead a being to hell⁹. He is frightened by the prospect of hellish sufferings, and in despair, takes refuge in the three Ratnas and the Bodhisattvas, *viz.*, Samantabhadra, Mañjughoṣa, Avalokita, Ākāśagarbha, Kṣitigarbha and Vajrapāṇi.¹ He absolves himself from his sins by this Śaraṇagamana² and Confession.

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⁸ Bodhic., pp. 58, 65; p. 66 adds the taking of refuge in Bodhisattvas.

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⁹ Ibid., pp. 59, 72; cf. Svayambhūpurāṇa, p. 116. For the formulæ of Śaraṇagamana and Pāpadeśanā, see Śikṣā., pp. 169, 170.

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¹ *Bodhic.*, pp. 66, 67.

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² *Ibid.*, p. 67.

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III. Puṇyānumodanā follows Pāpadeśanā. It consists in the expression of sincere joy by words, mind, or body³ on seeing beings who after suffering hellish pains enjoy happiness through their good actions, or on seeing people developing citta for Śrāvakabodhi or Pratyekabodhi, or on seeing the great beings, the self-finders of the path,⁴ continuing to be bodhisattvas or becoming Buddhas and exerting themselves for the welfare of beings.⁵

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³ *E.g.*, Romaharṣa, aśrupāta, gātrakampana. *Ibid.*, p. 74.

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⁴ Tāyinām=svādhigatamārgadeśakānām, or Tāyaḥ=samtānārthaḥ. Asamsāram apratiṣṭhitanirvāṇayāvasthāyinām. *Ibid.*

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⁵ *Bodhic.*, p. 76; *Śikṣā.*, p. 315.

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IV, V. After Puṇyānumodanā, the adept is to perform Adhyeṣaṇā⁶ or Yācanā, *i.e.*, to entreat Buddhas not to attain parinirvāṇa but to be the light (of knowledge = dharmapradīpa) to the innumerable beings, who cannot distinguish between the right and the wrong ways on account of their ignorance.⁷ This is followed by Pariṇāmanā, when he offers all his merits for the good of all beings and for obtaining the powers and privileges of a Buddha and thus be able to satisfy all beings by meeting the individual needs of each one, no matter whether the need be worldly happiness or salvation.⁸

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⁶ For Adhyeṣaṇāmantra, see *Śikṣā.*, p. 65.

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⁷ This Adhyeṣaṇā or Yācanā is to be found in many Mahāyāna works, see, *e.g.*, *Lal. Vis.*, Ch. xiii: Samcodanāparivartaḥ; *Śikṣā.*, p. 292.

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⁸ *Bodhic.*, pp. 77, 78; *Śikṣā.*, pp. 296, 315, 348, 356.

Bodhisattva-Caryā

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The *Bodhicaryāvatāra* then points out that a patient cannot derive the full benefit of a medicine, however good it may be, if he does not follow the directions of the physician. So also an adept cannot attain bodhi by simply developing bodhicitta and not practising the Bodhisattvasaṃvaras or Śikṣās as laid down by the Teacher.¹ It however asks the readers to consult the Śikṣāsamuccaya for details² and gives briefly the definition of Āpatti. It says that a bodhisattva would be guilty of an offence (āpatti) if for relieving beings from pain, present or future, and for producing joys and comforts for them for the present or the future, he does not strive sincerely by his body, word, or thought, to procure the things needed, remedy the obstacles, suffer pain or loss to avert the pain and loss to others, and utilise the opportune moment. It will be anāpatti (non-offence) if a bodhisattva’s efforts be fruitless in matters beyond his power. The āpatti, of which he may be guilty for not properly exerting in a matter really beyond his power, can be remedied by confession.³

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¹ Bodhic., pp. 91ff.; also p. 87.

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² See infra, p. 320.

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³ Bodhic., pp. 93, 94=Śikṣā., p. 15 (Bodhisattvaśikṣāsarīram). The āpattis and anāpattis are dealt with in the Upāliparipṛcchā. See Bodhic., pp. 139, 153.

Pāramitās

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The most essential and primary caryā of a bodhisattva is the completion of the six pāramitās. The Mahāyāna texts enter into the minutest details about the duties of a Bodhisattva for completing each pāramitā in the right way⁴. We shall quote here only one passage from the Śikṣāsamuccaya to illustrate what the Mahāyāna texts mean by perfection in a pāramitā :—

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⁴ There are many directions for the pariśuddhi of pāramitās.

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(i) Yaḥ kāyasyotsargaḥ kāyaparityāgaḥ kāyānapekṣā iyam asya dānapāramitā (It is bodhisattva’s perfection in gift when he offers, gives up, or remains indifferent to his body);

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(ii) Yat kāye chidyamāne sarvasattvān maitryā spharati vedanābhiś ca na saṃhriyate iyam asya śīlapāramitā (It is his perfection in precepts when he irradiates love towards all beings, and does not contract himself in pain even when his body is dismembered);

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(iii) Yat kāye chidyamāne ya evāsya kāyaṃ chindati teṣāṃ eva pramokṣārtham kṣamate na ca cittena kṣaṇyate kṣāntibalam copadarśayatīyam asya kṣāntipāramitā (It is kis perfection in forbearance when his mind does not feel anguish and shows forbearance to persons dismembering his body, and pardons them in order that they may attain emancipation);

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(iv) Yena vīryeṇa taṃ sarvajñatāchandam notsṛjati, cittabalādhīnāṃ ca pratigṛhṇāti, saṃsāram eva cānubadhnāti, kuśalamūlārambham eva cārabhate, iyam asya vīryapāramitā [It is his perfection in strength that he does not give up his aspiration to attain omniscience and holds fast to it by force of thought, that he follows the course of the world (without attaining Nirvāṇa which he could) and continues collecting merits];

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(v) Yat kāye vikīryamāṇe tat sarvajñatācittotpādaratnaṃ kartuṃ na sammuhyati bodhim evāpekṣate śāntapraśāntam eva pratyavekṣate iyam asya dhyānapāramitā (It is his perfection in meditation that when his body is cut in pieces he does not feel any doubt about the jewel of omniscience and aspires to bodhi calmly and sedately);

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(vi) Yat kāye chidyamāne kāyasya tṛṇakāṣṭhakuḍyavat pratibhāsopamatāṃ pratyavekṣate māyādharmatāṃ ca kāyasyāvatarati, bhūtānityatāṃ bhūtaduḥkhatāṃ ca bhūtānātmatāṃ ca kāyasyopanidhyāyati, iyam asya prajñāpāramitā (It is his perfection in wisdom that when his body is dismembered he regards it as grass, wood, or wall, or as an image or illusion, and thinks of its real transitoriness, unhappiness, essencelessness and unruffledness)¹.

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¹ Śikṣā., p. 187; Transl., p. 182.

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It is difficult to say how far these ideas were put into practice, but at any rate, it is apparent from the avadānas that they cherished these ideas fervently. In regard to the practice of the pāramitās, no distinction was made between a layman and a monk except in matters of ordinary gifts².

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² See e.g., Śikṣā., p. 144; a monk's dāna should be ekā catuṣpadikā gāthā=Bodhic., pp. 143, 144.

Karuṇā and Maitrī

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An important difference between the Hinayānists and the Mahāyānists in regard to the disciplinary rules consists in the great stress laid by the latter upon Karuṇā (compassion) and Maitrī (love). It should not be supposed that the Hinayānists were totally without them, but they did not emphasise them as much as the Mahāyānists did. These are included in the brahmavihāras, and the Hinayānic monks are enjoined to practise them among various forms of meditation.¹ In the Nikāyas we often come across the following passage in connection with the Brahmavihāras: so mettāsahagatena cetasā ekam disaṃ pharitvā viharati. Tathā dutiyaṃ etc. sabbāvantam lokaṃ mettāsahagatena cetasā vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena avyāpajjhena pharitvā viharati² (a bhikkhu dwells with his mind full of love towards all beings of all quarters, the love-filled mind being large, profound, immeasurable and free from enmity and hatred). The Visuddhimagga dilates on this passage and explains by quotations from the Vibhaṅga and the Paṭisambhidāmagga that a person is said to practise the mettā-brahmavihāra when he can love all beings of the world as he loves a particular person (e.g., his son). The bhikkhus are expected to develop the feelings of amity (mettā), compassion (karuṇā), joy (muditā) and indifference (upekkhā) towards all beings and wish for their happiness. The Hinayānists deem it sufficient if the bhikkhus can develop that state of mind, though remaining physically inactive and dwelling in a monastery or forest. But the Mahāyānists look upon karuṇā and maitrī in quite a different light. The Śikṣāsamuccaya brings out its importance as a producer of Buddha by the simile of the growth of the fœtus in the womb. It says that bodhicitta is the kalala (embryo), kṛpā or karuṇā the arbuda (the 2nd pre-natal stage), maitrī the peśī (the 3rd pre-natal stage), āśaya the ghana (the 4th pre-natal stage). These, developed by bodhi-aṅga, form the Buddha-garbha (mature Buddha-womb³). In short, the Mahāyānists insist that mahākaruṇā should be the keynote of all bodhisattva practices¹. Śāntideva points out in the first kārikā of his work

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¹ These are included in the 40 kammaṭṭhānas, see Vis. M., p. 110. In the Prajñāpāramitās also, these four brahmavihāras are treated as forms of meditation.

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² Dīgha, III, pp. 223-4; Sum. Vil., pp. 115ff.; Vis. M., p. 111; see Mrs. Rhys Davids' paper "Divine States of Consciousness".

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³ Śikṣā., p. 103.

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¹ Śikṣā., p. 117: yat kiñcid Bhagavan bodhisattvānāṃ kāyakarma yat kiñcit vākkarma yat kiñcit manaskarma tat sarvam sattvāvekṣitam pravartate mahākaruṇādhipateyam.

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yadā mama pareṣāṃ ca bhayaṃ duḥkhaṃ ca na priyaṃ,
tadātmanaḥ ko viśeṣo yat taṃ rakṣāmi netaram.

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(When fear and pain are disliked by myself as well as others, why should I distinguish myself from others that I should seek protection for myself and not for others.) It is mahākaruṇā, *i.e.*, consideration for others' good that pervades the whole conception of bodhisattva practices². This has, we must admit, relaxed to a large extent the rigidity of disciplinary rules, a thing which would never be allowed by the Hinayānists. Maitrī is, in fact, a corollary to Karuṇā; it means that a bodhisattva must love all beings as he would love his own son³. Though the two expressions are very often mentioned together, it is mahākaruṇā that greatly appealed to the minds of the Mahāyānists. At any rate, we cannot but appreciate this ideal of the Mahāyānists, if we take into consideration their philosophy of Samatā (equality), for the proper exercises of mahākaruṇā and mahāmaitrī can really be effective in making the average mind develop gradually the thought of samatā (equality or sameness).

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² Śikṣā., p. 286: Mahākaruṇayā bhagavan bodhisattvānāṃ sarvabuddhadharmāḥ karatalagatā bhavanti.

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³ Śikṣā., p. 19.

Mahāyānists Observe Śikṣā-Saṁvaras

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Notwithstanding their idealistic philosophy the Mahāyānists did not underestimate the value of the rules of conduct as formulated by the Hinayānists. It was regarded as a mūlāpatti (grave offence) if a bodhisattva dissuaded a person from the observance of the Prātimokṣa rules and asked him to read Mahāyāna sūtras⁴, and by mistake if one believed that purity could be attained by reading the Mahāyāna texts without observing the rules of discipline⁵. But again it is sometimes said that the aspiration for Tathatā or Śūnyatā or Sarvajñatā absolves one from all sins¹, and hence the observance of samudācāras is not essential. The significance of such a statement is that a person, who is striving to realise Śūnyatā or Tathatā, endeavours to raise his mind to the height where he cannot find any distinction between positive and negative, between offence and non-offence, vinaya (rules) and avinaya (absence of rules), saṅkleśa (impurities) and vyavadāna (purification). He endeavours to go beyond the realm of vikalpa or saṃvṛti, under which fall the disciplinary rules, whence it appears to him that there is no such thing as samudācāra (rules of conduct); and he can therefore be regarded as free from karmāvaraṇa (obstacles due to action²). But this aspiration for śūnyatā³ cannot be had without going through a certain amount of samudācāra for it is often said that they who say that bodhi can be attained by one means (ekanayena) and that means is śūnyatā are foolish. Thus we see that the Mahāyānists felt the need of samudācāra or śikṣāsaṃvara as much as the Hinayānists, and for this, they drew upon the stock of disciplinary rules of the Hinayānists as also upon the common heritage of the Indian religious orders.

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⁴ Bodhic., pp. 147-8=Śikṣā., p. 61.

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⁵ Bodhic., pp. 146, 147.

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¹ Śikṣā., pp. 165, 171-2, 178.

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² Śikṣā., p. 172; for details of Karmāvaraṇa, see Śikṣā., pp. 90, 98, 99. Cf. Patañjali-yogasūtra, iv. 31.

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³ Śikṣā., p. 97: Buddha after saying that he had practised the pāramitās for countless years said, "tat te mohapuruṣa evam vakṣyanti ekanayenaiva bodhir yaduta śūnyatānayene ti"; p. 117: "kā punar iyam sarvākāravaropetā śūnyatā? yeyam bodhisattvacaryāyā aparityāgenābhyāsyamānā abhyastā vā sarvabhāvaśūnyatā"; see also p. 272.

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We have seen that as far as the development of bodhicitta and the practice of the pāramitās, and maitrī and karuṇā, are concerned, no distinction is made between a gṛhī bodhisattva and a pravrajita bodhisattva except in regard to a few directions that are necessary for gṛhī bodhisattvas for performing the duties of a bodhisattva compatible with family life. Though the Mahāyānists approved of the family life of a bodhisattva, they do not, in fact, believe that it is possible for a gṛhī bodhisattva to attain bodhi by continuing to be a householder. The life of Gautama Buddha, always the ideal of the Mahāyānists in regard to the career of a bodhisattva, shows that at the end, a bodhisattva must retire from the household life in order to attain bodhi. In the description of bhūmis, the Daśabhūmikasūtra also points out that a bodhisattva in the fifth or sixth bhūmi seeks ordination and retires from the world. Evidently, they recognise that the bodhisattvas should, at a certain time, lead the life of a monk and abide by the rules of Vinaya.

Mahāyānic Ordination

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The Kriyāsaṅgrahapañjikā¹, though a later work, furnishes us with an account of the procedure of ordination that prevailed among the Mahāyānists. It follows the procedure of the Hinayānists so closely that it seems that the ceremony of ordination remained almost the same among both the Hinayānists and the Mahāyānists. It runs as follows:—

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¹ A.S.B. ms., leaf 160a; see H. P. Śāstrī's Cata. of Sans. Mss., vol. 1, pp. 123-6.

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The Pravrajyā and Upasampadā are to be effected by an Ācārya and Upādhyāya. If any body seeks pravrajyā, he should be first asked about the restrictions (antarāyikān dharmān)² and then he is to take triśaraṇa, five śikṣāpadas, and the upāsakasaṃvaras (the disciplines that a layman can undertake, viz., the 8 śīlas) by uttering thrice the usual Hinayāna formulæ. Then for ordination he formally entreats the Ācārya and Upādhyāya who consent to ordain him. His head is shaved and he is told that he is now different from a gṛhī, and is asked whether he is willing to continue to be so. On his answering in the affirmative, he is bathed in the waters of the four oceans³ and clad in yellow robes, and is asked to utter thrice that he, so-and-so, gives up for his whole life the dress of a householder and adopts that of a monk.

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² I.e. some diseases, permission of parents, etc. See Pāli Kammavācam.

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³ Evidently a Tāntric addition.

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He is now given a new name according to the nikāya (school) and with this name he again takes triśaraṇa and the ten śikṣāpadas. He holds a bowl and a robe (pātra-cīvara) and then entreats the Saṅgha to permit him to seek so-and-so as Ācārya and so-and-so as Upādhyāya, and promises to make proper use of the bowl and the robe by uttering mantras. The wordings of the *Pañjikā* are slightly different from those of the *Kammavācam* but the form and order of procedure are the same.

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DISCIPLINARY RULES COMPILED FROM THE *Śikṣāsamuccaya*:

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As the object of the *Śikṣāsamuccaya* is a general treatment of the duties of a Bodhisattva, it does not present us with a systematic disciplinary code for the monks, but in some places it gives a few rules, which must have been taken from a code followed by the Mahāyānists. It says that the duties of a bodhisattva towards others or his duties on the occasion of hearing or preaching the dharma or performing the worship of the Tathāgatas¹ are prescribed in the *Bodhisattva-prātimokṣa*.

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¹ *Śikṣā*., p. 55.

(A) Kalyāṇamitra

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(i) Bodhisattvas should have kalyāṇamitras (spiritual advisers). In the Mahāyāna texts, the kalyāṇamitra plays an important rôle. In the *Prajñāpāramitās* it signifies any person, layman, or monk, who teaches the bodhisattvas that things are transitory, and non-existent in the highest sense, advises them to perform the kuśalamūlas (good deeds), and tries to create in them an interest for Sarvajñatā (omniscience) through Mahāyāna, avoiding Hīnayāna. Those who advised the bodhisattvas to study the Aṅgas (scriptures) and to practise the various dhyānas, apramāṇas, ārūpya-samāpattis and so forth, or in other words, the practices of the Hīnayānists, and dissuaded them from practising the pāramitās and studying the sūtrāntas, should be regarded as pāpamitras (evil friends²). It is enjoined upon a bodhisattva never to forsake a kalyāṇamitra even at the cost of his life, because the duties to be followed by him are all explained in the sūtrāntas which can be learnt only from a kalyāṇamitra³. A kalyāṇamitra, according to the *Bodhicaryā-* vatāra¹, is one who is well versed in the bodhisattvasaṃvara (discipline) and thoroughly knows the Mahāyāna. One should reverently attend upon him for the sake of detailed knowledge (parijñāna)². A kalyāṇamitra protects a bodhisattva from falling into evil courses (durgati), doing improper deeds, frequenting pleasure resorts and so forth. He also brings him out of the worldly life³. The bodhisattvas in their turn should approach the kalyāṇamitra with a firm and tranquil mind, ready to obey him and carry out his wishes, however difficult they may be, just as a dutiful son would do to his father and a patient to his physician, taking his instructions as medicines, and the consequent attainments as the cure of diseases⁴. The Śikṣāsamuccaya also quotes many texts about the duties of a kalyāṇamitra and his disciple⁵. According to it, a person, who teaches even a gāthā of four pādas, is a kalyāṇamitra⁶; hence a dharmabhāṇaka is a kalyāṇamitra. Thus we see that a kalyāṇamitra is a very wide term and includes both Ācārya and Upādhyāya. Though we do not come across the actual rules observed by the kalyāṇamitra and his antevāsika (disciple) as we get in the Vinaya of the Hinayānists, we may infer from the above description of the duties of a kalyāṇamitra and his disciple that the texts have in view the Hinayānic rules of conduct. The term is also found in use in the later Pāli texts. In the Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa uses it in the sense of both Ācariya and Upajjhāya, and even calls Buddha a sabbākārasampanno kalyāṇamitta, (a perfect friend or spiritual adviser⁷). He also points out that kalyāṇamitta is a kammaṭṭhanadāyaka (prescriber of the basis of meditation), which is really the function of an Ācariya.⁸

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² *Śata*., pp. 937-1041, 1185, 1190; *Pañca*. (ASB. Ms.), leaf 216a.

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³ *Śikṣā*., p. 41.

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¹ Bodhic., p. 157.

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² Bodhic., p. 157.

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³ Ibid., p. 157; Śikṣā., p. 35: niṣkāsayitāraḥ saṃsārapurāt. This is similar to the function of an Ācariya.

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⁴ Bodhic., p. 158.

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⁵ See e.g. Śikṣā., pp. 34-6.

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⁶ Ibid., p. 37.

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