Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Early Monastic Buddhism v2.c38: Chapter XII: Place of Laity in Early Buddhism

Early Monastic Buddhism v2.c38

Language
English

Contents

Chapter XII: Place of Laity in Early Buddhism

v2.c38.2

The principles of early Buddhism did not make any special provision for the laity.¹ Its mission was to persuade householders to embrace the life of a recluse,² and Buddha was so successful in his mission in Magadha that people of the country raised a hue and cry over it, saying that Samaṇa Gotama was bent upon making the families sonless, women widowed and line of succession discontinued.³ Many householders retired from the worldly life because of the teaching that the life of a householder was impure and an obstruction to spiritual progress while that of a recluse was pure, open and free, and besides it was not easy for a person living a householder's life to follow the teachings propounded by the teacher and to lead the thoroughly pure life of a *brahmacārī*.⁴ Thus, it is evident that the new religion was primarily meant for those who would retire from the household life. For householders generally some rites or ceremonies are provided, or some form of worship is recommended, by the founder of a religion but there was nothing of the kind in Buddhism. On the other hand the householders were asked to eschew rites and ceremonies (*sīlabbata*)¹ and this was made one of the primary conditions for becoming a devotee of Buddha.

v2.c38.3

¹ See "*Early Buddhism and Laity*" in *Studies in Indian History and Culture* by Dr. N. N. Law. See above pp. 89, 97 for stray references to the laity.

v2.c38.4

² *Vinaya*, i. p. 37: caratha brahmacariyam sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāya ti.

v2.c38.5

³ *Vinaya*, i. p. 37: aputtakāya paṭipanno samaṇo Gotamo, vedhavāya paṭipanno samaṇo Gotamo, kulūpacchedāya paṭipanno samaṇo Gotamo.

v2.c38.6

⁴ Cf. *Majjhima*, i. p. 344: Sambādho gharāvāso rajāpatho abbhokāso pabbajjā. nayidaṃ sukaram agāraṃ ajjhāvasatā ekantaparipuṇṇaṃ ekantaparisuddhaṃ saṅkhalikhitaṃ brahmacariyaṃ carituṃ. Cf. *Majjhima*, ii, p. 55: Yathā yathā khvāhaṃ Bhagavatā dhammaṃ desitaṃ ājānāmi nayidaṃ sukaram gharaṃ ajjhāvasatā etc. as above.

v2.c38.7

¹ Sans. *Śila* and *Vrata*.

v2.c38.8

At the same time, it has to be admitted that the Buddhist Sangha must have a lay-community for its very existence, some supporting families from which the members could have the bare necessaries of their life. In ancient India, however, the formation of a lay-community need not be a condition precedent to the formation and growth of a body of recluses. Without any distinction of caste and creed, the householders welcomed every ascetic approaching them for food and dress, and hence the Buddhist monks at first did not experience any difficulty to get their requirements from the existing families. As time went on, they picked up some householders who showed them more veneration and who were more prompt in making offerings to them than others. These householders were designated *upāsakas* or *upāsikās* and received special attention of the Buddhist monks. In the early days of Buddhism, these householders looked after the needs of the monks during the rainy-season retreats (*vassā-vāsa*) and got opportunities to come into frequent contact with them and to listen to their discourses. Such closer contacts led to the institution of certain rites and ceremonies which Buddhism wanted so much to avoid at its inception. The rites and ceremonies observed by these householders were as follows:—

v2.c38.9

(i) To utter the formula of *Tisarana*,
(ii) To listen to religious discourses on *uposatha* days,
(iii) To observe eight *sīlas* occasionally, and
(iv) To offer robes to the monks on certain occasions, specially at the end of the rainy season retreat.

v2.c38.10

Later on, the faithful persons were advised,
(v) to visit the four places of pilgrimage,¹ and,
(vi) to worship the *stūpas*, particularly those containing the relics of Buddha.²

v2.c38.11

¹ *Mahāparinibbānasutta*, p. 141. ² *Ibid.*, p. 142. ³ *Vinaya*, i. p. 4. i.e. they took refuge in Buddha and Dhamma only, as the Saṅgha had not yet been formed. ⁴ *Ibid.* p. 17. ⁵ See *infra*, pp. 210-213.

v2.c38.12

The six rites mentioned above, it should be noted, came into vogue gradually. We are told that Tapussa and Bhallika were the first to become *upāsakas* (*dvevācika*³) while Yasa's father became the third *upāsaka* with *Tisarana* (*tevācika*).⁴ Henceforward several Khattiyas, Brāhmaṇas and Gahapatis⁵ became *upāsakas* by uttering these words:—

v2.c38.13

"Abhikkantam bho Gotama, abhikkantam bho Gotama. Seyyathā pi bho Gotama nikkujjitam vā ukkujjeyya, paṭicchan-nam vā vivareyya, mūḷhassa vā maggam ācikkheyya, andhakāre va telapajjotam dhāreyya: cakkhumanto rūpāni dakkhintīti; evam evam bhotā Gotamena anekapariyāyena dhammo pakāsito. Ete mayam bhavantam Gotamam saraṇam gacchāma dhammañ ca bhikkhusaṅghañ ca upāsake no bhavam Gotamo dhāretu ajjatagge pāṇupete saraṇagate ti."

v2.c38.14

(Excellent O Gotama, excellent. Just as one who turns the upturned, opens the covered ones, shows the path to the deluded, holds a lighted lamp in darkness, you have preached the doctrine in such a way that those who possess eyes (of knowledge) can see the actual objects. We seek refuge in you, O Gotama, in your Dhamma and in your Saṅgha. Accept us as your life-long lay devotees).

v2.c38.15

The extract cited above appears *verbatim* at the end of almost every discourse addressed to a householder or a group of householders. It should not however be taken as indicative of a person's actually changing his creed and becoming an upāsaka. Several brāhmaṇas and gahapatis expressed their appreciation of the discourses by these set words, and did not care to follow up the declaration by observing the moral precepts and performing the duties specially prescribed for the Upāsakas and Upāsikās.

The Three Parisās

v2.c38.s1.1

This class of devout listeners to Buddha's discourses is referred to in the Nikāyas as Khattiya-parisā, Brāhmaṇa-parisā and Gahapati-parisā.¹ There are occasional references to the four castes² as well but the more common way of referring to this class of people was by the above-mentioned three parisās (assemblies).³ In some passages the word 'parisā' is replaced by ‘mahāsāla’ (nobles or rich men)¹ Not unoften is the word ‘paṇḍitā’ (wise men) used instead of ‘parisā’.² The juxtaposition of the word ‘gahapati’ to ‘khattiya’ and ‘brāhmaṇa’ suggests that it meant usually the seṭṭhis (bankers) or businessmen or men who have taken to some vocations, such as agriculture, carpentry, smithy and so forth.³

v2.c38.s1.2

¹ *Majjhima*, i, p. 72: Abhijānāmi kho panāhaṃ Sāriputta, anekasataṃ khattiya-parisaṃ upasaṅkamitā, tatra pi mayā sannisinnapubbaṃ c'eva sallapitapubbaṃ ca sākacchā ca samapajjitapubbā.

v2.c38.s1.3

² *Aṅguttara*, iv, p. 259: Sabbe khattiyā aṭṭhaṅgasamannāgataṃ uposathaṃ upavaseyyuṃ sabbe pi brāhmaṇā...sabbe pi vessā...sabbe pi suddā aṭṭhaṅgasamannāgataṃ uposathaṃ upavaseyyuṃ.

v2.c38.s1.4

³ The other parisās are Samaṇa-parisā, Cātummahārājika-parisā,

v2.c38.s1.5

¹ *Samyutta*, i, p. 71. Khattiyamahāsālā and Brāhmaṇa-mahāsālā have ample gold and silver and other treasures. *Aṅguttara*, iv, pp. 104, 130, 239. *Digha*, iii p. 146

v2.c38.s1.6

² *Khattiya-paṇḍitā* etc. *Samyutta*, iii, p. 6; *Majjhima*, i, p. 176; *Aṅguttara*, iv, pp. 104, 130, 239.

v2.c38.s1.7

³ Cf. Kassakagahapati in *Aṅguttara*, i, p. 229.

v2.c38.s1.8

In the *Aṅguttara-nikāya* the distinctive features of the three parisās are pointed out thus: All the three classes of men seek wordly enjoyment (*bhogādhippāya*) and try to acquire knowledge (*paññupavicāra*). The Khattiyas rely on their prowess (*balādhiṭṭhānā*), is bent upon acquiring lands (*paṭhavībhinivesā*) and aim at dominance (*issariyapariyosānā*), the Brāhmaṇas depend on hymns and chants (*mantādhiṭṭhānā*), is attached to sacrifices (*yaññābhinivesā*) and aim at reaching Brahmaloka, while the Gahapatis depend on arts and crafts (*sippādhiṭṭhānā*), remains engaged with their works (*kammantābhinivesā*) and aim at fruition of their works (*niṭṭhita kammantapariyosānā*).

Aims and objects of Gahapatis

v2.c38.s2.1

Of these three parisās, the largest number of devotees of Buddha came from the Gahapati parisā, few from Brāhmaṇa and

v2.c38.s2.2

Tāvatiṃsa-p., Māra-p., Brahma-p. See *Majjhima*, i, p. 72; *Digha*, ii, p. 109; *Samyutta*, v, p. 51.

v2.c38.s2.3

⁴ *Aṅguttara*, iii, p. 363.

v2.c38.s2.4

a very few from the Khattiya. About the characteristics of the Gahapatis, the Nikāyas say that they were keen about accumulation of gold, crops, buildings, lands, wife, male and female servants.¹ Their happiness consisted in possessing worldly objects, in enjoyment of the same, and in remaining free from debts and faults.² In short, the Gahapatis enjoyed all worldly pleasures derivable through the five organs of sense.³ Dīghajānu Koḷiyaputta said that the householders sought worldly objects, sons and wife, unguents, garlands and other articles of luxury, gold and silver; he wanted instructions from the Teacher as to the ways and means by which the householders could be happy in this life and the next. The reply was that the householders should be energetic in his vocation (uṭṭhānasampadā), take good care of the wealth earned righteously by the sweat of his brow (ārakkhasampadā), associate with men having faith, good morals, charitable disposition and wisdom (kalyāṇamittatā), and try to acquire their good qualities⁴ and be like them (samajīvitā). Tapussa gahapati⁵ was frank enough to admit that the gahapatis were afraid of retirement, and given to worldly pleasures because they had not realised the evil consequences of attachment to worldly objects. Potaliya gahapati⁶ thought that as he had retired from his works (kammanta) and business (vohāra), leaving his possessions to his sons, and as he had been living on bare requirements of food and dress, he should not be called a gahapati, but Buddha would not listen to him as he had not yet fulfilled the elementary conditions of a retired life. Though the householders remained engrossed in their worldly possessions, some of them were religious minded and approached different religious teachers for instructions. The Brāhmaṇas and Gahapatis of the village Sālā¹ said that they had listened to the teachings of different teachers and had not yet made up their mind to accept any of them as their spiritual guide. They approached Buddha and his disciples and listened to their instructions now and then, and some of them avowed themselves as upāsakas of Buddha, but not necessarily complying with all the conditions to be fulfilled by an upāsaka.

v2.c38.s2.5

¹ Majjhima, i, p 452.

v2.c38.s2.6

² Aṅguttara, ii, p. 69: atthisukha, bhogasukha, anaṇasukha and anavajja-sukha.

v2.c38.s2.7

³ Majjhima, i, p. 505.

v2.c38.s2.8

⁴ Aṅguttara, i, p. 281-2; iii, p. 45.

v2.c38.s2.9

⁵ Aṅguttara, iv, p. 438.

v2.c38.s2.10

⁶ Majjhima, ii, p. 359

v2.c38.s2.11

¹ Majjhima, i, p. 401.

Discourses to Gahapatis

v2.c38.s3.1

In every Nikāya, excepting the Dīgha, there is a Gahapativagga,² in which Buddha administered instructions to a particular gahapati or delivered discourses for the benefit of gahapatis in general. There are also discourses dealing incidentally with the general rules of morality, effects of karma, ideals of a householder and his wife, and the fundamental principles of Buddhism. The Gahapativaggas are found to contain discussions on all aspects of Buddhist ethics and philosophy. There were also many learned Brāhmaṇas, Khattiyas and Gahapatis who took part in abstruse discussions with Buddha and his disciples. In the Gahapativagga of the Majjhima Nikāya,³ there are ten suttas. In the Kandarakasutta, Pessa Hatthārohaputta spoke in appreciation of the four satipaṭṭhānas and said that he and other householders occasionally tried these four practices.¹ He was then told about the various ascetic practices prevalent in the country, and the superiority of the practices and acquisitions of Buddhist monks. To Dasama Gahapati was explained how a monk attained the anāgāmi and arahatta stages, and practised the four brahmavihāras and arūpasamāpattis.² The Sakkas of Kapilavatthu, specially Mahānāma, listened to a discourse on what made a sekha (i.e. a monk progressing towards Nibbāna). Potaliya gahapati felt offended at being called a gahapati in his so-called retired life and he was made to understand how one ceased to be a householder according to Buddha's law (ariyassa vinaye). Jīvaka could not believe that Buddha was taking meat specially prepared for him and on enquiry he was told how could the Buddha, perfect in the four brahmavihāras, do so. In the Upālisutta, one of the longest discourses, the teachings of Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta were discussed, and Upāli gahapati, a distinguished disciple of Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta, was convinced of the superiority of Buddhist teachings, and was won over to the Buddhist faith. Puṇṇa Koliyaputta and Acela Seniya listened to a discourse on the effects of kamma,³ gave up their austerities and joined the Buddhist order. Abhayarājakumāra, a lay disciple of Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta, wanted to cross words with Buddha at the instigation of his teacher but ultimately succumbed to Buddha's arguments. Pañcakaṅga thapati would not recongnise the adukkhamasukhavedanā as the third vedanā, the two other being sukha and dukkha. Buddha explained that sukha was a relative term and then gave an exposition of the stages of sukha through which a monk passed in order to reach the highest state of mental concentration. In the last sutta of this Gahapativagga is given an exposition of the views of a few heretical teachers as well as the wrong views held about Arūpa-brahmaloka and Nibbāna; at the end of this discourse all the Brāhmaṇas and Gahapatis of the village Sālā expressed their desire to become devotees of Buddha.¹

v2.c38.s3.2

² Majjhima, i, pp. 339-413; Saṃyutta, ii, pp. 68-80; iv, pp. 109-124; Aṅguttara, iv, pp. 208-235.

v2.c38.s3.3

³ Majjhima, i, pp. 339-413.

v2.c38.s3.4

¹ Majjhima. p 340 Mayam pi hi bhante gihi odātavasanā kālena kālam imesu catusu satipaṭṭhānesu supatitthitacittā viharāma.

v2.c38.s3.5

² Ibid., 1. pp 350-353.

v2.c38.s3.6

³ Ibid., i. p. 389

v2.c38.s3.7

¹ Majjhima, i, p. 413.

v2.c38.s3.8

There are two Gahapativaggas in the Saṃyutta-nikāya.² In the first, the Gahapatis were admonished to observe the five moral precepts, develop faith in the Triratna, and comprehend the law of causation including the four truths. Incidentally the question of the identity and difference of soul and khandhas is discussed. In the second Gahapativagga, there are discourses on hindrances (saṃyojanas) which kept one away from Nibbāna, on watchfulness over body (kāya satipaṭṭhāna) and its movements, on restraint in act, speech and thought, and on feelings of pain and pleasure derived through the organs of sense. There is a reference to the fall of Brāhmaṇas from their ancient ideal which was similar to the Buddhist ideal of self-restraint.

v2.c38.s3.9

² Saṃyutta, ii, pp 68-80; iv, pp. 109-124

v2.c38.s3.10

As regards the duties of a gahapati it is stated in this Nikāya that a gahapati should (i) maintain his parents; (ii) rever elders of the family, (iii) use gentle words; (iv) avoid malicious talks; (v) discard miserliness; (vi) be open-handed; (vii) be truthful and (viii) never be angry.

v2.c38.s3.11

In the *Gahapativagga* of the *Aṅguttara Nikāya*,¹ the duties of a gahapati are dealt with more than the general principles of Buddhism. The eight special virtues of a gahapati are given as follows:—(i) firm faith in Buddha; (ii) appreciation of the Dhamma; (iii) regard for the Saṅgha; (iv) charitableness even to the extent of giving away one's wife, (v) open-handedness in distributing property among the saints; (vi) keenness to listen to religious discourses, (vii) lack of pride due to spiritual success; and (viii) removal of the five impurities (*orambhāgiyas*). The gahapatis are expected to possess seven other virtues, viz., faith (*saddhā*), moral restraint (*sīla*), modesty (*hiri*), shame (*ottappa*),² learning (*bahussuta*), charitable disposition (*cāga*) and knowledge (*paññā*). Some of the gahapatis practised the four *saṅgaha-vatthus*³ viz., gift, sweet words, beneficial acts and treatment of others as his equals, and thereby obtained a large circle of friends.⁴ Hatthaka of Alavi was the chief of those who practised the *saṅgaha-vatthus*.⁵

v2.c38.s3.12

¹ *Aṅguttara*, iv. pp. 208-235. 2 Cf. *Samyutta*, ii, p. 197. 3 Dāna, peyyavāca, atthacariyā and samānattatā. 4 The last four discourses in this Vagga have nothing to do with the duties of Gahapatis and so they are passed over here. 5 *Aṅguttara*, i. p. 26. 6 *Dīgha*, iii, p. 145. 7 *Ibid*., p. 152.

v2.c38.s3.13

Though there is no *Gahapativagga* in the *Dīgha Nikāya*, there are two *suttas* (*Lakkhaṇa* and *Sigālovāda*) which deal with the duties of a gahapati. In the *Lakkhaṇa-sutta*, the virtues or duties of a gahapati are mentioned though not in a systematic form, e.g., a good man should perform good deeds, restrain himself in body, speech and thought, be charitable, observe *uposathas*, take care of parents, Samaṇas and Brāhmaṇas,⁶ practise the four *saṅgahavatthus*,⁷ exert for others' good, both moral and secular,¹ approach Samaṇas and Brāhmaṇas for instructions,² never harbour any anger or hatred,³ try to bring about concord among quarrelsome persons⁴ and help others in increasing their faith, moral virtues, knowledge, charity, religiosity, wisdom, and secular possessions, look upon others with friendly eyes, never utter an untrue, malicious, harsh or useless word, or never cheat others, and so forth.

v2.c38.s3.14

¹ Digha, III, p. 154.

v2.c38.s3.15

² Ibid., p. 157.

v2.c38.s3.16

³ Ibid., p. 159.

v2.c38.s3.17

⁴ Ibid., p. 160.

v2.c38.s3.18

In the Sigālovādasutta, the following duties are prescribed for a gahapati:—(i) abstinence from killing, speaking falsehood, stealing and adultery; (ii) avoiding commission of offences through strong will (chanda), hatred (dosa), delusion (moha) and fear (bhaya); (iii) refraining from drinking and merry-making, evening shows, dramatic performances, dice-plays, evil friends and idleness; (iv) avoidance of enemies posing as friends and obtaining sincere friends; (v) looking after parents, teachers, sons and wife, friends and advisers, servants and workers, Samaṇas and Brāhmaṇas.⁵

v2.c38.s3.19

⁵ Cf. Saṃyutta, i, p. 231.

Gahapatānī

v2.c38.s4.1

There are not many discourses specially devoted to the duties of the female members of a household. In the Saṃyutta-nikāya⁶ a woman is enjoined to earn merits by good deeds, so that she may be reborn in a good family, be married in a good family, have no co-wife, be blessed with sons, and possess influence over her husband. Her strength, it is said, consisted in her appearance (rūpa), wealth (bhoga), relatives (ñāti), sons (putta) and moral virtues (sīla).⁷ Like the gahapatis, they should also develop faith (saddhā), observe moral precepts (sīla), listen to religious discourses (suta), be charitable (cāga) and acquire knowledge (paññā).¹ They should be quiet, gentle and obedient.²

v2.c38.s4.2

⁶ Ibid., iv, p. 249-250.

v2.c38.s4.3

⁷ Ibid., iv, p. 246.

v2.c38.s4.4

¹ Samyutta, iv, p. 250; Anguttara, iv, p. 270. 2 Majjhima, i, p. 125. 3 Samyutta, iv, p. 240. 4 Samyutta, iv, p.

v2.c38.s4.5

Women³ generally are more miserly (macchariyā), envious (issuki), more strongly attached to worldly objects⁴ than men, their knowledge also is less than that of men.⁵ They must drive away from their minds anger, hatred and disrespect for others,⁶ and be chaste, diligent, modest and bashful. They must not be greedy, wish others' evil, indulge in malicious, harsh or useless talks, and discard wrong views⁷

v2.c38.s4.6

There are certain special directions given to women, which are as follows:—

v2.c38.s4.7

They should (i) be well-wisher of their husbands, cater to their comforts and be sweet and attractive to them, (ii) respect the parents of the husband, and rever the Samaṇas and Brāhmaṇas revered by the husband's family, (iii) be efficient in household work, e.g., in spinning, (iv) look after the needs of the servants and workers of the household and feed them properly, (v) protect paddy, gold and other articles brought by her husband, (vi) become an upāsikā by taking Tisaraṇa, (vii) observe the five precepts, and (viii) be charitable and (ix) acquire knowledge.⁸ The first five bring her success in this life and the succeeding four (i.e. saddhā, sīla, suta and paññā) make her happy in the next.

v2.c38.s4.8

²⁴⁰ It is said that for these deficiencies they were not allowed to sit in the assemblies. 5 Anguttara, ii, p. 203; Kopa, dosa and appaccaya. See also Samyutta, iv, p. 240 f. 6 Anguttara, v, p. 286. 7 Samyutta, iv, p. 246. 8 Anguttara, iv, p. 265-266; iii, p. 37.

v2.c38.s4.9

The conversation that Nakulamātā gahapatānī had with her husband in deathbed shows how spiritually advanced sometimes the gahapatānīs were. Nakulamātā said to her husband that (i) death with anxiety is disapproved by Buddha and so he should not die with any anxiety (*sāpekho*) for her as to how she would meet both ends and rear her sons; she knew spinning and shaving hair (*veṇim olikhitum*) and by plying that trade,¹ she would be able to tide over her difficulties. (ii) He need not apprehend that she would go to another family, for both of them knew that they had been living as *brahmacārīs* for the last 16 years. (iii) He must not think that she would not care to approach Bhagavān or his monks after his death; on the other hand, she would be more eager to approach them, or (iv) that she would not observe the moral precepts; on the contrary she would be no less energetic than the best of the householder-disciples of Buddha. (v) He must not have any doubt that she would not attain mental tranquillity (*cetosamatha*); on the contrary she would be the best of those upāsikās who practised *ceto-samatha*. (vi) He must rest assured that she was deeply interested in this doctrine and was not wanting in deep faith in Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha.²

v2.c38.s4.10

¹ It seems that Nakulapitā was a barber by profession.

v2.c38.s4.11

² Aṅguttara, ii, pp. 295.

v2.c38.s4.12

There were other upāsikās also like Sujātā, Visākhā, Khuj-juttarā, Sāmāvatī, Uttarā Nandamātā, Suppavāsā Koliyadhītā, Suppiyā Kātiyānī, and Kālī of Kuraraghara, who were extolled by Buddha as leading female devotees for having some extraordinary virtues.³ In spiritual attainments, the female lay-devotees vied equally well with the male-devotees.⁴

v2.c38.s4.13

³ Aṅguttara, i, p. 26.

v2.c38.s4.14

⁴ See Infra, 233 f.

Upāsakas and Upāsikās

v2.c38.s5.1

The Gahapatis mentioned above were more or less devout listeners to the moral or religious discourses delivered by the monks. They offered food, clothing and other necessaries of life to the monks. Occasionally at the end of a discourse, they signified their appreciation by saying that they would take Trisarana and become upāsakas till the end of their lives. A number of Brāhmaṇas, Gahapatis, Gāmaṇis, Paribbājakas, nobles and princes¹ are found to say that they would become upāsakas, but there is nothing to show that they actually followed the moral code and performed the duties prescribed for the Upāsakas. These may be taken as lay-supporters of the Buddhist Saṅgha. The fact that there was a large number of such supporters is evidenced by the remark in the Mahāparinibbānasutta that Buddha should choose for his parinibbāna one of the towns like Campā, Rājagaha, Sāvatthi, Sāketa, Kosambī, and Vārāṇasī where are many Khattiya, Brāhmaṇa and Gahapati mahāsālas to worship his relics.

v2.c38.s5.2

¹ E. g. Caṅki brāhmaṇa (M. ii. 177); Ghoṭamukha-br. (M. ii. 163); Assalāyana-br. (M. ii. 157); Brahmāyu-br. (M. ii. 145); Citta-Gahapati (S. iv. 301); (for other Gahapatis, see above); Vekhanassa paribbājaka (M. ii.); Susima-paribbājaka (S. ii. 120); Madhuro Avantiputta (M. ii. 90); Bodhirājakumāra (M. ii. 97), For Gāmaṇis, see Gāmaṇi-Saṃyutta in Saṃyutta-Nikāya, iv.

v2.c38.s5.3

Out of this body of lay-supporters appeared a group of persons who were more earnest in their devotion to Buddhism, and naturally tried to follow the principles of Buddhism as far as compatible with their life as a householder. In order to distinguish this body, Mahānāma the Sākyan raised the question as to what should be the marks of an upāsaka.¹ Buddha’s answer, however, was not very helpful for he simply said that anyone taking the Tisaraṇa was an upāsaka. In another context, however, it is stated that an upāsaka must have not only faith in the Triratna, observe moral precepts, and do good to people in return but also not resort to auspicious rites, and offer gifts to persons outside the Buddhist Saṅgha.² There are instances to show that some householders eschewed their old teacher and became an upāsaka of Buddha. Pukkusa Mallaputta, a disciple of Āḷāra Kālāma,³ Upāli Gahapati and Abhaya Rājakumāra, a rich upāsaka of Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta,⁴ a gahapati-devotee of an Ājīvaka⁵ changed their teachers and became upāsakas of Buddha. There are evidences to show that a number of householders was distinguished as devout upāsakas, and that their number was large in certain localities.⁶ The stereo-typed remark found in the Nikāyas that Buddhist upāsakas do not like noisy discussions shows that some householders were distinguished as Buddhist upāsakas. Then passages like “yavatā kho pana samaṇassa Gotamassa sāvakā gihi odātavasanā Sāvatthiyaṃ paṭivasanti, ayaṃ tesaṃ aññataro Pañcakaṅgo thapati” (Pañcakaṅgo the architect is one of the distinguished white-dressed householder disciples of Gotama residing at Sāvatthī)⁷ leave no room for doubt that some persons were marked out as Buddhist upāsakas.

v2.c38.s5.4

¹ Aṅguttara, iv, p. 220; Saṃyutta, v, p. 395: Kittavatā nu kho bhante upāsako ti ti?

v2.c38.s5.5

² Dīgha, ii, p. 132-3.

v2.c38.s5.6

³ Majjhima, i, p. 379.

v2.c38.s5.7

⁴ Aṅguttara, i, p. 219.

v2.c38.s5.8

⁵ Cf. Aṅguttara, iv, p. 59: Campeyyakā upāsakā approached Sāriputta for requesting Buddha to deliver a discourse to them.

v2.c38.s5.9

⁶ Majjhima, ii, p. 23.

v2.c38.s5.10

⁷ Ibid.

v2.c38.s5.11

The members of these families received the special attention of the Buddhist monks, who, prescribed for them certain moral duties, which were classified under five heads, viz., *Saddhā* (faith), *Sīla* (observance of moral precepts), *Cāga* (charity), *Suta* (listening to religious discourses) and *Paññā* (comprehending the higher truths).¹

v2.c38.s5.12

¹ *Majjhima*, i, p. 467; iii, p. 99; *Saṃyutta*, iv, p. 250; *Aṅguttara*, i, p. 210; iv, p. 270.

v2.c38.s5.13

(i) By *Saddhā* is meant that an upāsaka must have firm faith in the Buddha, Dharma and Saṅgha. There is a set formulae to express that faith, which is, in short, as follows:— Bhagavā the perfectly enlightened endowed with knowledge and good conduct is the highest, the knower of the world, the leader of men and gods. His Dharma is well-preached, produces fruit in this life, knows no limitation of time and is realisable within one’s ownself. The Saṅgha of his disciples, who are in one of the eight stages of sanctification, is well-established in good conduct, is bent upon acquiring knowledge, is worthy of gifts, praise and reverence and is a fit recipient of gifts.

v2.c38.s5.14

(ii) By *Sīla* is meant that an upāsaka must abstain from killing, stealing, adultery, speaking falsehood and indulging in drinks and merrymakings.² He must discard all mental impurities like excessive greed (*abhijjhā*), hatred (*vyāpāda*), slothfulness (*thinamiddha*), flurry, (*uddhaccakukkucca*), and doubt (*vicikicchā*).

v2.c38.s5.15

² *Aṅguttara*, iv, p. 220.

v2.c38.s5.16

(iii) By *Cāga* is meant that an upāsaka should be charitable, provide the monks with food, robes, beds and medicinal requisites.¹ He should be open-handed, prone to giving gifts² to the needy.

v2.c38.s5.17

¹ Cf. *Aṅguttara*, ii, 65.

v2.c38.s5.18

² *Aṅguttara*, ii, p. 65; Muttacāgā payatapāni vossaggaratā yācayogā dānasamvibhāgaratā.

v2.c38.s5.19

(iv) By *Suta* is meant that an upāsaka should reverentially listen to religious discourses and moral teachings imparted by the monks.

v2.c38.s5.20

(v) By *Paññā* is meant that an upāsaka should try to comprehend the origin and decay of worldly objects,³ in other words, realise the four truths and the law of causation.⁴

v2.c38.s5.21

³ *Aṅguttara*, iv, p. 271: Udayatthagāminiyā paññāya samannāgato ariyāya nibbedhikāya sammādukkhakkhayagāminiyā.

v2.c38.s5.22

⁴ *Aṅguttara*, v, p. 184; *Saṃyutta*, v, p. 61; *Aṅguttara*, ii, p. 67. For Nivaraṇas, see *Saṃyutta*, v, pp. 60, 146.

v2.c38.s5.23

The above mentioned five practices are fully described in the *Gahapativagga*⁵ and elsewhere. Ugga Gahapati said that his *saddhā* was of such an order that the moment he saw Buddha even from a distance, his mind obtained satisfaction (*pasīdi*). He observed the five *sikkhāpadas*, and thereby completed the practice of *sīlas*. He approached bhikkhus and listened to their discourses with due respect (*sakkaccam eva suṇāmi no asakkaccam*). For the sake of sacrifice (*cāga*) he would give away his young wives and divide his property among the religious people, and while giving gifts to the monks he would not discriminate between one monk and another on account of their spiritual attainments. He would listen to the higher teachings of Buddhism and thereby become *paññavā*.

v2.c38.s5.24

⁵ *Aṅguttara*, iv, pp. 209 ff.

v2.c38.s5.25

To Brāhmaṇa gahapatis of Veludvāra, Buddha delivered a discourse dilating on the five precepts referred to above. He said that an upāsaka in order to become a sotāpanna should bear in mind the following dhammas:—

v2.c38.s5.26

(i) Realising how painful is one's own death, a person should not cause other's death.

v2.c38.s5.27

(ii) Remembering how a thief is hated by one whose possessions are stolen, a person must not steal other's property.

v2.c38.s5.28

(iii) Knowing how much a person is hated by the man with whose wife he commits adultery, one must not commit adultery.

v2.c38.s5.29

(iv) As a liar is disliked by everybody so one must not speak a lie.

v2.c38.s5.30

(v) As a man who by malicious words brings about dissension is abhorred by everybody, so one should not utter malicious words.

v2.c38.s5.31

(vi) As a person is disliked for harsh words, so one must avoid uttering the same.

v2.c38.s5.32

(vii) As a person is looked down for his frivolous talks, one must not indulge in the same.¹

v2.c38.s5.33

¹ Samyutta, v, p. 353.

v2.c38.s5.34

A person should not only practise the seven dhammas mentioned above for his own benefit but also persuade others to do the same.²

v2.c38.s5.35

² Cf. Anguttara, iv, p. 221.

v2.c38.s5.36

An upāsaka is further prohibited from trading in (i) weapons; (ii) livestock; (iii) meat; (iv) wine and (v) poison.³

v2.c38.s5.37

³ Ibid., i, p. 208.

v2.c38.s5.38

In the Milindapañha⁴ there are a few additional instructions given to the upāsakas. These are as follows:—

v2.c38.s5.39

⁴ Milindapañha, p. 94.

v2.c38.s5.40

An upāsaka should (i) feel happy or sad at the joy or grief of the Saṅgha; (ii) make the dhamma the leading factor of his life; (iii) share his gain with others as far as possible; (iv) exert his best for the growth of the religion of the teacher whenever its decline is noticed; (v) hold the right view; (vi) avoid performing any auspicious rite or venerating another teacher even for the sake of his life; (vii) observe restraint in acts and words; (viii) be keen in maintaining concord; (ix) discard jealousy and (x) avoid hypocrisy in following the religion.

v2.c38.s5.41

In the Vinaya¹ are enumerated the gains obtained by a householder by observing the sīlas, viz., (i) wealth and property; (ii) fame; (iii) boldness in any social congregation; (iv) death with consciousness up to the last moment; and lastly (v) heavenly existence.

v2.c38.s5.42

¹ Vinaya, i, p. 227-228.

Lay-devotees and Monks

v2.c38.s6.1

Apart from the moral precepts to be observed by the upāsakas and upāsikās, they were enjoined to supply the members of the Saṅgha with robe, food, bed and medicinal requisites.² As a result of such gifts they were given the hope that in the next world they would have long life, good appearance, happiness and strength.³ In making these gifts, however, they must not have any selfish end in view (sāpekha).⁴ Some of the upāsakas and upāsikās visited the several ārāmas to find out if any one was sick and needed medicines which they procured to the best of their abilities.⁵ The monks on the other hand were warned that with complete self-restraint they should approach householders for food and robe, or for any other purpose. They were not to associate themselves with the joys and griefs of householders,¹ for there were instances of monks having got entangled with women² by such association. They were also advised not to accept alms from those householders who had at any time attempted to bring about evil plight to the monks, or injure them in any way, or oust them from their residence (*āvāsa*), or have abused them or tried to cause dissension between one monk and another, or have spoken ill of Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha.³ The monks were further instructed to avoid those householders who would not welcome them with gentle words, or show respects to them, or offer them seats kindly, or conceal their possessions, give little and bad things though they have ample and good things, offer gifts irreverentially, not approach monks for listening to discourses, and dislike instructions.⁴ At the end of the rainy season the Saṅgha held a ceremony called Pavāraṇā and Kaṭhina at every *āvāsa*. On these occassions, the upāsakas were advised to offer robes and were told that gifts on such occasions carried special merits.

v2.c38.s6.2

² Aṅguttara, ii, p. 66.

v2.c38.s6.3

³ Ibid., ii, p. 64.

v2.c38.s6.4

⁴ Ibid., ii, p. 59.

v2.c38.s6.5

⁵ Vinaya, i, p. 216.

v2.c38.s6.6

¹ *Saṃyutta*, iii, p. 11.

v2.c38.s6.7

² *Aṅguttara*, iii, p. 259; iv, p. 54.

v2.c38.s6.8

³ *Ibid.*, iv, p. 344.

v2.c38.s6.9

⁴ *Ibid.*, v, p. 387.

Uposatha of the Upāsakas

v2.c38.s7.1

On the uposatha days, the more devout upāsakas were advised to observe eight precepts instead of five. They sometimes spent a few days in a monastery in company of the monks. The eight precepts⁵ were,—

v2.c38.s7.2

⁵ *Aṅguttara*, iv, p. 254: Pāṇaṃ na haññe na cādinnam ādīye musa na bhāse na ca majjapo siyā

v2.c38.s7.3

(i) complete abstention from killing by laying aside all weapons, and developing a kindly and friendly feeling towards all beings;

v2.c38.s7.4

(ii) complete abstention from stealing, and remaining pure and satisfied with what is given;

v2.c38.s7.5

(iii) total abstention from sexual enjoyments, and living the life of a true *brahmacārī*;

v2.c38.s7.6

(iv) total avoidance of untruth, and remaining always anxious to be truthful;

v2.c38.s7.7

(v) refraining from all kinds of drinks and merry-makings;

v2.c38.s7.8

(vi) taking only one meal a day, and refraining from afternoon meals;

v2.c38.s7.9

(vii) keeping away from all places of amusement having dance and music, also non-use of scents, unguents and garlands and lastly;

v2.c38.s7.10

(viii) sleeping on low beds or grass mats and discarding high beds.

v2.c38.s7.11

Some of the advanced upāsakas were able to attain concentration of mind. This concentration was induced in them by their deep faith in Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha. This faith engendered in their minds deep satisfaction that they had achieved something good. Through this satisfaction, their mind

v2.c38.s7.12

abrahmacariyā virameyya methunā
rattim na bhuñjeyya vikālabhojanam
mālam na dhāraye na ca gandham ācare
mañce chamāyam vasayetha santhate
etam hi aṭṭhaṅgikam āh’ uposatham
Buddhena dukkhantagunā pakāsitam.

v2.c38.s7.13

became serene and concentrated.¹ They practised the *jhānas* one after another and perfected themselves in all the four *jhānas*. Cittagahapati² and Uttarā Nandamātā³ became highly proficient in the *jhānas*. Some of the upāsakas practised the four *brahmavihāras* and four *satipaṭṭhānas*.⁴ Sirivaddha and Mānadinna were advised to practise *satipaṭṭhānas* in order to overcome acute pain due to disease.⁵ Sāmāvatī upāsikā⁶ was the chief of those female lay-devotees, who practised *mettā*. Khujjuttarā upāsikā acquired *paṭisambhidā*⁷ and abilities in learning Buddha’s words.⁸ Nandamātā upāsikā was so spiritually advanced that her mind was not moved when she saw her husband reborn as an ogre. Her chastity was unimpeachable and there was no occasion for her to confess (*paṭidesitā*) any transgression of the moral laws. Nandamātā mastered the four *jhānas* and removed all the five *orambhāgiya* impurities.

v2.c38.s7.14

¹ *Aṅguttara*, v, p. 330. 2 *Saṃyutta*, iv, p. 281 f. 3 *Aṅguttara*, i, p. 26; iv, p. 66. 4 See above, p. 214. 5 *Saṃyutta*, v, p. 176. 6 *Aṅguttara*, i, p. 26. 7 *Visuddhimagga*, p. 442. 8 It is said that she could recite the *Itivuttaka* heard by her from the teacher.

Teaching imparted to lay-devotees

v2.c38.s8.1

In delivering discourses to the householders, Buddha and his disciples uniformly observed an order (*anupubbikatham*). They first expiated on the merits of giving gifts (*dānakatham*), and of observing moral precepts (*sīlakatham*), and of the reward obtained thereby, viz., a heavenly existence (saggakathaṃ). Then they dilated on the evils of enjoying worldly pleasures (kāmānaṃ ādīnavaṃ) and the merit of retirement from the world (nekkhamme ānisaṃsaṃ). When they found that the teaching had made a good impression on the mind of a householder, they passed on to the next higher teaching, the exposition of the four truths, dukkha, samudaya, nirodha and magga, and made them realise that whatever has origin must have decay (yaṃ kiñci samudayadhammaṃ sabbaṃ taṃ nirodhadhammaṃ ti).¹

v2.c38.s8.2

¹ The first discourse was delivered by Buddha to the Brāhmaṇa gahapatis of Magadha. See Vinaya, i, p. 37. Cf. Majjhima, i, p. 379; ii, p. 145.

v2.c38.s8.3

There is a rule in the Pātimokkha (Pācittiya no. 4) that to an uninitiated the dhamma is not to be preached syllable by syllable. The upāsakas were advised to avoid reading Suttantas.² It is however clear that the householders were as far as possible kept away from the deeper teachings, lest they should be frightened away from taking interest in the religion. But again, we find Nandamātā upāsikā reciting the Pārāyaṇa at dawn³ and Sāriputta explaining to Hāliddikāni gahapati the verses of the Aṭṭhakavagga.⁴

v2.c38.s8.4

² Saṃyutta, v, p. 407.

v2.c38.s8.5

³ Aṅguttara, iv, p. 63.

v2.c38.s8.6

⁴ Sutta Nipāta, p. 165.

v2.c38.s8.7

There were however lay-devotees, who took interest in the deepest problems of Buddhist philosophy. Cittagahapati was complimented for being able to understand the subtleties of Buddhist philosophy⁵ while Anāthapiṇḍika was told that topics not to be explained to a householder were being laid before him for his edification.¹

v2.c38.s8.8

⁵ Saṃyutta, iv, pp. 282 f.: Suladdham te gahapati yassa te gambhīre buddhavacane paññācakkhu kamati ti.

v2.c38.s8.9

¹ Majjhima, iii, p. 261: Na kho gahapati gihinam odātavasanānaṃ evarūpi dhammakathā paṭibhāti.

v2.c38.s8.10

When Anāthapiṇḍika was in his deathbed, Sāriputta delivered to him a discourse on Buddhist philosophy so that he might overcome the extreme pain.² In the discourse he pointed out that a person must not cling to the six organs of sense, or to the perceptions and feelings derived through the organs of sense, or to the dhātus like earth, water, fire, air, space (ākāsa) and consciousness (viññāṇa), or to the five constituents of a being, or to the four Arūpadhātus, or to this world or the next, or to things seen, heard, thought or known. Buddha explained to Nakulapitā how the unenlightened persons identified soul with one or all of the khandhas and thus suffered from the misconception of the existence of a self. Mahākaccāna explained to Hāliddikāni the following stanza of the Aṭṭhakavagga:—

v2.c38.s8.11

² Majjhima, iv, p. 258 f. Cf. Saṃyutta, iv, p. 115 f.

v2.c38.s8.12

"Okaṃ pahāya aniketasārī
gāme akubbaṃ muni santhavāni
kāmehi ritto apurekkharāno
kathaṃ na viggayha janena kayirā."

v2.c38.s8.13

[A monk should give up clinging to the five constituents, remain unattached to the characteristics of the perceived objects (aniketasārī). He must not associate himself with the weal and woe of householders, discard love, desire, attachment and despair, not speculate about his future existence (apurekkharāno) and never quarrel with other monks regarding correctness and incorrectness of a dhamma or a rule of discipline.]

v2.c38.s8.14

In all the discourses delivered to Citta, Nakulapitā and Hāliddikāni, the main topic dealt with was that a person must not take pleasure in the origin of *khandhas*, which were subject to decay; that an unwise person misconceived one or all of the *khandhas* as soul, and developed a notion of I-ness. A true disciple of Buddha should not care for his past *khandhas*, nor think of his future *khandhas* and must not have any attachment to his present *khandhas*.¹ Ugga gahapati and others were taught that those who were engrossed with the sense-objects would not attain Nibbāna.² Soṇa gahapati³ was taught that the *khandhas* were impermanent and impermanence was grief, and that none of the *khandhas* or all the *khandhas* taken together was soul. In the *Citta-saṃyutta*,⁴ we have practically all the abstruse discussions on Buddhist philosophy. These are as follows:—

v2.c38.s8.15

¹ *Saṃyutta*, iii, pp. 1 f.

v2.c38.s8.16

² *Ibid.*, iv, p. 109.

v2.c38.s8.17

³ *Ibid.*, iii, p. 48.

v2.c38.s8.18

⁴ *Ibid.*, iv, pp. 281 f.

v2.c38.s8.19

(i) Neither the organs of sense nor their objects are worldly ties—the tie is thirst that arises out of the contact of the two.

v2.c38.s8.20

(ii) The distinction that lies between the organ of sense, its object, and the perception caused by the contact of the two.

v2.c38.s8.21

(iii) The sixty-two non-Buddhistic doctrines are nothing but the outcome of the misapprehension of one or all of the *khandhas* as soul.

v2.c38.s8.22

(iv) The exact implications of *saṅkhārā* in *Kāya- Vacī* and *Citta-saṅkhārā*.

v2.c38.s8.23

(v) The method by which a meditator induces and discontinues the meditation in which perception and consciousness become inactive (*saññāvedayitanirodha*).

v2.c38.s8.24

and the distinction between death and *saññāvedayitanirodha*.

v2.c38.s8.25

(vi) The meaning of mental emancipation (*ceto-vimutti*) through realisation of the absence of desire (*akiñcañña*), of substancelessness (*suññatā*), and characteristicness (*animittatā*) of worldly objects.

v2.c38.s8.26

(vii) Exposition of the four *brahmavihāras* viz., love, compassion, joy at other’s success, and equanimity.

v2.c38.s8.27

(viii) Elucidation of the four meditations: *savitakka-savicāra, avitakka-avicāra*, etc.

v2.c38.s8.28

From the above, it will be observed that the advanced house holders tried to comprehend the deepest problems of Buddhist philosophy, and on occasions even entered into discussions with the teachers of other sects¹. Though still in white robes they were as spiritually advanced as a monk.

v2.c38.s8.29

¹ Citta gahapati crossed words with Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta. See *Samyutta*, iv. p. 298 f.

Upāsaka’s Spiritual Attainments

v2.c38.s9.1

The goal that was held before the householders was rebirth in one of the heavens² or as Sakka, the king of gods. This conception was already existing in the pre-Buddhist days, and all religions which accepted the theory of karma endorsed it. A householder should be first instructed to make gifts and to observe the precepts, and he is to be convinced that as fruit of this he would be reborn in the heavens (*sagga*). The Nikāyas are full of instances of good householders, who by leading a virtuous life were reborn as gods, and then there is the whole of the *Vimānavatthu* to illustrate this theory of karma. Aśoka also upheld this view, and did not like to go beyond. But the principles of Buddhism could not support it fully. Immediately after *saggakhatham*, the householders were to be instructed in looking upon worldly pleasures as evil and retirement as the best course of life (*nekkhamme ānisamsam*). Hence it is evident that the ideal held by Buddhism even before the householders was not rebirth in one of the heavens but retirement from the worldly life. In the *Mahāparinibbānasutta*, Buddha is heard to say about the fruits attained by some of his departed *upāsakas*. He said that Sudatta (= Anāthapiṇḍika) and ninety others had become Sakadāgāmi, while Sujātā and 500 others Sotāpanna. Kakudha *upāsaka* reached the Anāgāmi stage, so also did Kāliṅga, Nikaṭa, Katissabho, Tuṭṭha, Bhadda, Subhadda and several others.¹

v2.c38.s9.2

² *Majjhima*. i, p. 505: Householders enjoying worldly pleasures by good conduct goes to *sagga*.

v2.c38.s9.3

¹ *Digha*, ii, pp. 92-93, 200-1.

v2.c38.s9.4

The next lower fruits attained by the *upāsakas* are detailed in the *Janavasabha Sutta*² where it is stated that those who take the *tisaraṇa* and observe the *sīlas* are reborn as Paranimmitavasavatti, Nimmāṇarati, Tusita, Yama, Tāvatiṃsa and Cātummahārājika³ gods, and that the lowest state in which an *upāsaka* is reborn is that of Gandhabba. The merit of observing the uposatha with eight precepts is immense happiness surpassing even that of the kingship of all the sixteen provinces of India. He is reborn as one of the gods of the heavens mentioned above. A man or a woman who has observed the uposatha and earned the least merit will be reborn as a god.⁴

v2.c38.s9.5

² *Ibid.*, ii, p. 212.

v2.c38.s9.6

³ *Cf. Aṅguttara*, iv, pp. 252 f.

v2.c38.s9.7

⁴ *Ibid.*, iv, p. 255: Tasmā hi nārī ca naro ca silavā aṭṭhaṅgupetam upavass’uposathaṃ puññāni katvāna sukhudrayāni aninditā saggam upenti ṭhānan ti.

v2.c38.s9.8

It is evident therefore that the fruits earned by an upāsaka ranged from the Anāgāmi stage to rebirth as a Gandhabba. An advanced upāsaka naturally did not wish to re-existence however happy it might be. Citta Gahapati when in deathbed was tempted by the gods to wish to have a future existence as a Cakkavatti, but he convinced them that the life of a Cakkavatti was impermanent and hence it was also not a desirable state.¹

v2.c38.s9.9

¹ Samyutta, iv, pp. 301-4.

v2.c38.s9.10

The upāsakas and upāsikās, though retaining their white dress, aspired for the fruits obtained by the monks and nuns, viz., Sotāpatti, Sakadāgāmi and Anāgāmi. Like the monks they had not the opportunity of following a particular way of life, but still they were held out the hope that by fulfilling the duties prescribed for them they could attain three of the four fruits attained by a monk or nun.

v2.c38.s9.11

The first fruit attained by a monk is Sotāpatti. It could also be attained by an upāsaka or upāsikā by practising saddhā, sīla, suta, cāga and paññā explained above.² The condition precedent to the attainment of this fruit is the removal of three hindrances, viz., belief in the existence of a self (sakkāyadiṭṭhi),³ belief in the efficacy of rituals (sīlabbataparāmāsa) and lack of faith in the Triratna (*vicikicchā*). There are instances of several upāsakas and upāsikās who attained sotāpatti.

v2.c38.s9.12

² Pp. 222-3; for details, see Samyutta, ii, p. 681 also Samyutta, v p.. 411. In addition to the above five-fold practices the lay-devotees were recommended to cultivate the following four habits: association with wise men, listening to religious discourses, proper mental exertion (yoniso manasikara) and observance of all major and minor rules of morality.

v2.c38.s9.13

³ That the self is identical with one or all of the khandhas. See Samyutta, iv, p. 287.

v2.c38.s9.14

It is rather interesting to read of an instance of a lay-devotee addicted to drinking attaining the fruit of Sotāpatti. The reason shown is that he had so much faith in the Triratna that he could not be reborn in any of the lower planes of existence and was destined to *sambodhi*.¹

v2.c38.s9.15

¹ Samyutta, v. p. 375.

v2.c38.s9.16

The second fruit attained by a monk is Sakadāgāmi. The conditions precedent to the attainment of this stage was the reduction of attachment (*rāga*), hatred (*dosa*) and delusion (*moha*) to the minmum (*tanutta*). A large number of lay-devotees complied with this condition and attained the Sakadāgāmi stage, i.e., they would come once more to this world, and then attain Nibbāna.

v2.c38.s9.17

The third fruit attained by a monk is Anāgāmi. To attain this stage one must completely remove *rāga*, *dosa* and *moha*. The usual condition laid down for a lay-devotee is that he is to remove the five impurities of the lower category (*orambhāgīyas*) to attain this fruit. The five impurities are the three *saṃyojanas*, mentioned above viz., *sakkāyadiṭṭhi*, *sīlabbataparāmāsa* and *vicikicchā*, the other two being *kāmarāga* and *byāpāda* in other words, *rāga* and *dosa*. By reaching the Anāgāmi stage, the lay-devotee does not return to the world but is reborn only once in one of the heavens to attain Nibbāna (*tatthaparinibbāyī*).

v2.c38.s9.18

The fourth fruit *arhatta* is not attained by any householder, hence it is beyond the range of achievements of a lay-devotee.²

v2.c38.s9.19

² See, Infra.

v2.c38.s9.20

In view of the several statements in the Nikāyas about the after-life of an upāsaka, it is clear that no upāsaka attained arhathood, i.e., Nibbāna. In the *Aggivacchagottasutta*¹ it is explicitly stated that no householder without giving up the householder’s life can end his suffering at the time of his death. In other words, he can be only at the most an Anāgāmi, i.e., he must be born once more as a god to attain Nibbāna.

v2.c38.s9.21

¹ *Majjhima*, i, p. 483: Natthi koci gihi gihisaṃyojanam appahāya kāyassa bhedā dukkhass' antakaro 'ti.

v2.c38.s9.22

There was a controversy between the Theravādins and the Uttarāpathakas, and recently between Prof. de la Vallée Poussin and Dr. B. C. Law² on the point whether a householder could become an arhat (*Gihi 'ssa arahā ti*?)³ The Uttarāpathakas and Dr. B. C. Law relied on certain passages of the Nikāyas, in which a few householders are mentioned as having become arhats. The Uttarāpathakas cited the instances of Yasa Kulaputta, Uttiya gahapati and Setu Māṇava,⁴ while Dr. B. C. Law drew his support from the *Aṅguttara Nikāya* (iii, p. 451), in which it is said that Sudatta gahapati (= Anāthapiṇḍika), Citta gahapati, Uggo gahapati and a few other householders realised the immortal (*amataddaso*), i.e. Nibbāna. The remark in the *Majjhima Nikāya*⁵ that a householder could realise the excellent truth is discussed in the *Milindapañha* (p. 243), in which Milinda raised the question that if a householder or a recluse could attain the truth by following the right course, there was no necessity for a person to become a monk. Again he questioned if countless householders visualised the truth, what was the good of taking recourse to the ascetic practices (*dhutaṅgas*).⁶ Nāgasena gave an evasive answer and dilated on the merits of renunciation and observance of *dhutaṅga* precepts, and avoided the issue by stating that those householders who realised the truth had practised the *dhutaṅgas* in their previous lives.

v2.c38.s9.23

² *Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Institute*, xiv, p. 72.

v2.c38.s9.24

³ *Kathāvatthu*, iv, 1.

v2.c38.s9.25

⁴ *Ibid.*

v2.c38.s9.26

⁵ Cf. *Majjhima*, ii, p. 197: gahaṭṭho ārādhako hoti ñeyyaṃ dhammaṃ kusalam.

v2.c38.s9.27

⁶ *Milindapañha*, p. 350.

v2.c38.s9.28

The passage relied on by Dr. B. C. Law no doubt speaks of the gahapatis having been *amataddaso*, but in the same Nikāya and elsewhere Buddha declared at Nadika that none of the Upāsakas mentioned there became arhats. Nakulapitā and Jīvaka became a Sotāpanna, Sudatta a Sakadāgāmi,¹ Ugga and Citta became Anāgāmis.² The Theravādins³ contended that a householder in the enjoyment of worldly pleasures could not normally be expected to become arhats. In the similar strain Nāgasena stated that on the very day that a householder attained *arhathood*, he must either die or take the yellow robe.⁴ Prof. de la Vallée Poussin also held the opinion that a layman, however faithful or virtuous he might be, could not attain Nibbāna.⁵ Buddhaghosa explained the anomaly by saying that Yasa, Uttiya and Setu were mere householders in name, in external dress but not spiritually; they were free from all worldly ties though they had not yet discarded the white dress of a householder.⁶ The conclusion that should be drawn from the conflicting statements in the Nikāyas about the attainments of an upāsaka and the controversies in the *Kathāvatthu* and the *Milindapañha*, is that normally a householder could not become an arhat, but there were exceptional cases of householders who became so spiritually advanced that they deserved arhat-hood but the convention was that no householder unless he gave up his household life would be recognised as an arhat. Upāsakas like Citta and Hatthaka, and Upāsikās like Khujjuttarā and Nandamātā were more spiritually advanced than many monks and nuns, but still they were *sekhas* and not *asekhas* (= arhats).¹ They are said to have destroyed the *oram-bhāgīya* impurities² but not the five *uddhambhāgīyas*: viz., *rūpa-rāga*, *arūparāga*, *māna*, *uddhacca*, and *avijjā*, and hence, they could not attain arhat-hood.³

First 188 of 207 passages. Read on

Linked texts (97)