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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c33: Roads And River Transportation

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c33

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English

Contents

Roads And River Transportation

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Transportation is the act of moving of people or goods from one place to another. It is one of the most important necessities of trade without which there could be no towns and cities. Therefore, transportation becomes one of the basic instruments of civilization. Long routes were discovered in the course of immigrations and substantiated with the emergence of active trade.

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Ancient cities grew along the river banks. Linking of these cities led to new routes — both across rivers and through lands. Thus many old routes are found on the banks of rivers.

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The earliest evidence for wheeled vehicles is from the Near East - Southern Mesopotamia and datable to 4th millennium B.C. In India, the earliest evidences comes from the Harappan civilization (3rd millennium B.C.). These are the toy carts, which prove the existence of ox-drawn vehicles.

Indus Valley

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The remarkable uniformity is the characteristic feature of the town-planning of the Indus. This is evident from the regularity with which the city of Mohenjo-daro is divided up - a regularity which is striking for an ancient city (Marshall). They intersected each other at right angles dividing the city into square or rectangular blocks.

Alignment

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The streets of the Indus Cities—both wide and narrow are aligned, as regularly as possible, instead of winding as was usual in very early cities. The alignment was done by simple methods, with no evidence of instruments. This led to slight divergences — especially in streets that were supposed to be parallel. However, on the whole, especially in shorter distances, the alignment can be termed as accurate (Marshall).

Orientation

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The main streets of the city of Mohenjo-daro are oriented to the points of the compass, with the houses and public buildings corresponding with the streets, in their orientation.

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*Size*

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The size of the streets varied. The broadest streets were over 30 ft. wide and the streets in the less important parts of the city measured only around 13 ft.

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*Lanes*

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Lanes were mainly used by people to pass from one street to another. The lanes also served to divide one block from another. These lanes varied from 3'8" to 7' in width.

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*Barred streets*

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Some streets in Mohenjo-Daro have thin walls across them, thus barring them entirely.

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*Rounded street corners*

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Many of the corners of the streets were slightly rounded as if they had been worn by pack animals rubbing against them (Marshall). In two cases, the corners have been deliberately trimmed, and subsequently rubbed smooth by traffic. This was done so that loads might not be dislodged.

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The streets of Mohenjodaro were unpaved, but terracotta nodules seem to have been used in Kalibangan — especially for metalling the road surfaces in upper levels. Streets in Kalibangan also ran along the cardinal directions.

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Carts and cattle were used as means of transport — over land routes. This is evidenced by the finding of terracotta models of bullock carts. Further, cart-tracks were found on the roads of Harappan cities. Copper and bronze models of carts have been excavated from Harappa and Chanhudaro.

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*Dockyard at Lothal*

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So far there are only two pieces of evidences for water transport - one on a seal and another a potsherd. This is a trapezoidal brick structure measuring 710' × 124'. It is rivetted on all four sides with a continuous dry masonry burnt-brick wall, 4 courses wide, which at its greatest extant depth reaches to 14 ft, (but might have been originally much higher). The structure was stratigraphically connected to the old river-bed of Sabarmati.

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The discovery of five anchor-stones in the basin of the dock, the absolute verticality of the walls of the embankment without any provision for reaching the water-level by means of a ramp or flight of steps and the extraordinary salinity of the silt inside the dock indicate that the structure was designed to serve as a dock.

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Towards the southern end of the eastern embankment there is a broad and relatively shallow gap. This has been supposed to be the inlet channel of the dock. Leading from the southern wall is a narrow brick water passage, said to have functioned as a spill channel, when fitted with a sluice-gate.

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According to S.R.Rao, the dock has been used in two stages:

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i) Stage I = It was designed to sluice ships 18-20 metres long and 4-6 metres wide. At least two ships could simultaneously pass and enter easily.
ii) Stage II = The inlet channel was too shallow and narrow to accommodate large ships and only flat bottoms could enter.

Vedic Age

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The Vedic Indians who lived in the mid 2nd millennium B.C. followed a rural economy where cattle was the dominant feature. The vedic literature implies the movement of these tribes towards the East with their cattle, driving in carts and chariots.

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As pointed out by M. Sparebrooke, “on the Indian continent, famous for its cherishing long unbroken traditions, the chariot figured prominently throughout its early history, and even in the present day India, reminiscences of the ancient Vedic battle chariot have been preserved.

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The huge ceremonial vehicles in which a God is pulled through the streets on festive occasions are still called ‘Chariot’ and frequently horses and charioteers sculptured, or of wood are represented on it."

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In the Vedic period, chariots are mentioned in the texts frequently. No material evidence of any mode of transport, especially vehicles have been found possibly because like ancient temples they were made probably mostly of perishable materials such as bamboo, wood and cloth, and were, probably never buried. The chariot in the Vedic Index is described as a light vehicle with two spoked wheels, drawn by two horses, sometimes four.

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The material of the hymn collection, implies a prior knowledge of the chariot. The chariot race is frequently mentioned in the *Rgveda* and was often used to propitiate the Gods. These races were attached with religious significance.

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From the time of the *Rgveda*, the greatness of the chariots is praised and Soma is compared to it. The chariots driven by the Vedic deities also attained a divinity.

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The *Brāhmaṇas* express the efficacy of the chariot by identifying it with Indra’s *Vajra*. It played an important role during the performances of ceremonies, — like the *Vājpeya* *Rājasūya* and *Aśvamedha* sacrifices.

Epic Age

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In ancient India, the means of communication was through messengers and there existed numerous roads of varying types, eg. *Rājamārga*. Many roads connecting the important cities of *Āryāvarta* existed. One such example was the *Tāmasamārga* a highway which Rama took to reach Sringaverapure. According to North western recension of the *Rāmāyaṇa* a good road was auspicious and safe and further afforded fruits and water for the traveller (Guruge). The N.W recension of the *Rāmāyaṇa* gives a detailed account of how a road is built. Jungles were cleared and levelled to make way for paths and roads. Pits and low level areas were filled.

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Mounds and hillocks were razed. Fords were constructed to cross rivers. Since most of the old routes were built along the river banks, the traveller had a constant supply of water. The roads were not paved.

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Bridges also seem to have been used as gleaned from the word *Setubandhana*, Rama’s bridge to Lanka.

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Beasts of burden are also frequently alluded to in the *Rāmāyaṇa*. According to P.C. Dharma, ‘the transport of commercial goods was effected by packhorses and pack bulls’ (as cited by Guruge).

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Elephants walked majestically on the royal roads. These were probably used to bear royal persons on ceremonial occasions.

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*Vahana* is another term frequently used. *Śivikā* or palanquins were also a popular mode of transport. This is referred to by Dasaratha as a means of transport for desert and forest. Sita is said to have been brought in a palanquin, after the war. The bow of Janaka, the *Rudradhanus*, is said to have been brought in an iron wagon with 8 wheels drawn by 800 men.

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Chariots were another important mode of conveyance. It was probably used by the more effluent people in the kingdom. Chariots of various types are mentioned including the ones made of precious metal. *Vaiyaghra* meant one covered with tiger skins while *Pāṇḍukambalī* were covered with white woollen blankets. *Akṣa* (axle), *yuga* (yoke), *nidha* or *bandhura* (seat) and *kubara* (wooden frame) are the various components of a chariot that can be gleaned from the epic. These were usually drawn by horses. *Brahmaratha* was a special type of chariot used by the Brāhmaṇas of the Epic age.

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The *Bhagavatam* says that Lord Krisna carried away Rukminī in his swift moving chariot.

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The *Mahābhārata* mentions great charioteers in the battle fields of Kuruksetra (Krisna as Arjuna’s charioteer). Each chariot had flags atop, according to his choice (eg. *Hanumadhvaja* of Arjuna).

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Rivers were crossed by means of boats. Guha had the reputation of being an excellent boatman. Bharata’s party was supplied with 500 boats with the auspicious ‘*Svastikā*’ symbol marked on them (Guruge). The tale of Rsyasrnga refers to a ferry like a “floating island”, used to bring him to the kingdom.

Buddhist Period

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According to A.L. Basham, by the time of Buddha, trade routes covered most of North India, and the Mauryan times saw further improvement and expansion. “Among the chief of the routes was the one which ran from the R. Ganges to Tāmralipti (Tamluk), not far from Calcutta up the river to the old city of Campa and thence through Pataliputra and Varanasi to Kausambi, whence a branch went to the part of Bṛgukaccha or the mouth of the Narmada by way of Vidiśā and Ujjaini (Madhya Pradesh)”. Kauśāmbī was an important city even during the time of the Buddha and from there a trunk road passed along the south bank of the Yamuna to Mathura from which a branch crossed the modern Rajasthan and Thar desert to the Port of Patala near the mouth of the river Indus. He also points out the roads connecting North Western India. “The main route passed through modern Delhi (ancient Indraprastha) and crossed the five rivers of the Punjab by way of Takṣaśilā whence is continued upto Kabul Valley into Central Asia. The main route went from Ujjain to the city of Prathiṣṭāna (Paithan in Maharashtra) in the Deccan, the capital of the Satavahana empire around the beginning of the Christian era. It then passed across into the Deccan plateau to the lower Kṛṣṇā and went into the great cities of Kāñci and Madurai.”

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The Buddha during the course of his travels, as a homeless ascetic, visited many places, including Rājagṛha and Uruvilva near Gaya. After his enlightenment he gave his first sermon at Sarnath. For 45 years he preached to the people of Oudh, Bihar and adjoining territories and finally died at Kuśinagara—now in U.P. This constant movement may imply a good network of roads.

Sanskrit Texts

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Pāṇini attests to the existence of an over-land trade-route. He speaks of travellers going by Uttarāpatha and of goods gathered by that route. Pāṇini and Patañjali mention chief cities like Bālhika, Kapiśi, Puskalavatī, Masakavatī, Takṣaśilā, Sakala, Hastināpur, Kausāmbī, Kāsī and Pāṭaliputra. Takṣaśilā, by virtue of her strategic geographical position as well as her status as the capital city of Gandhara, played a leading role in the inland and foreign trade of ancient India (Ray and Sen).

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Patañjali indicates that the Grand Trunk Road of those days connected the two cities of Kausāmbī and Varanasi, by mentioning the formations Niṣ Kausāmbī and Nir Varanasi. He also states that Saketa and Pataliputra lay on the same road. Though Patañjali (5th-4th cent. B.C.) and Pāṇini vary on the cities which form the beginning of the road, (Patañjali-Saketa (Ayodhya) and Kāsīka-Kausāmbī), Pataliputra remains the final destination.

Mauryan Period

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During the Mauryan period, a fairly extensive network of communication in different regions of the empire was established. Extensive roads were built and special trade routes established between the capitals of various states. The most famous of these roads were the Northern (Uttarāpatha) and Southern (Dhakṣiṇāpatha) which stretched all the way from North Western frontier to Pāṭaliputra and then still further east. The existence of roads from the Epic age (or immediately after) is also attested by Greek records especially that of Megasthenes who refers to the Royal Road (from North Western Frontier to Pāṭaliputra) as the road existing in earlier times, and which was 10,000 stadia in length. This was probably the road, Megasthenes himself took on his enroute to the Mauryan court.

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This road is said to have been constructed in he following stages

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i) Peukelaotis to Taxila (sans Puṣkalavathi)

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ii) Taxila across Indus to Hydaspes (Jhelum)

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iii) From Hydaspes to Hyphasis (Beas) near where Alexander erected his altars

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iv) From Hyphasis to Hesidrus (Sutlej)

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v) From Hesidrus to Iomanes (Jamuna)
vi) From Iomanes to Gaṅgā (via Hastināpur)
vii) From river Gaṅgā to Rodopha possibly Dabhai near Anupshalias viii) From Rodopha to Kalinapaxa (Kānyakhupja or Kanauj)
ix) From Kanauj to Prayāg
x) From Prayāg to Pāṭaliputra
xi) From Pāṭaliputra to the mouth of Gaṅga probably Tāmaralipti

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The distances were supposed to have been measured out by Baeto and Diognetus, two survey officers of Alexander upto Hyphasis (Beas).

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From Hyphasis to river Gaṅga, the distance was measured out by Megasthenes and other Greek writers for Selukus Nikator.

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Megasthenes further mentions that the Mauryas “construct roads and at every ten stadia set up a pillar to show the by-roads and distances”. Pliny also quotes Megasthenes in that the road was in charge of officers of the public works department. They were responsible for its upkeep - any repairs and the maintenance/erection of signposts.

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The Indika also mentions that whenever the king set out on hunting, the roads were blocked by ropes and cleared of obstacles and dangerous persons. Dikshitar takes it as a reference to the Rāja-Mārga or the Royal road of Kauṭilya. The latter also states that the royal road was well guarded on both sides and cleared of armed persons, beggars and the crippled.

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Numerous fragmentary and complete examples of terracota toy cart wheels found during various periods give some idea of wheeled vehicles such as carts. They were presumably wooden carts - used mainly for carrying good and passengers.

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Terracotta wheels have been excavated from the early levels (800-200 B.C.) Period I of Varanasi. These wheels are plain without spokes and hub, but they possess a hole in the centre to take the axle.

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A few model carts also constitute evidence for the use of simple carts. These are also found in the Ganga valley and can be dated to 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.

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A simple type in frame, made of tortoise shell has been found from Campa. “It possesses a body frame long and rectangular and at the yoke-end curving in triangular-cut sharpness. It has a horizontal perforation at the rear end for the axle and a vertical hole at the yoke-end for animals” (Margabhandu).

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The wheels are solid, without spokes. The details of the toy-cart and measurements reveal its proportionate design to mathematical precision.

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Indika also gives many details regarding the breeding and training given to horses and other animals. Megasthenes mentions divisions of military officers who directed military affairs.

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The vast empire maintained a highly organized army and bureaucracy - army of chariots, elephants, cavalry and infantry. It had eight thousand chariots and thirty thousand horsemen which presuppose the existence of good roads for the chariots to travel. The highly organized military administration had six special Boards to look after six departments each one for admiralty, transport, cavalry,etc. Similarly, the well organized bureaucracy looked after accurate land survey and measurements and the maintenance of the roads. Megestheses mentions that there was a special officer, superintendent of bullock cart trains used for transporting the war equipments, food for the soldiers and other requisites.

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The commissariat is mentioned by Kauṭilya. Their work was the examination of roads, bridges, wells, rivers, carrying machines, weapons, armours, provisions, etc.

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There was a division one each for the horse, the war-chariots and the elephants. The chariots were drawn in the march by oxen, but the horses were led along by halter so that their legs may not be galled and inflamed by drawing chariots. (Dikshitar)

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Kauṭilya also mentions this road, but describes it as the trade route (Vanikpatha). According to Kauṭilya, the Dakṣiṇāpatha was more profitable as it led to places producing valuable commodities like diamonds, gems, pearls, and gold.

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According to a Pillar edict of Aśoka, at intervals of 8 Kos the roads were marked by rest-houses and wells. The Aśokan edicts also mention the improvements made in the communication by planting trees along the roads to provide shade. To implement his reforms, he appointed a new class of officers - the Dharmamahāmātras.

Water Transport

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Apart from overland trade, river and sea-routes also came to be used extensively. Source materials tell us of Indian merchants undertaking dangerous sea voyages that lasted for as long as six months. Vessels set out for Śrīlaṅkā, Burma and Arabia. Many Indians were also despatched to the Hellenistic countries. Spices precious stones, ivory objects and rare kinds of woods were traded.

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According to Strabo, the River Oxus, in the time of Alexander was quite navigable, so that goods from India were carried down the river to the Caspian sea on their way to the West.

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According to the Buddhist texts, an important route led south-west from Sāvatthi (Srāvasti) to Patiṭṭhāna, (Prathiṣṭāna) with six halts and frequent crossing of rivers. The Vinaya texts mention boats going up the Ganges to Sahajati and up the Yamuna to Kausāmbi. According to the Jātaka tales, there were no bridges, but only forting places and ferries for crossing rivers.

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Waterway was considered more profitable since it required less labour and hence less cost. This is known through Kauṭilya’s observations. According to him,

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i) Waterways cannot be used in all seasons.

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ii) It is also risky without adequate remedies.

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He further alludes to the river transport as the third waterway - the first two being i) along the coast, ii) midway along the ocean. Kauṭilya criticized a river fort as he felt it could be crossed. This fear probably stemmed from Alexander’s invasion and the defeat of Porus, through the former’s powerful “bridges of boats” with which he crossed rivers.

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The *Jātakas* mention that boats went west via Pāṭaliputra, Prayāga and Varanasi.

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According to *Mahāvaṃsa*, Mahendra and Saṅghamitrā started their voyage to Ceylon through the boats across the Ganges from Pāṭaliputra.

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The *Periplus* saw large Indian vessels in the Malabar coast that were known as Sangara, root of the word ‘*Sangada*’. In the first century A.D. the Egyptian traders used to send the ships to India and Indian merchants according to *Periplus* took up permanent residence in the island of Dioscorides (Socotra).

Pre-Christian Era - Sunga, Kṣatrapa-Śātavāhana periods

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A network of roads developed early in the Christian era from this old route linking all the important cities of the Peninsula. Terracotta wheels without spokes and hub continued to be in use as is testified from the findings from stratified deposits at Varanasi.

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A cart frame has been found depicted in a terracotta tablet known from Bangarh datable to about 2nd century B.C. This cart frame has a curved tip. The frame is of horizontal bamboo posts. It possesses a central axle evenly spaced for balance.

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In the latter part of the 2nd century B.C. some changes occur in the technological features, Broader frames, thicker yokes and refined cart wheels seem to develop during this period. There is more variety in the treatment of outer frames which indicates the sophistication of its use, and its growing popularity in the urban centres.

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Two important types are found:

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1) Cart-frames depicting features like axle, pole and wheels. Example is a specimen from Atranjikhera datable to the second half of 2nd century B.C. It is a typical cart frame drawn by single or two bullocks - possibly a popular mode of transport during the period.

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2) The second type depicts the animals in front with an open back, and passengers seated inside the vehicle. This type seems to have been popular at Kauśāmbī, which has yielded one of the best specimens carrying four men and two women (Margabandhu).

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The earlier specimens datable to 2nd and 1st century B.C. are more ornate while those of latter times (datable upto 2nd century A.D.) are crude. But these seem to be larger vehicles to accommodate more passengers.

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One T.C. Plaque from Pāṭaliputra has a warrior aiming bow and arrow. A charioteer holds the animals. The scene depicts the wheel in motion. The ovaloid feature indicates the fast rotating wheel. The entire plaque is a unique representation interpreted as Lord Sūrya. A technologically similar model from Kauśāmbī (in conventional representation) has been found. These are probably datable to 1st century B.C.

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Toy models from Brahamapuri, Carsada, Rairh, Raṅgmahal, Sambhar and Taxila are very similar to modern types. These are available in copper bronze and terracotta. The types consist of simple carts (ekkā), bullock carts, horse-drawn chariots, light racing chariot, etc. These have transverse holes for axle under-neath the body and another hole for the pole in front. The wheels show heavy and clearly defined hubs and fellies (Margabandhu).

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Some of the examples have circular projections at the rear with 11 bars which not only kept the weight balanced but also provided more space for sitting and luggage. Brahmapuri has yielded evidence of covered wagons made of copper.

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A two-wheeled vehicle has been recorded from Sirkap(c100 A.D) which according to Marshall “appeared to be a sort of light racing chariot”. Similar transport vehicles was also represented at Brahmapuri (Maharashtra).

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Literary references testify that merchants and traders moved along in caravans with their commodities so as to avoid being attacked.

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Spoked wheels with one hub-on the outer side come into existence around the beginning of the Christian era.

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Availability of bridles, checkbars and stirrups suggest that horse-drawn chariots were common during this period.

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The chief material evidence can be divided into

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1) Rock paintings

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2) Parts of bridle-equipment

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3) Toy vehicles

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4) Sculptured representation of temple-reliefs. A grave at Nagpur has yielded an early pair of stirrups and a snaffle. This is similar to a specimen from Taxila and has been suggested closer to 3rd and 4th centuries B.C.

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A number of seals depict chariots. On a seal from Jhusi (2nd century B.C), the hindlegs of horses and a chariot-wheel are visible with 2 persons sitting in it.

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From a plaque from Bhita (Varanasi dist.) dated 2nd century B.C. a chariot is discernable.

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Stirrup bits at Sambhar (200 B.C) made of iron has been identified as a child’s stirrup. Chariots are also seen depicted on the stupa gateways of Sāñcī. The sculptured panels are normally ascribed to 1st century A.D.

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Sāñcī Stupa I: Front of Southern gateway - middle architrave - Aśoka’s visit to the stupa of Rāmagrāma. The chariot is drawn by horses with complete bridle equipment. The wheel has about 14 spokes, elongated in a diamond shape. It depicts infantry, cavalry, elephantry and chariots.

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Stupa-I

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Northern pillar of Eastern gateway shows King Suddhodhana leaving his town in a chariot accompanied by an elephant with a rider. The Sātavāhana times indulged in great maritime activity. This is evidenced by the Andhra coinage which frequently feature a ship with two masts.

Gupta Period

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Internal and foreign trade expanded to a remarkable degree, during this period (4th-6th century A.D.). Many uninhabited regions had been settled, transport was better organized and trade routes more closely linked. The economic specialization of various areas and zones made exchange of commodities essential. Under the Guptas the state had devoted particular attention to the construction of roads and communications. Yet the exchange between various parts of the country was still of limited nature. Roads were not always suitable for long journeys and traders encountered a good many problems. Rivers were now being made much fuller use of. This applied in particular to the Ganges and the Indus.

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The Ganges Valley was the principal trade area from which branched off trade routes leading to many parts of the country. The main trade centres in that area were Bṛhukkaccha (Barygaz) in the west, Patiālā in the Indus delta, Puṣkalavatī in the North-West and Tāmralipti (modern Tamluk) in the east. In Eastern India, Varanasi, Kauśāmbī and Pāṭaliputra and Ujjain were well known for their high quality wares.

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Fehien’s travel to the various Buddhist places and his account attest to existence of good roads and transport system during the Gupta period. In the course of his travel he visited Vaiśakha, Napikā, Kapilavastu, Ramagrāma, Kusinagara, Vaiśālī, Pāṭaliputra, Rājagrha, Gayā, Vārānasi, Kauśāmbī, Campā. He further states that the roads were safe, whereas two centuries later Hieun Tsang was twice assaulted.

Post-Gupta

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A host of traders and merchants carried the products of their various industries from one end of the country to the other by means of boats and bullock-carts.

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Traders and merchants of various descriptions and their fabulous wealth are frequently referred to in books and inscriptions (R.C. Majumdar).

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Trade and industry were well developed and organised. The institution called Śreṇī was a corporation of men following the same trade, occupation or craft and resembled the guides of medieval Europe. Almost every industry had its guild which laid down rules and regulations as a definite constitution. They maintained armies for the use of which wide roads were maintained.

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Hieun Tsang gives information about the roads during the reign of Harsha Vardhana. He says that the roads were not safe. The Chinese traveller moved from one Buddhist place to another, visited even Kāñcipura and has left behind graphic details of the prevailing conditions.

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Land pilots were supposed to have been the most important persons in a desert camp. The traders and their entourage travelled by nights, and rested by day. The route was chalked out by the land pilot by constantly watching the stars.

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The paintings of Ajanta give ample proof of shipping activities. One of the paintings shows a vessel with high stern and three oblong sails attached to three upright masts. The vessel is of the agramandira type as defined in the Yuktikalpataru. This work can be dated to 11th century A.D. and gives graphic information on ship building in ancient India. The fact that the painting (dated earlier than the work) depicts a vessels that corresponds to a later description shows that the models did not undergo much change. Two types of ships are also mentioned, *Sāmānya* for inland traffic and *Viśeṣa* for sea traffic. Each is in turn divided into various categories.

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Various classifications of colours, wood, and even decorations also seem to have dominated in the ancient days. Sometimes, hundreds of bullock-carts gathering together and forming a caravan traversed from one end of the country to the other and occasionally we hear of bands of volunteer police being hired to protect the merchandise on the way from thieves and robbers. By means of rivers, canals and highways, the commodities were despatched to the ports and harbours with a view to their export to foreign countries in sea-going vessels.

Tamil Nadu Transport

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In South India in the Saṅgam Age, trade and transport was by means of vehicles. Puram literature. (c 100 B.C - 100 A.D) speaks about the use of various vehicles by the salt merchants to transport their merchandise from one place to another. The work goes on to mention that women of the *Parambu Malai* region stood on mounds to count the number of salt vehicles passing through their village.

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The *Śilappadikāram* (5th-6th cent. A.D) says that Madavi went in a vehicle called *Vaiyam* - also called *Koṭṭapaṇḍi* and *Koodarapandi*. *Cinthāmaṇi*, a medieval Tamil work says that vehicles (*vandi*) were earlier called *paṇḍis*. But there is no information regarding the decorations given to a means of transport.

Chariots

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The *Aham* and *Puram* literature give ample evidence of chariots - as an important means of transport, and that it was drawn by horses. *Aham* (36:13) stresses the importance of chariots. The line also reveals that horses were called *puravigal*.

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The *Sirupāṇārrupaḍai* explains how the chariots were made. In a beautiful verse, the wheel of the chariot is compared to the moon on a Full Moon Day. The spokes that connect the outer layer of the wheel to the inner axle are compared to the rays of the moon. The “*palagaigal*” that were attached to the inner layer of the chariot gave it a shine that matched the brilliance of the moon.

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The *Purananuru* (verse 290: 4-5) extolls the exquisite workmanship of the blacksmith, that was clearly revealed in the making of chariots, that moved so easily and smoothly. The chariots were drawn by attractive horses or bulls with a graceful gait.

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The *Sirupāṇārrupaḍai* terms the movement of vehicles in a single row as ‘*olugai*’. The work also cites the merchants ingenious method of making monkeys follow them at the back for the sake of safety.

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The *Purāṇānuru* (32:8) wonders if the wheel used by the potter to make his pottery was called *ther-kāl* since it resembled the wheel of the chariot(*ther*). Another such verse indicates the condition of the streets from the fact that clouds of dusts rose when the chariots passed by. Streets with curves are also mentioned.

Boats

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According to Paranar (*Puram* 343:5-6) the gifts of gold from foreign countries brought in by ships were carried ashore with the help of small boats. The shallow sea-ports where ships could not ply hummed with the steady movement of small boats.

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The *Paṭṭinappālai* compares the row of boats in the back waters of Poompuhar to the rows of horses kept in their stables. It also mentions that the horses were imported from across the seas to Tamil Nadu. The work also informs us that the boats that sold paddy and brought back salt were called *pakri*.

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*Ambi* was the name of a boat which was used for fishing. According to this verse (*Puram* 261) these boats called *ambi* looked like residential structures on account of the mounds of paddy that were kept in.

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We also learn about the existence of another boat called *thinuli* from the Puram verse of Erumai Veliyanar.

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*Vangam* was the term used to indicate big boats that plied on the sea. These boats which made loud noise were used to transport rare goods across the rivers and seas.

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While describing the various articles pouring into Poompuhar, the *Paṭṭinappālai* mentions the gems and gold from Northern mountains, the Sandal from Western mountain, Pearls from Southern sea, products of Ganga and Kaveri and Kazhagaam (i.e.) Malaya Coast. Such a great magnitude of trade would have been possible only if a good transport network existed. Merchants took great part in developing Poompuhar as a great national and international port. It was called as *Kaberis-Emporion* by the Roman writers. It was well connected to all important trade centres and capitals in the hinterland by roads.

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The *Periplus of the Erthrean sea*, mentions 3 kinds of crafts

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1) light coasting boats for local traffic,

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2) larger vessels of more complicated structure and greater capacity, and

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3) big ocean going vessels (K.A.N. Shastri)

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The *Paṭṭinappālai* also compares the big ships that were moored in harbours to restless elephants. *Manimekalai* compares Udayakumar to a ship caught in a storm.

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Maritime trade remained an important activity from the ancient Tamil period - through the ages. A direct sea route to China became a frequent passage around the 7th century A.D.

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Māmallapuram, Kāveripoompaṭṭinam, Saliyur and Korkai on the east coast and Quilon and Muziri on the West were great emporiums frequented by traders of other countries.

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In the 9th century A.D an extensive maritime and commercial activity had developed including most countries of South Asia including the Abassid Khalifat at Baghdad.

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The *Nānādeśa-Tisaiyāyirattu Ainūrruvar* were a celebrated guild. They were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants whose activities apparently took no account of the political boundaries and visited all countries in the course of their trade (K.A.N. Shastri). Their Tamil inscription is found in Sumatra.

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Missions and envoys were sent to China in the early part of 11th century A.D. during the reigns of Rajaraja Cola I and his successors.

Cola Transport

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The Cola inscriptions mention roads while describing boundaries of gifted land. There were two types of roads.

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i) *Vali* - only for foot travellers

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ii) *Peru-Vali* - trunk roads leading to various divisions of the Kingdom.

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Examples are *Vadugapperuvali* or *Andhrapatha*, *Kongupperuvali* Road (leading to Salem, Coimbatore); the *Tanjavurpperuvali* mentioned in an inscription from Aduturai (363 of 1907).

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Another inscription from Tanjore (203 of 1908) records the road leading to Kalyāṇapuram (capital of the Western Cālukyas).

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The existence of great roads like the ones mentioned testify the use of wheeled vehicles, and constant movement from one place to another. One such road is mentioned as having been 2 *kol*(24 ft)

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A milestone or an indicator mentioning directions belonging to 13th century has been discovered in North Arcot District.

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Fig.1. A tenth century road sign mentioning it as the Rajkeśarī Peruvali (High road at Sundaikkaimuthur, Dt. Coimbatore, Tamilnadu)

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Fig.2. A thirteenth century road sign mentioning it as the Vikrama, Pandyan Street, 6th Ward at Tiruvannamalai, N.Arcot district, Tamil Nadu. The Pandyan royal emblem (double fish and hook) are inscribed.

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North India between 700 - 1200 A.D.

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By the 7th century A.D North India was fully connected by great roads. Religious travel or pilgrimages became a way of life and there was constant movement - both by the Buddhists and the Hindus - to the various sacred places.

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The great University of Nālandā also attracted students from various parts of the world and great travel facilities were required. Various works mention caravan journeys undertaken by merchants. They include *Bhavisayattakaha*, *Samaraiccakaha* and *Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita*.

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As pointed out by Lallanji Gopal *Medatithi* clearly refers to carts (*gantri*) drawn by bullocks, mules, buffaloes and other animals. The *Upamitibhavaprapañcakathā* mentions that hiring caravans of large carts and animals (mules) for drawing them, yielded high income.

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Rathya is a street through which carriages passed and Laghurathya meant a small carriage street. The Samarāṅganasūtradhāra mentions many kinds of roads.

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Facilities for travellers included water reservoirs. This information can be gleaned through Tilakamañjarī, which also states that the king appointed officers to provide food, drink, beds and medicine in charitable houses. Such houses (Sattragara) are also mentioned in the Prabandha cintāmaṇi.

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Basham, A.L. : 1954, The Wonder that is India, London. Dikshitar, V.R.R. : 1993, The Gupta Polity, Delhi. Gopal, Lallanji : 1989, The Economic Life of Northern India, c 700 - 1200 A.D, Delhi Guruge Ananda : 1991, The Society of the Ramayana, Delhi. History of Tamilnadu - Saṅgam Age, 1983, Madras. Majumdar, R.C. : Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidas. Margabandhu, C :1983, Rangavalli - Recent Researches in Indology, (Edited by) A.V. Narasimhamurthi, B.G.K. Rao, Delhi. Margabandhu, C :1985, Arch. of Sātavāhana - Kṣatrapa times, Delhi. Margabandhu, C : “Early transport vehicles from Ganga Valley”. Mookerji, R.R. : “Chandra Gupta Maurya and his times”. Possehl, Gregory : 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi. Shastri, K.A.N. : 1984, The Colas, Madras University, Madras. Singh, B.P. : 1985, Life in Ancient Varanasi, Delhi. Sparreboom, M. : 1951, Chariots in the Veda, Utrecht. Ray, P. and Sen, S.N. : 1986, The Cultural Heritage of India, Ramakrishna Mission, Calcutta.

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