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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c29.s1: I. Town Planning

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c29.s1

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English

Contents

I. Town Planning

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Town is the symbol of the social organization. Its planning mainly depends on the ingenuity of a particular culture to systematise the township in accordance with the topography and ecology of the land, needs of the society and the governing agency.

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In India, there is evidence of the conscious planning of cities from the days of its earliest civilization viz. Indus civilization which prospered in a large part of Indian subcontinent, with an area of about half a million square miles during 2300-1750 B.C.

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There is ample evidence to show that Indus Valley town planning was not inspired by any contemporary civilization including that of Sumerians. It was an indigenous development that the genius of Indus culture can be rightly proud of and which did not appear in Athens even 2000 years later.

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After the demise of Indus civilization there is hardly any evidence of city life for about a thousand years and it is only around 600 B.C that there is a second phase of town planning. The study reveals that this second phase was neither earlier survival nor revival and the least an import. It is believed to be *sui generis* (Ghosh, 1973).

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While there is no literary evidence of the town planning during Indus culture, there are a large number of literary passages and accounts which bear testimony to the second phase of town planning which continued staggeringly till it merged with the present through its chequered history.

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For both first and the second phase of town planning, archaeological evidence is more reliable. The literary accounts give an exaggerated picture and the dates of these works are not always reliable. Nevertheless, the latter do help in supplementing the archaeological skeleton.

Indus Civilization

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Indus Civilization had a vast expanse with its northern boundary at Rupar in Haryana, and the southern at Bhagatrav (Gujarat) eastern and western boundaries being Alamgirpur in U.P. and Sutkagendor(Makran) respectively, occupying an area equal to 1.25 million sq km; larger than the present Pakistan.

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A large number of cities of this civilization have been excavated which reveal uniformity in the lay-out of the cities. Mention may be made of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal, Kalibangan etc. The examination of the lay-out of these cities reveals that they consciously planned their cities and kept in mind the following factors :

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1. The topography and the ecology of the area, (being riverine civilization) they selected long river fronts.

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2. They chose rectangular area, kept proper orientation and followed the cardinal points.

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3. The need for defence and prevention from floods made them to improvise the system of fortification and ramparts.

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4. The division of the city according to the dictates of the society, building important quarters on the citadel and ordinary houses at the ground level.

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5. They followed grid-iron system of laying out the streets, cutting each other at right angles.

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6. High level of sanitation system and underground drainage.

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7. Adequate means and regular system of water supply, through wells and tanks.

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City planning takes effect largely through some governing agency and requires understanding of the ecology (in this case, the riverine ecology) and the means to exploit it. This would require adequate organization to execute large scale works of elaborate fortification and layout of the city and construction requiring experienced architect, masons, carpenters, with facilities of surveying, analysis and designing.

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Excavations at Mohenjo-daro and Lothal etc have brought to light geometrical and surveying instruments for precise measurements and fixing cardinal points.

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A brief mention may be made of some of the salient features of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan and Lothal towns of the Indus civilization.

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All the towns, big or small show regular orientation. The towns of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Kalibangan depict two distinct features, namely, on the west there is a distinct citadel mound which is artificially built on a high podium by use of mud bricks. From the center of the citadel branch out long axis running north-south and to the east. The citadel outstands the lower city which houses the main residential area. Either both the citadel and the lower city or at least the citadel were surrounded by massive fortification wall.

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Harappa: The town extended over a circuit of 6 km on the left bank of Ravi. The site is now in Punjab province of Pakistan. It has been identified with Rgvedic Hari-Yupiya by Wheeler. There is a lower town and a citadel in the shape of a parallelogram (Vats, 1941).

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Mohenjo-daro: Situated on the right bank of the Indus in Larkana district (Sindh: Pakistan). The city has a parallelogram shaped citadel 50 feet high and the lower town. The city had 12 blocks extending over 1.5 km. Granary and Great Bath are situated on the citadel. Great Bath measures 17×7×2.5m. It has the distinction of remarkable water proofing device using bitumen. Bricks are set on edge in gypsum, below the bricks was a damp-proof course of bitumen held by further wall of bricks. Sanitation methods are mentioned separately. (Marshall, 1931).

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Kalibangan (Dt. Ganganagar; Rajasthan): Both the citadel (240 m N-S×120m E-W) and the lower town (240 m E- W×360 m N-S) are parallelogram in shape and are surrounded separately by a massive defence wall which is 3.5 to 9 meter thick made of mud bricks of 40×20×10 cm size in its earlier phase and 30×15×7.5 cm in its later phase. The fortification wall is mud plastered and is reinforced with rectangular salients and bastions.

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There are four arterial thoroughfares in north-south direction and three or four in east side. Street corners are provided with fender posts to avoid damage from vehicular traffic. Roads are unmetalled except in the last phase. House drains discharged themselves into soakage jars, buried under the street floor. Streets were laid in perfect alignment.

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Widest streets run across the lower city from north-south. Roads are twice as broad as the street and the latter are twice as broad as the lanes. The city shows regard to the cardinal points.

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The citadel town had important buildings, civic, religious, administrative and also the granaries. General population lived in lower town (Lal, 1978).

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Lothal (Dt. Ahmedabad, Gujrat): Situated at the head of gulf of Cambay, north-west of the junction of Sabarmati and Bhagavo rivers. Being a port town it had a somewhat different lay-out. The city is rectangular. The longer side, 300 meter had a north- south orientation and the shorter side 225 meter had east-west expanse. There was a massive mud-brick defence wall surrounding the city as a protection against the flood.

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Port town is situated on a low ground by the side of a tributary of Sabarmati river. On the eastern side of the township is a dock-yard (detailed separately). The citadel, 7 meter high, constructed of mud brick, situated on the south eastern flank of the city, houses all the important establishments of the city - the acropolis. It measured 119×127m with longer axis north- south. All important buildings: public and private houses, and the warehouse, were built in of 12 cubical blocks with air ducts and passages running in between. Mention may be made of a series of rooms with a brick paved bath having remarkable system of underground drainage with silting chambers and cess pools -these might have been the ruler's residence.

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Streets were four to six meter wide and narrow lanes two to three feet broad. Main street ran north to south (Rao, 1973).

Sanitary and drainage system

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It can be safely inferred that the Indus civilisation had some central authority which asserted for the development and maintenance of the roads. Care was often given to paving of streets, and drainage. Regard for traffic and hygiene were advanced.

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The Indus Civilization had exemplary right angled plans. It is clear that the authorities exercised their control to prevent the rise of tortuous alley characteristic of later cities.

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The houses had a pronounced batter or slope and never encroached on the streets as is found at present. All houses had latrines and bath rooms disposing their waste into street drains. Houses had rubbish chutes, at the foot of which were some bins at street level. The rubbish bins stood at convenient places in the streets. The waste water entered the drains from tightly closed brick lined pits which had outlets to the drains about three quarters of the way up. These may be taken as forerunners of our septic tanks and grit chambers.

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Each street or lane had one or two drainage channels about 18"-24", below street level and an area of 9"-12" or 18"-24" of the drainage channel was either covered with stone slabs or was roofed.

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The streets usually ran from east to west or from south to north. Some important streets were 15 to 33 feet wide. Average roads were 9ft to 12ft wide. Most were unpaved, though some having burnt bricks pavements were found with joints grouted with gypsum mortar or bitumen.

Literary Evidence

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Literature fails to give a realistic picture of town planning. Such descriptions are exaggerated and conventional, yet repetitive mention of high defense walls, deep ditches and moats, wide streets, large portals, busy markets, flowering trees, gardens and ponds needs to be critically examined.

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Aryans were not city dwellers but were known as destroyers of cities and were called Purāndara. But building activity must have been there and growth of ‘pattanas’, the port town. Rgvedic architects were pre-eminently carpenters and built houses with wood, bamboo, thatch etc.

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Panini mentions two divisions of town: Udicyagrāma and prācyagrāma viz. Kauśāmbi, Taksaśilā, etc. according to him most important parts of the town were; moat (parikhā), rampart (prākāra) and gate (dvār); the latter were named after the cities towards which they opened.

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Buddhist texts and Jataka stories mention pattana (port-town) nigamas (market town), dūrga (forts) etc which show urban development which needed some systematisation and thus planning. Milindā pānho mentions the architect (Veddahi/Vardhaki) searching:

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1. Faultless pleasant spot free from rocks, hills, gullies and not open to danger of attack.

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2. The city is then laid out in regular measured quarters, with excavated moats and ramparts on all sides. With high towers and strong gate houses, with cross roads, street corners, market places, public squares, with clean and even roads, lined by shops, parks, lakes and gardens etc.(Milinda-panho 1928)

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The Jain canonical text *Aupapatika-Sūtra* enumerates the important parts of the township as, 1. moat (*parikhā*) broad at the top and cut deep down, 2. solidly built rampart bent like a bow and provided with buttresses, bastions (*aṭṭālayas*), with gates (*toraṇa*) towers (*gopura*) and high roads (*Rājamārga*) etc. It also provided with junctions of 3. 4 or 6 roads.

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Pānini mentions moat (*Parikhā*) gate (*dvār*) and rampart (*Prākāra*) as the most important parts of the city.

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In *Arthaśāstra* a *grāma* was 1 or 2 *Krośas* in length. In the center of 800 villages was a *Sthānīya* (district town), of 400 villages, a *droṇamukha* (big town) of 200 villages a *Khārvaṭika* (town) and amongst 10 villages was a *saṅgrahana* (small township).

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The *Sthānīya* could be circular, oblong or square in plan. The city was divided by three streets, running eastwards and three towards north. Each extremity of the street was to have a gate thus making up 12 gates in all. The main roads had the width of 4 *daṇḍas* or 24 feet. To avoid congestion roads were allotted for different purpose. *Arthaśāstra* mentions five kind of roads: *Rājapatha*, *Devapatha*, *Mahāpatha*, *Rathya* and *Caryā*.

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The city had fixed position for various classes of people. The palace was in the center facing north or east. Temples of Gods also occupied central position. Surrounding the place were the houses of Brāhmins. The Ksatriyas, the Vaiśyas and Sudras occupied north, east and south parts respectively.

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The corners were set apart for the guilds. Intermediate portion was marked for market, the houses of the royal priests and officers and so on.

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Kautilya describes many kinds of roads classifying them according to their use and destination. Each road had a specified width varying from 4 feet for pedestrians and 32 feet to 64 feet for royal roads and trade routes. Roads were made with a convex surface (like the back of the tortoise) and were provided with drains on either side, water flowed down through these drains.

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Further there are detailed passages on town planning in *Bṛhat Saṃhitā*, *Silpaśāstra* compositions: like *Mayamata*, *Mānasāra*, *Yukitkalpataru*, *Samarāṅgana-sūtradhāra* and *Nītisāra* of *Śukrācārya*. Mention may be made at *Mānasara* on town planning.

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According to *Mānasāra* a work of c. 11th century A.D. smallest town unit was 100×200×4 cubits and largest was 7200×14,000×4 cubits. *Mānasāra* suggests that the cities should be built near the sea, a river or a mountain and should have facilities for trade and commerce and should be laid either from east to west or from North to South, according to the site.

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*Mānasāra* divides town into eight classes: (*Rājadhāni*, *Nagar*, *Pura*, *Nagarī*, *Kheta*, *Khārvaṭa*, *Kubjaka* and *Paṭṭana*) and mentions the plan of a city (nagar). It had high, perhaps concentric walls about it in which were watch towers, massive gates, strong doors, protected chiefly by wide bridge moat, latter filled with crocodiles and armed with paling, guarded the walls. The city was laid in several squares. The streets were lighted with torches. The principles of Indian Town Planning have some striking similarity to those of early European cities and it is interesting to compare *Mānasāra* with the work of Vitruvius (a work of c. 25 B.C.).

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The important subjects considered by *Manasara* and *Mayamata* are:

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1. *Bhū-parīksā* - (examination the land)

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2. *Bhumi-samgraha* (selection of the town site)

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3. *Dikpariccheda* (determination of the cardinal points)

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4. *Padavinyāsa* (surveying and mapping the area and marking into squares).

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5. *Balikarma vidhāna* (sacrificial offering).

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6. *Grāma Vinyāsa*, *Nagara Vinyāsa* (planning of villages and towns).

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7. *Bhūmi Vinyāsa* (construction of storeyed buildings).

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8. *Gopura Vidhāna* (construction of gate-ways).

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9. *Rajaveśma Vidhāna* (construction of palaces).

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10. *Mandapa Vidhāna* (construction of temples)

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*Śukranītisāra* depicts city planning in an elaborate manner headed by *Grhadhyāpati* - the minister of town planning and in order of hierarchy stood *Sthāpati* (master architect), *Sūtragrāhik* (Surveyor) and *Takṣaka* and *Vardhaki*. In this text the central place is given to the *Sabhā* and areas are allocated to others depending upon their status and occupational classes. Wealth and cast were the main criterion. Regarding cardinal points of the lay-out of the city, he follows *Arthaśāstra* tradition viz. city buildings should face either the north or the east. It lays great importance on the selection of a site for the capital of the kingdom. The place should abound in natural wealth of flora and fauna, rich source of water and be navigable up to the sea and be even plain and picturesque and, not, far from the hills.

Second Civilization

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Around 6th century B.C emerges the second civilization in India and we find the coming up of the capital cities of the sixteen *Mahājanapadas* (great kingdoms) like those of Kauśāmbi, Rājgir, Campā, Vaiśāli, Kāsī, Śrāvasti, Ahicchatra, Hastināpura, Mathura, Ujjain, Taxila etc. This civilization brings with it the fortified cities, kiln burnt bricks, highways which promoted long distance trade and communication and introduction of coinage and meaningful use of iron.

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During the period of 6th century B.C. to early centuries of Christian era we get planned cities, with fortification wall, gates, bastions and towers (made of mud, unbaked bricks, baked bricks, wood and stone) some cities have moats, well laid and planned roads, streets and properly aligned houses with cardinal points in mind, reasonable systems of drainage, sanitary provisions, and system of water supply.

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Fortifications have been brought to light by archaeological excavations at Eran, Kausambi, Rajghat (Kāsī), Ujjain, Old Rajgir, New Rajgir, Campā, Śrāvasti, Ahicchatra, Vaiśāli, Śiśupālgarh, Pātaliputra (here wooden defensive wall has been partly traced) and Taxila etc. The fortification walls have a large circuit: 6.5 km at Kauśāmbi, 5 km at New Rajgir (old Rajgir has a circuit of 40 km stone fortification but its date is not confirmed, it ought to be of the days of Bimbisāra). These fortification are not strictly planned. However the fortification of Śiśupālgarh, Sirkap and Taxila are well planned. At Rajgir and Mathura there were inner protection enclosures. Śiśupālgarh has later fortification. Most mud fortifications have partial or fully baked brick revetment.

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Moats: At Sanghol there is evidence of three moats, first outside the rampart and the other two inside. But this is of late 5th century A.D.

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The moat at Ujjain 8.1 meter deep is lined by a brick wall. It belongs to Pd I around 6th century B.C. Moat has been reported from Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda) from historical levels.

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Kausāmbi (Dt. Allahabad, U.P) Earliest evidence of town planning in early historical period comes from Kausāmbi. The excavations in the area near Aśokan pillar revealed a planned city. The road excavated in the area controlled the plan of this city. Every house had access to this road either directly or through the lanes or by-lanes. The road joined one of the principal thoroughfares of the city connecting the Aśokan pillar area with various parts of the city and eastern gateway. Aśokan pillar stood at the junction of this road and principal thoroughfares. This plan continued from 4th century B.C to A.D. 400. The lay-out of the excavated city reveals the existence of a number of cross walls provided with doors which could be closed for protection and security.

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Alignment of houses: Houses were aligned with roads and lanes and generally maintained correct orientation with cardinal points.

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Sanitation System: The city shows well developed hygiene. The drainage devices include: ring wells, soakage jars, terr-cotta pipes, open brick drains, covered brick drains and brick tanks. These provisions served well for draining off water from houses and disposal of sewage.

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Śiśupālgarh (Orissa): It is the best planned city of the 3rd century B.C. Its defensive wall was constructed in the first quarter of 2nd century B.C. There is evidence of large scale use of laterite blocks of massive size for gateways and monoliths and was reinforced by the brick ‘boxes’ filled with earth in next century. From the regular disposition of the eight gates: two on each of the 4 sides of the wall. The excavated remains reveal grid-pattern lay out. (Details of the fort city are given separately in another chapter)

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Sirkap: It is new city of Taxila, founded by Indo-Greeks. It was extended and fortified by masonry wall and fully planned with spinal streets running from north gate throughout the length of the city, with smaller lanes meeting it at right angles. Houses are well defined. Sirkap is not a representative city of indigenous planning.

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Vijayapuri: Excavations at Nagarjunakonda have laid bare the remains of the ancient city of Vijayapuri of historical period which displayed a well thought out plan with a citadel and residential area. The citadel was fortified complex with a moat. A tank with an elaborate drainage system has been brought to light. Structures show linear pattern in their arrangements with roads. Amongst the excavated secular remains is an amphitheatre with gallery on all sides and a bathing ghat.

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*Arikamedu*: It is located on the eastern bank of a lagoon formed by Ariyankuppam river, about 3 km south of Pondicherry. Excavations have revealed a planned port city of Indo-Roman period datable to 1st-2nd century A.D.

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Most important architectural remain is the 150 ft. long, oblong brick structures of a ware house, near the water level. Mention may be made of two tanks each with an adjacent room, extensively paved. It shows elaborate series of conduits and drains and pavements of large stones. Such an elaborate drainage system, some of the drains being constructed by means of corbelled wall, floored and roofed with horizontal bricks is quite unique in early cities of ancient India. The city continued to be occupied till 11-12th century A.D.

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*Delhi*: Excavations at Purana Qila (Thapar, 1985) in Delhi has brought to light the remains of the old city of Indraprastha associated with Pāṇḍavas. The excavations have revealed continuous occupation from Pre-Mauryan days - through Mauryan, Sunga-Saka, Kusana, Gupta, Post Gupta and Rajput periods, finally giving way to Delhi Sultanate and Mughal period. Details of town plans and structural activity is being worked out to throw light specially on Post -Gupta and Rajput period.

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*Warangal* (Andhra Pradesh): This is a unique circular city dating back to 12th century, when it was founded by Gaṇapatideva a prominent Kākatīya ruler. The city is defined by three concentric circles of fortifications. The outer two are of earthen rampart, protected by a moat. Four arched stone gateways are positioned at cardinal points. The inner circle is entirely limit of stone. The four gateways in these walls have large double-bent entrances; door frames and balustrades are typical features of the Kākatīya period. The four roads of the city converge on a ruined temple in the middle. Four free- standing portals leading into the temple still stand.

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Medieval fortifications have been reported from Lal Kot (Delhi) from Deogiri (Dt. Aurangabad) and Dabhoi (Dt. Vadodara) These fortification were elaborate and built as fortresses and cities with moats and gateways.

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For forming some idea of an ancient Hindu city one may mention Vijayanagar which remains the best preserved medieval Hindu capital town in India. An archaeological investigation of its urban lay-out and the chief monuments so far exposed, reveal sufficient information regarding the plan of the city as well as the form of individual elements viz. walls, roads, gateways, hydraulic works, residential quarters, palaces, civic buildings temples, shrines. It is situated on the bank of Tungabhadra river, regularly fortified having spectacular setting with granite landscape on the north, dominated by a gorge through which Tungabhadra river flows, to the south and west there to an extensive plain, on the South bank are the sacred shrines (around the village of Hampi). There is an irrigated valley to the south through which ancient canals still run. This separates the fortified urban core which is enclosed by a ring of massive fortification defining an elliptical zone about 4 km along its axis. Within the urban core there is an abundant evidence of habitation, temples, gateways, tanks and wells. At the south western end of the urban core, a cluster of enclosures encircled by high granite walls constitutes the royal center of the capital containing : palaces, temples, columned halls, treasury, watch towers, tanks and wells etc. Gateways are located along the roads leading into the urban core.

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