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A History of Indian Medical Literature v3.c47: Chapter 6: Authors and works on veterinary medicine

A History of Indian Medical Literature v3.c47

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English

Chapter 6: Authors and works on veterinary medicine

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ABHINAVACANDRA: 1 Hayaśāstra. 2

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AGNIPURĀNA. Chapter 287 3 deals with elephants, their diseases, and the treatment of these diseases, as taught by Pālakāpya to Lomapāda.

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The diseases mentioned are: pākala, pāṇḍuroga, śiraḥśūla, ānāha, mūrchā, pādaroga, vepathu, atīsāra, utkarṇaka, karagraha, galagraha, mūtrabhaṅga, tvagdoṣa, kṛmikoṣṭha, gulma, kaṭuroga, madakṣīṇa, and netraroga. 4 Chapter 288 is devoted to aśvaśāstra, as exposed by Dhanvantari; chapters 289 and 290 are concerned with the same subject, as taught by Śālihotra to Suśruta.

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Chapter 291 is about elephants again; Śālihotra is the teacher. 5

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AGNIVEŚA: Hastiśāstra. 6 Agniveśa or Agniveśya is mentioned as an authority on gajaśāstra in a number of texts on the subject.

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AMAREŚVARA: Siddhayogacikitsā. 7 AŚVACIKITSĀŚĀSTRA. 8 AŚVĀDICIKITSĀ. 9 AŚVĀDIGUṆA. 10 AŚVADOṢANIRŪPAṆA. 11 AŚVAHṚDAYA. 12 AŚVALAKṢAṆA. 13 AŚVALAKṢAṆAKRIYĀDI. 14 AŚVALAKṢAṆAŚĀSTRA. 15 AŚVANETRAPARĪKṢĀ. 16 AŚVAPARĪKṢĀ. 17 AŚVAPARĪKṢĀLAKṢAṆA. 18 AŚVAPARĪKṢAṆA. 19 AŚVAPARĪKṢĀṬĪKĀ. 20 AŚVAPRAŚAṂSĀ. 21 AŚV AŚĀLIHOTRA. 22 AŚVASĀRA. 23 AŚVAŚĀSTRA. 24 AŚVATANTRA. 25 AŚVĀYURVEDA. 26

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BASAVA: *Śivattvaratnākara*.27 One chapter (VII.11: 227 verses) is devoted to the science of elephants; two chapters (VII.12: 224 verses; VII.13: 255 verses) are concerned with the science of horses.

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The chapter on elephants deals with the mythical origin of elephants28 (4–8), the forests where wild elephants are to be found (9–16),29 the characteristics of elephants according to the forest where they have been captured (17–27ab), six types of elephants according to size (27cd-30),30 the types called bhadra, manda and mrga (31–39), nine types with regard to their amśa (44cd-70),31 the types of character (sattva; 71–82), breeds (anvaya; 83–90), elephants fit for employment, especially by the king (91–112), the elephant during rut (gandhahastin; 113–123ab), anatomy and related subjects (123cd-141), auspicious and inauspicious marks (142–202),32 the fluid that exudes from an elephant's temples when it is on must (mada; 203–204), the thrusts of an elephant with its tusks (dantāghāta; 205–212),33 auspicious characteristics of a female elephant (213–218ab), and the praise of elephants (218cd-225); the chapter ends with a summary of its contents (226–227ab).

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The first chapter on horses describes the origin of horses, donkeys and mules (1–21ab), the classification of horses according to their colour (varna; 21cd-33ab), the constitutions (prakrti; 33cd-41), the eight types of characteristics of horses (42),34 the characteristics with regard to their body and the sizes of its parts (43–70ab) and the colour of the hair (70cd), horses of more than one colour35 (71–92), bodily defects (93–101ab), the sheens (chāya; 101),36 trot (102), smell (103–104) and ways of neighing (105), the character types of horses (sattva; 106–107),37 the whirls of hair (āvarta) and their meaning (108–185),38 the determination of the age of horses by means of their teeth (186–189), the characteristics of a long-lived horse (190), the determination of the span of life by means of lines on the nostrils (protharekhā; 191–208), and auspicious and inauspicious characteristics (209–224).

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The second chapter on horses is concerned with horses coming from various regions (1–140), auspicious marks again (141–145), topics relating to the mounting of a horse and its training (146–169ab), the regional divisions (kṣetra, daśā) of the body of a horse (169cd-178ab), and the deities presiding over the different parts of the body of a horse (178cd-186ab). The remaining part of the chapter is about chariots (192–197), bullocks (198–226ab), cows (226cd–239),39 and the treatment of some diseases in the animals mentioned (240–253ab).

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BHOJA:40 (a) *Rājamārtaṇḍa*; (b) *Śālihotra*; (c) *Yuktikalpataru*.
(a) The *Rājamārtaṇḍa* contains a chapter on veterinary medicine.41
(b) The *Śālihotra*42 consists of 238 verses, which are for the greater part also found in Nakula's *Aśvacikitsā*.43 The subjects dealt with are: horses of uniform and mixed colours (1–7), the whirls of hair (āvarta or bhramara; 8–27), the measures of the various parts of a horse's body (aśvapramāṇa; 28–34), the speed (vega; 35–44), rules for riding (ārohaṇa; 45–56), pathophysiology (śleṣmaraktalakṣaṇa; 57–80),44 bloodletting (raktamokṣaṇa; 81–91), the regimen during the seasons (ṛtucaryā; 92–117), errhines (nasya; 118–122), poultices (piṇḍa; 123–128), the construction of stables (hayāgāra; 129–131),45 and

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some recipes (132–138). Some verses are accompanied by short glosses.
(c) The *Yuktikalpataru*46 contains sections on horses (aśvayukti; 181–197), elephants (gajayukti; 198–206), bulls (vṛṣayukti; 206–210), buffaloes (mahiṣayukti; 210–211), deer (mṛgayukti; 211–212), dogs (sārameyayukti; 213–214), and goats (ajayukti; 214–215).47

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The subjects of the aśvayukti are: the origin of horses and the various breeds, the measures of the various parts of their body, their colours, the determination of their age, various auspicious characteristics, the whirls of hair, major defects, signs foreboding death, rules for training and riding, the speed of horses, bloodletting, the regimen during the seasons, and various types of horses.

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The gajayukti deals with types (jāti) of elephants, their qualities, and their defects. The yuktis on bulls, etc., describe types of these animals and their good or bad qualities. The verses on horses are partly also found in Bhoja's *Śālihotra*.48

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Authorities quoted or referred to are: Bhoja (194, 201, 207, 212, 214), Garga (208), Gārgya (205, 212), Nakula (183), Pālakāpya (205), Pārāśarasamhitā (196), Śālihotra (197), Śaṅkha (212),49 and Vātsya (19550 and 207).51

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BṚHASPATI: (1) *Aśvalakṣaṇa*;52 (2) *Gajalakṣaṇa*.53

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BUBBUHA is mentioned as an expert in *Hastiśāstra* in Śīlaṅka's *Caüppaṇṇamahāpurisacariya*.54

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BUDDHISENA.55 DAYASIṂHA: *Aśvaśāstra*.56 DEVIDATTA: *Aśvasamketacikitsākalikā*.57 DĪPAṄKARA: *Aśvavaidyaka*.58 DURLABHAGAṆA: *Siddhopadeśasaṃgraha*.59 DURLABHARĀJA:60 (1) *Hastiparīkṣā*;61 (2) *Turangaprabandha*.62 GAJACIKITSĀ.63 GAJALAKṢAṆA.64 GAJAMŪTRĀÑJANAPRAYOGA.65 GAJANIRŪPANA.66 GAJAPĀLANACIKITSĀDI.67 GAJAPARĪKṢĀ.68 GAJAPRAŚAṂSĀ.69 GAJAŚĀNTI.70

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The GAJAŚĀSTRA71 is a treatise on elephants compiled by an unknown author; it is accompanied by a translation in Marāṭhī verse by Śarabhendra.72

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The work consists of two parts, a gajaśāstra in 756 verses, arranged in ten chapters (prakaraṇa), and a gajaśāstrānubandha, an appendix, of 696 verses, divided into a large number of chapters.73

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The Gajaśāstra opens with a maṅgalacaraṇa and a homage to Pālakāpya. Chapter one (pālākapyotpatti or pālākapyacarita; 106 verses) deals with stories about Pālakāpya.74 Chapter two (diggajatatsamṭānatadvamśīyagajalakaṣaṇakathana; 64 verses) describes the origin of elephants in general, and that of the eight elephants of the quarters of the sky (diggaja) and their females in particular;75 it also describes the characteristics of the descendants of the diggajas,76 and adds some verses on the deities presiding over the different parts of an elephant’s body. Chapter three (gajaśāpanugrahakathana; 40 verses) explains particular characteristics and behavioural patterns of elephants as resulting from curses by Dīrghatapas, Agni, Brahmā, Varuṇa and Bhrgu;77 it ends with a story telling how Brahmā bestowed his favour on the elephants. Chapter four (vanagajalakaṣaṇanirūpaṇa; 27 verses) deals with the eight major and eight minor forest regions where wild elephants are found and the characteristics of elephants roaming there.78 Chapter five (gajavayolakaṣaṇa; 99 verses) describes the stages of life of an elephant and mentions its name in each of them, from the first to the twelfth month of the first year of life, from the second to the tenth year, and from the second to the twelfth decade;79 two other series of the stages of life are quoted from other treatises;80 elephants are, according to their age, divided into the categories uttama (superior), madhyama (intermediate) and adhama (inferior); the chapter ends with verses on the stages of life quoted from the Vaiśampāyanīya.81 Chapter six (deśabhedabhinnagalakaṣaṇagajagrahaṇakathana; 36 verses) is concerned with the characteristics of elephants coming from different regions82 and with the capturing of elephants. Chapter seven (bhadramandamṛgasaṃkīrṇagajalakaṣaṇa; 74 verses) is about the bhadra, manda, mṛga, and mixed types of elephants.83 Chapter eight (brahmādyamśavarṇachāyāgandhasattvasvaralakaṣaṇa; 105 verses) treats classifications of elephants with regard to their amśa,84 colour (varṇa),85 sheen (chāyā),86 smell (gandha),87 character (sattva),88 and trumpeting (svara);89 the character types are described a second time on the basis of a work by Vyāsa.90 Chapter nine (gajagatilakaṣaṇadikathana; 52 verses) deals with a variety of subjects: the gait (gati) of elephants,91 their āvartas, major defects (mahādoṣa),92 and measurements (parimāṇa).93 Chapter ten (bāhyāli; 151 verses) is about the ways of being seated (āsana) on an elephant,94 driving elephants by means of the goad (sṛṇipraṇidhi),95 the feet (pādapraṇidhi)96 and words (vākpraṇidhi),97 the pruning of the tusks (dantaccheda),98 thrusts with tusks (dantaghāta),99 the seven beauties of must (madaśobhā),100 the seven stages of must,101 the elephant-fight (bāhyāli) and -sport (gajakrīḍanaka), and the ways of pricking with the goad (sṛṇighāta).

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The subjects dealt with in the gajaśāstrānubandha102 are: the praise of the force of elephants, capturing wild elephants,103 the determination of their age, the female elephant and its pregnancy,104 the gandhahastin,105 the care for and training of elephants after capturing them,106 the mounting of elephants, must, the twelve regions (kṣetra) of an elephant’s body,107 the price of elephants, the pruning of their tusks,108 the treatment of diseases, the care for young elephants, the types of elephants called bhadra, manda and mṛga, rules for the administration of medicines, the properties of articles of food and medicinal substances, the treatment of various disorders, clysters, errhines, the administration of medicines to elephants of various ages, and the construction of stables.109

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Authorities and works quoted or referred to are:110 Pālakāpya (7.36), Vaiśampāyanīya (5.86–99; 7.32–33; 9.25–32), Vaiyyāsikya (7.12–18, 25–31, 37–41; 10.42–44),111 and Vyāsa (6.17; 8.3 and 85–95). The introductory verses state that the Gajaśāstra is based on the works by Pālakāpya and other sages.112 The author of the Gajaśāstra is unknown. The work is probably later than Nīlakaṇṭha’s Mātaṅgalīlā, which dates from the sixteenth century.113

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GAJAVAIDYA.114 This treatise is in the form of a dialogue between a king of Aṅga and Pālakāpya; it contains a great deal of mythological matter about elephants; it deals, among other things, with the methods of taming elephants and the treatment of their diseases.115

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GAJĀVARTALAKAṢAṆA.116 GAJĀYURVEDA.117

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GAṆA, son of Durlabha: Aśvāyurveda or Siddhayogasamgraha.118 The Aśvāyurveda is a treatise on horses and their diseases; it is described as a saṃhitā of 6,000 verses, arranged in six sections (sthāna). The names of these sections are: (1) lakaṣaṇa, (2) rasavyākaraṇa, (3) kalpasūtra, (4) nidāna, (5) cikitsā, and (6) rahasya.119 The author states that he took his material from the works of Śālihotra, Suśruta, Garga, and Dinapati. Some names of diseases mentioned in the introductory part are:120 āmaṇḍaka, aṇḍacāli, aṇḍakṣa, aṇḍaskanna, añjalīkārikā, aśrupāta, anuskanna,121 bhārābhiṣaṇṇa, budbuda, damśapaittika, drauṇikā,122 ekāṅgaroga, kāca, kaphāṇḍa, koṣṭharājī, krimikoṣṭha,123 liṅgita,124 muñja, muñjajāla, nirāṇuka, parisrāvi, paṭala, pittāṇḍa,125 prakoṭaka, prakuñcaka, praskanna,126 pratitūrṇa, prāvāraka, puṇḍarīkagraha, pūyāṇḍa, raktāṇḍa, rātrivāta, siṃhānaka,127 svacchanda, ulūkapādasthānaruj,128 unnīta, vālāḍaka, vātabalāsaka,129 viduragraha, vidutkṣipta, and yoktrābhitāpa. The Sārasamgraha prescribes meat broth in the treatment of vāta diseases.130 Gaṇa’s Aśvāyurveda is quoted in Mitramiśra’s Viramitrodaya.131 The same work contains verses from Gaṇa’s Aśvacikitsā.132 The Gaṇagrantha by Gaṇa is quoted in Nakula’s Aśvaśāstra. A.C. Burnell assigned Gaṇa’s work to the eleventh or twelfth century.133 The author mentions the Rattaula, a tenth-century family of Jain princes of central Telingana,134 and refers to the Muslims, which shows that he may indeed have lived in the eleventh or twelfth century.

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GARGA: Aśvāyurveda.135

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GARUḌAPURĀṆA. One of the chapters of this work136 deals with aśvāyurveda and gajāyurveda.137 The verses on aśvāyurveda are based on Nakula’s Aśvacikitsā.138

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GHOṆĀ NIDĀN, a treatise on horses and the treatment of their diseases in Hindī.139

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GODĀVARAMIŚRA: *Hariharacaturaṅga*.¹⁴⁰ This work is an elaborate treatise on politics and military science, with special reference to the techniques of warfare¹⁴¹ and the army with its fourfold classification.

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The work consists of about 3,000 verses, arranged in eight chapters (pariccheda), which are concerned with (1) elephants (gaja; 813 verses),¹⁴² (2) chariots (ratha; 14 verses),¹⁴³ (3) horses (aśva; 837 verses),¹⁴⁴ (4) foot-soldiers (patti; 18 verses), (5) archery (dhanurvidyā; 399 verses),¹⁴⁵ (6) political science (nīti; 503 verses), (7) war (yuddha; 196 verses), and (8) playful exercises (krīḍā; 165 verses).

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The chapter on elephants deals, after a series of introductory verses, with the following subjects:¹⁴⁶ deities associated with various parts of an elephant's body (17–19);¹⁴⁷ a eulogy of elephants (20–31); the mythical origin of the four classes (jāti) of elephants, called bhadra, manda, mrga and miśra, in the four ages of the world called Krta-, Tretā-, Dvāpara-, and Kaliyuga (32–44);¹⁴⁸ the eight forest regions where elephants come from, the location of these forests, and the class of elephants to be found in each of these regions (45–61);¹⁴⁹ the characteristics of the classes of elephants, divided into sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa types, according to the views of Brhaspati and Pālakāpya (62–164); the classification of the mixed types of elephants according to the views of Yājñavalkya, Rājaputra,¹⁵⁰ Agniveśa, Gautama and Kāśyapa (165–199); division of the mixed types into superior and inferior categories (200–210); the five ways of communicating with elephants (vedita; 211–220); the classification of elephants with respect to their habitat (221–236); the classification of elephants according to the four varṇas (brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya, śūdra; 237–250); the size of bhadra, manda and mrga elephants (251–258); terms designating the parts of an elephant's body (pradeśa; 258–317); auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of the main parts, together with their meaning (śubhāśubhalakṣaṇa; 318–539); the relative importance of defects, compared to each other (540–557); types of irritability (krodha; 558–562); the gait of elephants (gati; 562–566), their velocity (vega; 567–573), perspiration (sveda; 574–576), trumpeting and other sounds (svara; 577–589), and exhalation (niśvāsa; 590–594); the colours of elephants (varṇa; 594–602), their sheen (chāyā; 603–611),¹⁵¹ strength (bala; 612–624), and sattva (625–642); thrusts with the tusks (dantaghāta; 643–655);¹⁵² mada and its physiology (656–669); the seven stages (avasthā) of mada, and the views of Brhaspati, Pālakāpya and Vyāsa on the subject (670–697); elephants in heat (698–711); elephants suitable for use in battle (sāṃgrāmika; 712–738);¹⁵³ elephants suitable for use in the consecration ritual of a king (abhiṣeka; 739–742);¹⁵⁴ elephants unsuitable for use in battle (743–795);¹⁵⁵ signs indicating the life span of elephants (795–813).¹⁵⁶

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The chapter on horses deals, after a series of introductory verses, with the following subjects: the mythical origin of horses, their division into brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya, śūdra, and mixed classes (varṇa), followed by the story relating how horses with their wings (19–69);¹⁵⁷ the regions (āśraya) where horses are to be found (69–76); the fifty-four breeds (kula) of horses, named after these regions, together with their characteristics (77–211);¹⁵⁸ the characteristics of horses named after the four varṇas (212–248) and after mixed castes (249–267); the characters (sattva) of horses, divided into sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa types, which correspond with the classes called bhadra, manda and mrga (268–283);¹⁵⁹ the seven varieties of śuddha sattva, six varieties of rā-

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jasa sattva, and three varieties of tāmasa sattva (284–307);¹⁶⁰ anatomy (pradeśa; 308–356);¹⁶¹ the measurements (māna) of various parts of a horse's body and their effects on the qualities (357–404);¹⁶² the five varieties of beauty (śobhā; 405–425); the types of perspiration (sveda; 426–429);¹⁶³ auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of the various parts of the body (śubhāśubha; 429–604); the whirls of hair (āvarta; 604–607), their shapes (saṃsthāna; 608–613),¹⁶⁴ and their classification (614–619);¹⁶⁵ the description of these whirls and their auspicious or inauspicious meaning (620–722);¹⁶⁶ the colours (varṇa) of horses and their several varieties (723–732);¹⁶⁷ horses suitable for use in battle (733–749); defects in horses (750–762); the life span of horses¹⁶⁸ and the determination of their age by means of particular characteristics, especially of their teeth (762–812); the kṣetras in relation to the life span (813–826); signs indicating the life span (827–837).

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Authorities and works referred to by Godāvara in the *Hariharacaturaṅga* are, apart from those already mentioned: *Acāracintāmaṇi* (6.501), *Advaitadarpaṇa* (6.502),¹⁶⁹ *Bhārata* (7.2),¹⁷⁰ *Brhaspati* (6.17), *Dhanurveda* (5.2),¹⁷¹ *Īśānasamhitā* (5.2),¹⁷² *Jayacintāmaṇi* (6.407),¹⁷³ *Manu* (6.17), *Nītikalpalatā*, and *Tantracintāmaṇi*.¹⁷⁴ *Śrīkodaṇḍacaturbhuja* (5.2),¹⁷⁵ *Tantracintāmaṇi* (5.383; 7.59–60),¹⁷⁶ *Uśanas* (6.17), and *Vīracintāmaṇi* (5.2).¹⁷⁷

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The author mentions his name, Godāvara, in the introductory verses (3 and 4) and in the last verse of his treatise.¹⁷⁸ Earlier works written by him are referred to; these works are: *Acāracintāmaṇi*,¹⁷⁹ *Advaitadarpaṇa*,¹⁸⁰ *Nītikalpalatā*, and *Tantracintāmaṇi*.¹⁸¹ He also composed a *Sāmudrikakāmadhenu*,¹⁸² *Jayacintāmaṇi*,¹⁸³ and *Yogacintāmaṇi*.¹⁸⁴

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Godāvara was a son of Balabhadra,¹⁸⁵ who was rājaguru of the Gajapati kings Puruṣottama Deva (A.D. 1466–1497) and his successor, Pratāparudra Deva.¹⁸⁶ Balabhadra was a son of Gaṅgādhara Miśra, son of Jaleśvara Miśra, son of Mṛtyuñjaya Miśra of the Kautsagotra.¹⁸⁷

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The author was a minister (mantrivara) and preceptor (rājaguru) of Pratāparudradeva, who conferred on him the titles of kavipuṅgava and paṇḍitarāja; this king presented him with a white umbrella, called meghāḍambara,¹⁸⁸ decorated with four golden lions and a golden pitcher. Godāvara also bore the title of vājapeyayājin.¹⁸⁹

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Godāvara's patron, Pratāparudradeva, has been identified as the Gajapati king of this name who ruled in Orissa from A.D. 1497 to about 1540.¹⁹⁰ This king appointed him to the same office as his father in about A.D. 1510.¹⁹¹

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GOPĀLADĀSA KĀYASTHA: *Karaṭīkautuka*.¹⁹² GOTAMA: *Gavāyurveda*.¹⁹³ GOVAIDYA.¹⁹⁴ GOVAIDYAŚĀSTRA.¹⁹⁵ GUṆĀKARA: *Karicikitsāsāroddhāra*.¹⁹⁶

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HAMSADEVA: *Mrgapakṣiśāstra*.¹⁹⁷ This is a zoological treatise in Prakrit, describing 225 mammals and birds in 1,700 verses. The species enumerated are thirty-six groups (varga) and six main categories (three rājasa and three tāmasa categories).

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The author, a Jain from South India, is assigned to the thirteenth century. He wrote his treatise on the request of Saudadeva, the Jain king of Jinapura, who decided to stop hunting and to acquire knowledge about wild animals and birds.198 The work has been translated into English,199 but the Prakrit text has not been edited.200

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The Sanskrit version of the *Mrgapakṣiśāstra*201 consists of two parts, preceded each by an introductory *pūrvapīṭhikā* (of thirty-four verses), and arranged in twenty-one sections (*śreṇī*) on mammals, respectively thirty-six sections on birds. Each section is devoted to one particular mammal or bird or to particular groups of these animals.

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The sections of part one describe: (20) (1) simhaguṇādi (the lion and its varieties): simha,203 mṛgendra, pañcāsya, haryakṣa, kesarin, hari, simhī (35–106ab); (2) vyāghraguṇādi: śārdūla, dvīpin (the leopard),204 vyāghra (the tiger)205 (106cd–146); (3) tarakṣuguṇādi: tarakṣu (the hyena),206 mṛgādana (the cheetah) (147–163ab);207 (4) bhallūkaguṇādi: ṛkṣa,208 acchabhalla,209 bhallūka210 (163cd–208); (5) gaṇḍakaguṇādi: gaṇḍaka,211 khaḍga212 (209–232ab); (6) gajaguṇādi (the elephant): dantin, dantāvala, hastin, dvirada, gaja, bhadragaja, mṛgagaja, samkīrṇagaja, mataṅgaja, padmin, ibha, stamberama, kariṇī (232cd–339); (7) aśvaguṇādi (the horse): turaṅga, aśva, ghoṭaka, arvant, vāha, gandharva, haya (340–402); (8) uṣṭraguṇādi: uṣṭra (the camel),213 kramelaka, dāseraka, mahāṅga (493–433); (9) gardabhaguṇādi: gardabha, khara,214 rāsabha (434–461); (10) varāhaguṇādi: varāha,215 sūkara, kola, potrin, kīṭi, damṣṭrin, bhūdāra, śvāvidh,216 ghṛṣṭi,217 śalya218 (462–501); (11) mahiṣaguṇādi: mahiṣa (the buffalo),219 lūlāya, vāhadvīṣ, kāsara, sairibha (502–543); (12) vṛṣabhaguṇādi: ukṣan (the bull), balivarda, ṛṣabha, vṛṣa, mahokṣa, saurabheya (544–591); (13) dhenuguṇādi: gaus (the cow), dhenu (592–616); (14) ajaguṇādi: aja,220 chāga,221 meṣa,222 vṛṣṇi,223 eḍaka224 (617–655ab); (15) hariṇaguṇādi: mṛga,225 kuraṅga,226 vātayuhariṇa,227 hariṇa,228 vātamṛga,229 kṛṣṇasāra,230 ruru,231 nyaṅku,232 śambara,233 raṅku,234 rohitākṣa,235 gokarṇa,236 eṇa,237 gandharva238 (655cd–738ab); (16) camūruguṇādi: camūru,239 kandali, cīna, priyaka240 (738cd–751); (17) kapiguṇādi: kapi,241 plavaṅga,242 śākhāmṛga,243 valīmukha,244 markaṭa,245 vānara,246 kīśa,247 vanaukas248 (752–804); (18) sṛgālaguṇādi: sṛgāla (the jackal),249 mṛgadhūrtaka,250 vañcaka,251 kroṣṭar,252 jambuka,253 pheru254 (805–837); (19) bīḍālaguṇādi: bīḍāla,255 mārjāra,256 oṭu,257 ākhubhuja,258 medaka259 (838–874ab); (20) mūṣakaśāguṇādi: unduru,260 ākhu,261 mūṣaka,262 cucundara,263 śāśa264 (874cd–910ab); (21) vṛkaguṇādi: vṛka (the wolf), koka,265 īhāmṛga266 (910cd–941ab); śvānaguṇādi: śvan, kukkura, śunaka, mṛgadamśaka,267 sārameya, grāmyamṛga (941cd–973ab); upasamhāra (summary) (973cd–988).

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The sections of part two describe: (22) hamsādiguna: hamsa,268 cakrāṅga,269 mānasavāsin,270 rājahaṃsa,271 mallikākṣa,272 kādamba,273 kalahaṃsa274 (1–70); (23) cakravākaguṇādi: koka,275 cakra,276 rathāṅga277 (71–100); (24) sārasabalākācakoraśarāricātakapakṣiguṇādi: puṣkara,278 sārasa,279 balākā,280 śāraṅga,281 cakora,282 bṛhaccakora,283 śarāru,284 āṭī,285 cātaka,286 stoaka287 (101–168ab); (25) garuḍaśyena-guṇādi: garuḍa,288 vainateya,289 paṇṇagāri,290 śyena,291 śaśādana292 (168cd–211ab); (26) gṛdhrabakaguṇādi: gṛdhra,293 dākṣāyya,294 ātāyin,295 cilla,296 krauñca,297 baka,298 kahva,299 kuñca300 (211cd–266ab); (27) kākaguṇādi: 301 kāka,302 karaṭa,303 balipuṣṭa,304 sakṛtpraja,305 dhvāṅkṣa,306 ātmaghoṣa,307 parabḥṛta,308 vāyasa,309 cira-ñjīvin,310 maukulī,311 droṇakāka,312 kākola313 (266cd–335); (28) ulūkaguṇādiguna:

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ulūka,314 vāyasārāti,315 pecaka,316 kauśika,317 ghūka,318 divābhīta,319 niśātana320 (336–386); (29) śukakokilaguṇādi: śuka,321 kīra,322 śārikā,323 vanapriya,324 para-bhṛta,325 kokila,326 pika327 (387–451); (30) mayūraguṇādi: mayūra (the peafowl),328 barhin, nīlakaṇṭha, bhujaṅgabhuj, śikhāvala, kekin (452–499); (31) pārāvatacāṣaguṇādi: pārāvata,329 kalarava,330 kapota,331 cāṣa,332 kīkīdivi333 (500–544ab); (32) kukkuṭaguṇādi: kṛkavāku,334 tāmracūḍa,335 kukkuṭa,336 caraṇāyudha337 (544cd–571); (33) caṭakakareṭapakṣiguṇādi: caṭaka,338 kalaviṅka,339 karkareṭu,340 kareṭu341 (572–598); (34) loharṣṭhādārvāghāṭapakṣiguṇādi: loharṣṭha,342 kuraṇṭaka,343 dā-rvāghāṭa,344 śatapattraka345 (599–628); (35) khañjarīṭādi: khañjarīṭabharadvājakalīṅgapakṣiguṇādi: khañjarīṭa,346 khañjana,347 vyāghrāṭa,348 bharadvāja,349 kaliṅga,350 bhṛṅga,351 dhūmyāṭa352 (629–672ab); (36) plavādipakṣiguṇa: plava,353 tittiri,354 kukkubha,355 lāva,356 koyaṣṭi,357 hārīta358 (672cd–700).

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The treatise ends with a śāstrapariṣamāpti (701–717).

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HASTYĀYURVEDA: anonymous.359 HEMASŪRI: *Aśvaśāstra*.360 HIMMATA BAHĀDURA: *Aśvaphalaprakāśa*.361 INDURĀJA.362 INDUSENA: *Sārasamgraha*.363

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JAYADATTA: *Aśvavaidyaka*,364 a treatise in 1,664 verses,365 arranged in sixty-eight chapters (adhyāya).

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A table of contents is found in chapter one (6–15). Chapters two to sixty-eight deal with: anatomy (pradeśa; 2);366 good and bad characteristics of horses (3.1–28),367 their whirls of hair (āvarta; 3.29–70),368 the deities presiding over the various parts of a horse's body (3.70–72), the puṇḍras (3.73–81),369 the puṣpas (3.82–92),370 the trot (gati; 3.93–97), the colour of horses (3.98–124),371 their neighing (svara, heṣita; 3.125–134), major defects (mahādoṣa) in horses (3.135–159),372 portents (utpāta; 3.160–170),373 the sheens (chāyā) of horses (3.171–179),374 their characters (sattva; 3.180–181),375 the measures of their limbs (pramāṇa; 3.182–194); their span of life (āyus; 4.1–16), the determination of their age by means of the development of their teeth and the meaning of various characteristics of their teeth (vayas; 4.17–34);376 the regional division of their body (daśā, kṣetra; 5); the racial classification of horses (6); their classification according to the four varṇas, sattva and śakti (7.1–10), the field of pasture (raṅgabhūmi; 7.11–12), rules for riding (7.13–73); the treatment of infertility in mares (8); the characteristics of a pregnant mare (9); the care for a mare after dropping its foal (10.1–12), the purification of a mare's milk (10.12–17), the care for the newborn foal (10.18–23); rules for the dosage of medicines (11); materia medica and technical terms (nighaṇṭu; 12);377 rules for feeding during the various seasons (13); the application of caustics (kṣarādāha; 14.1–6), cauterization (dāha; 14.7–20), the employment of surgical instruments (14.21–23); bloodletting (15); clysters (nirūha and anuvāsana; 16); errhines (nasya; 17);378 sudation (sveda; 18); oleaginous drinks (sneha; 19); medicated oils (20); medicated ghees (21); the treatment of fatigue (śrāntopacāra; 22); signs foreboding death (ariṣṭa; 23–25); mṛgaroga (26);379 the causes and signs of excitement of the three doṣas (27); a list of diseases (28); diseases of mouth and throat (29); 380 diseases of the head (31); lameness (laṅgita; 32); 382 diseases of the ears (33); cough (34); hiccup and shortness of breath (35); wounds and ulcers (vraṇa; 36); siṅghānaka (37); 383 ghṛṇiroga (38); 384 diseases of the legs and hoofs (pādaroga; 39); 385 fever (40); indigestion (ajīrṇa; 41); diarrhoea (42); colic (śūla; 43); 386 udāvarta (44); praskanna (45); 387 worms (kṛmikoṣṭha) and śleṣmakoṣṭha (46); mūtragraha (47); 388 kuṣṭha (48); 389 swellings (śotha; 49); disorders of scrotum and testicles (muṣkaroga; 50); 390 auṇītaroga (51); 391 udara (52); 392 haemorrhoids (53); utkarṇaka (54); 393 vātavyādhi (55); 394 unmāda (56); 395 disorders by grahas (57); 396 śoṣa (58); 397 vātabalāsaka (59); 398 vyāpad (60); 399 toxicology (61); convulsions (apasmāra; 62); ṣaṭpadībhakṣa (63); 400 signs indicating curability of a disease or its incurability (64); the constitutions (prakṛti; 65); some kalpas (66–68). 401

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The theoretical concepts found in the chapters on diseases and their treatment are the same as those in human āyurveda. Many diseases are divided into doṣic and āgantu types. 402 The types of treatment do not differ much from those in human āyurveda. Magical and religious elements occur in the chapter on grahas, as well as in that on the rules for riding a horse (7.37–43). 403

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Jayadatta often refers to Śālihotra as the foremost authority on the science of horses. 404

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Jayadatta is quoted by Bhoja, 405 Cakrapāṇidatta in his commentary on the Caraka-saṃhitā, Mitramiśra in the Vīramitrodaya, 406 in the Śārṅgadharapaddhati, and by Ṭoḍara in his Āyurvedasaukhya. 407

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Jayadatta mentions his name and that of his father, Vijayadatta, in the introductory verses of his work (1.4). The colophons call him a great vassal (mahāsamanta).

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The only reliable dates are A.D. 1364, the year of completion of the Cambridge MS, and A.D. 1424, the year in which the India Office MS was written. In a number of articles on horses, P.K. Gode concluded that Jayadatta wrote his work between A.D. 700/800 and 1200/1300. 408 A. Rahman repeats that the treatise must have been composed between 800 and 1200. 409 The terminus ante quem is A.D. 1300 according to A. M. Blondeau. 410 M. Vallauri places the author in the fourteenth or fifteenth century. 411

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JAYADEVA: Śālihotra or Aśvavaidyaka. 412 JAYADRATHA: Aśvaśāstra. 413

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JINADĀSA 414 was the author of: (1) Gajaprabandha, also called Gajaparīkṣā and Hastaparīkṣā; 415 (2) Turaṅgaprabandha. 416 Both works, on elephants and horses respectively, were completed in A.D. 1158.

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The same author wrote a Svapnaśāstra 417 on auspicious and inauspicious dreams, and began writing a Sāmudrikatilaka, 418 also called Strīpuruṣalakṣaṇa; 419 the latter treatise was completed by his son, Jagaddeva. 420

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Jinadāsa was a learned Jain householder, who lived in Gujarāt and held the office of minister during the reigns of the Caulukya kings Kumārapāla (A.D. 1143–1174) 421 and Bhīmadeva II (A.D. 1178–1239). 422

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KĀHNAPRABHUVAIDYA: Aśvasāra. 423

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KALHAṆA: Aśvasārasamuccaya or Sārasamuccaya. 424 Kalhaṇa’s Aśvasārasamuccaya and Sārasamuccaya are quoted in Mitramiśra’s Vīramitrodaya. 425

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KAUṬILYA: Arthaśāstra. 426 KĪRTIVARMAN: Govaidya. 427 KUMĀRA: Gajacikitsā. 428

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MAHĀNĀGA: Kalpanāratnavyākhyāna: a commentary on Śivarāmabhūpati’s Kalpanāratna, a work on elephants. 429

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MAHEŚVARA: Gajacikitsā. 430

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MALLADEVA PAṆḌITA: Sārasindhu. 431 A Vaidyakalpataru may be by the same author. 432

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MĀNAPRIYAMATA. 433 MATSYAPURĀṆA. 434

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MĀṬṬU VĀKAṬAMUM MĀṬṬU AṄKA AṬAIYĀḶAMUM, two Tamil treatises on the diseases of cattle and their treatment. 435

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MOTĪRĀMA AUDĪCYA: Aśvagovṛṣalakṣaṇa. 436

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NAKULA: 437 (1) Aśvacikitsā; (2) Aśvaśāstra.
(1) The Aśvacikitsā 438 consists of 423 verses, arranged in eighteen chapters (adhyāya). 439

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Chapter one is called praśnādhyāya; the introductory verses invoke the blessing of Śālihotra, on of Turaṅgaghosa, and mention that the abbreviated version of Śālihotra’s treatise, as made by Nakula, 440 will be expounded; a short table of contents enumerates the subjects of the chapters of the work; 441 the remaining part (1.5–21) is devoted to the mythical story telling how horses lost their wings. 442

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The subjects of the other chapters are: the breeds (jāti) of horses, 443 and a number of behavioural characteristics considered to be auspicious or inauspicious (2), the colours of horses (varṇa; 3), 444 the whirls of hair (āvarta; 4), 445 the development of a horse’s teeth (dantodbheda; 5), the measures of the limbs (sarvāvayavapramāṇa; 6), the speed of horses (vega; 7), rules for riding (ārohaṇa; 8), the utility of horses for different purposes and related subjects (vāhana; 9), pathophysiology (dhātuparīkṣā; 10), 446 the regimen during the seasons (ṛtucaryā), bloodletting (11), 447 errhines (nasya; 12), poultices (piṇḍa; 13), medicated ghees (ghṛta; 14), decoctions (kvātha; 15), toxicology (viṣa; 16), and the construction of stables (aśvaśālā, hayāgāra; 18). 448

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Diseases are not described in the Aśvacikitsā.

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Some noticeable medicinal substances are: bhrāmari (13.1), gaṇḍakī (13.12 and 21), pācā (15.10), śataghnī (13.2), and viṣakaṅkolī (16.12).

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Śālihotra is frequently referred to as the foremost authority.⁴⁴⁹

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(2) The *Aśvaśāstra*⁴⁵⁰ is a treatise in verse, interspersed with prose, of about 650 units, divided into twenty-six chapters.

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The subjects are: introduction,⁴⁵¹ the praise of horses, a hymn of praise (stotra) to Raivata,⁴⁵² the mythical story telling how horses lost their wings,⁴⁵³ anatomy (pradeśādhyaya),⁴⁵⁴ auspicious and inauspicious characteristics (aṅgalakṣaṇa),⁴⁵⁵ the eight types of characteristics of horses (aśvalakṣaṇa),⁴⁵⁶ the regional divisions (daśā, kṣetra) of their body, the whirls of hair (āvarta),⁴⁵⁷ horses of mixed colours,⁴⁵⁸ the puṇḍras,⁴⁵⁹ the puṣpas,⁴⁶⁰ the neighing (heṣita) of horses, their smell,⁴⁶¹ sheen,⁴⁶² gait (gati)⁴⁶³ and character (sattva),⁴⁶⁴ the main defects (mahādoṣa), the colour of the palate (tāluraṅga) in newborn colts, the various breeds (kula) of horses,⁴⁶⁵ the determination of the age of horses by means of their teeth (vayojñāna),⁴⁶⁶ the names and descriptions of horses with uniform or mixed colours,⁴⁶⁷ horses suitable to particular riders and especially to the king,⁴⁶⁸ the span of life (āyurlakṣaṇa), portents (utpāta) in connection with horses, the training of horses (vahanaśikṣā),⁴⁶⁹ the trot (dhārā) of horses, and rules for riding (āroha).⁴⁷⁰

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The edition of Nakula’s *Aśvaśāstra* ends with extracts from Malladevapandita’s *Sārasindhu*⁴⁷¹ and another *Sārasindhu*, also called *Śālihotravaiśampāyanīya*.⁴⁷²

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Authorities referred to are Garga (2, 90), Śālihotra (2, 10, 19, 21, 65, 81, 91), and Suśruta (2).⁴⁷³

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Nakula’s *Aśvaśāstra* is quoted in Mitramiśra’s *Vīramitrodaya*.⁴⁷⁴

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Nakula is quoted or referred to in Basava’s *Śivatattvaratnākara*, Bhoja’s *Yukti-kalpataru*,⁴⁷⁵ Dhanvantari’s *Samnipātakalikā*,⁴⁷⁶ the *Haṃsarājanidāna*, Himmata Bahā-dura’s *Aśvaphalaprakāśa*, the *Śārṅgadharapaddhati*,⁴⁷⁷ *Subhāṣitaratnanidhi*,⁴⁷⁸ *Sūktiratnahāra*,⁴⁷⁹ and Toḍara’s *Āyurvedasaukhya*.⁴⁸⁰

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Nothing is known about the author of the works attributed to Nakula. The *Mahābhārata* mentions the expertise of Nakula, the fourth of the Pāṇḍava brothers, in the art of training and managing horses, taught to him by Droṇa.⁴⁸¹

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Medical works attributed to Nakula are: *Vaidyakasarvasva*,⁴⁸² *Cikitsāsaṃgraha*, and *Sārasaṃgraha*.⁴⁸³ He is also credited with a rasayoga against *snāyukaroga*.⁴⁸⁴

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Nakula’s works are assigned to the period about A.D. 1000⁴⁸⁵ or are said to be earlier than A.D. 1000.⁴⁸⁶ The earliest MS of the *Aśvacikitsā* dates from A.D. 1864.⁴⁸⁷ A MS of Nakula’s *Śālihotra*⁴⁸⁸ was completed in A.D. 1635/36. The earliest MS of the *Aśvaśāstra* is from A.D. 1617/18.⁴⁸⁹

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NALARĀJA: *Aśvaparīkṣaṇa*.⁴⁹⁰

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NĀRADA: (1) *Aśvaśānti*;⁴⁹¹ (2) *Gajaśānti*.⁴⁹²

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(2) The *Gajaśānti* is divided into nine chapters (paṭala); it is written in the form of a conversation between Nārada as a teacher and Devala, also called Vāsava, as his pupil.

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The chapter headings are, according to Umāpatyācāra’s commentary: (1) gajaṣṭikramakathana (28 verses): the creation of the mythical elephants of the eight quarters of the sky⁴⁹³ and how they lost their wings, (2) gajajātyaṃśanirūpaṇa (105

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verses): the aṃśa typology (sixteen uttama, six madhyama and six adhama types), (3) gajaprayojanajasthānanirūpaṇa (23 verses): uses of elephants, places where they are found, (4) gajabandhanasthānanirdeśakathana (53 verses): places where elephants may be captured, (5) gajabandhanaracanākramakathana (73 verses): methods of capturing (the stockade, vāribandha, vaśābandha = anugatabandha, and gartabandha, i.e., the pit method), (6) gajājanayanakramahastipālalakṣaṇakramakathana (13 verses): the removal from the stockade (ānayana)⁴⁹⁴ and the desired characteristics in elephant keepers, (7) gajaśālālakṣaṇakathana (27 verses): the construction of stables, (8) gajavayahaṅkāryakramakathana (20 verses): the gestation period and a mother’s care for her young during the first five months of its life, and (9) gajaśikṣākramanirūpaṇa (105 verses): the training of elephants, beginning when they are three years old, characteristics developing during the years of their growth, and the course of training.

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Information on the author and his date is not available.

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Umāpatyācāra mentions in the introductory verses of his commentary the following authorities on gajaśāstra: Agniveśya, Bhrgu, Bṛhaspati,⁴⁹⁵ Gajanātha, Gautama, Kolāhala,⁴⁹⁶ Mrgacarman, Nārada, Pālakāpya, Raibhya, Vālakhilya,⁴⁹⁷ and Vyāsa.⁴⁹⁸ Umāpatyācāra’s commentary is very elaborate. Sources are not mentioned.

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NĀRĀYAṆA: *Hayalīlāvatī*.⁴⁹⁹

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NĀRĀYAṆA DĪKṢITA: *Gaja(saṃ)grahaṇaprakāra*, a work on the capture and training of wild elephants in 881 āryā verses, arranged in five chapters (āśvāsa).⁵⁰⁰

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Chapter one (1–29) is in praise of elephants. Chapter two (30–373) describes ten methods of capturing elephants.⁵⁰¹ Chapter three (374–423) enumerates the regions where elephants are found. Chapter four (424–664) deals with the training of elephants.⁵⁰² Chapter five (665–881) is about the construction of stables, the feeding of and care for elephants, the periodical evaluation of their worth (714–753),⁵⁰³ types of elephants according to their theory of origin (kula) and other characteristics, auspicious and inauspicious characteristics, and the yearly show of the elephants of the king for the entertainment of the public (754–881).

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The methods described for the capture of wild elephants are:⁵⁰⁴ (1) vṛtibandha (capture in stockades; 30–53), (2) vṛkṣabandha (capture by enclosing within a smaller wooded area; 56–101),⁵⁰⁵ (3) rajjubandha or śṛṅkhalābandha (capture by means of nooses or chains), also called ālavāla- and paṅkabandha (capture through the device of water-basins or sticky mud) (102–130), (4) vāribandha (capture by means of a moat filled with water; 131–173), (5) anugata- or kariṇībandha (capture of young elephants by using trained female elephants as decoys; 174–203),⁵⁰⁶ (6) laghugarta- and (7) nimnāvaṭabandha (the pit method for capturing single elephants; 204–264),⁵⁰⁷ (8) (pra)codanā- or preraṇābandha (capture by driving; 266–300),⁵⁰⁸ (9) vana- or udyānabandha (the same as anugatabandha, but taking place in the city-park instead of in the woods; 301–331), (10) pāñcālikābandha (capture by using puppets of young elephants; 332–371).⁵⁰⁹

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The editor of the text is of the opinion that methods three, four and eight form together the practice called khedda until recent times. Others regard the stockade method as khedda.⁵¹⁰ No information is available on the author and the date of composition.

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NĪLAKAṆṬHA: *Mātaṅgalīlā*.⁵¹¹ This treatise on elephantology consists of 253 verses,⁵¹² arranged in twelve chapters. Chapter one (40 verses) deals with: the encounter of Romapāda, king of Aṅga,⁵¹³ with the sage Pālakāpya,⁵¹⁴ son of Sāmagāyana, who expounds to him the science of elephants; the mythical origin of elephants and their banishment to earth; the birth of Pālakāpya; the various natural types (jāti) of elephants,⁵¹⁵ the names for an elephant,⁵¹⁶ and related subjects. Chapter two (17 verses) is about favourable and chapter three (7 verses) about unfavourable marks.⁵¹⁷ Chapter four (6 verses) describes marks of longevity, and chapter five (23 verses) is about the stages of life.⁵¹⁸ Chapter six (13 verses) is concerned with the measurements of the various types of elephant⁵¹⁹ and with anatomy, chapter seven (3 verses) with their price, and chapter eight (25 verses) with their character types (sattva).⁵²⁰ Chapter nine (23 verses) describes the state of excitement in elephants, called must (mada), and its seven stages.⁵²¹ Chapter ten (14 verses) is about the capture of elephants,⁵²² chapter eleven (51 verses) about their keeping and their daily and seasonal regimen.⁵²³ Chapter twelve (31 verses) deals with elephant-drivers (mahouts)⁵²⁴ and related subjects. An authority referred to is Bṛhaspati (4.4). Gaṇapati Śāstrī, who edited Nīlakaṇṭha's treatise, says that it is very well known in Kerala, and guesses on this ground that its author may have been a native of that region.⁵²⁵

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The *Mātaṅgalīlā* is regarded as a work by Nīlakaṇṭhamūssatu,⁵²⁶ who lived in the latter half of the sixteenth century and belonged to the Tirumaṅgalam house of Kerala; he studied under Brahmānanda Yati.⁵²⁷

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PADMARASA: *Hayaśārasamuccaya*.⁵²⁸

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PĀLAKĀPYA: *Hastyāyurveda*.⁵²⁹ The *Hastyāyurveda* is a comprehensive treatise on elephant-medicine.⁵³⁰ It is composed partly in verse, partly in prose,⁵³¹ and is divided into four sections: mahārogasthāna (eighteen chapters), kṣudrarogasthāna (seventy-two chapters), śalyasthāna (thirty-four chapters), and uttara- or parivārasthāna (thirty-six chapters).⁵³² It is written in the form of a dialogue between Romapāda, king of Aṅga,⁵³³ who, surrounded by many sages, in his capital Campā,⁵³⁴ is instructed in the science of hastyāyurveda by the greatest authority on this subject, Pālakāpya. The structure of the work resembles in some respects that of the Caraka- and Suśrutasaṃhitā⁵³⁵ and is also reminiscent of Bharata's *Nāṭyaśāstra*.⁵³⁶ Each chapter opens with particular questions by Romapāda which are answered by Pālakāpya. The way in which the contents of the *Hastyāyurveda* are arranged differs from that of the classical saṃhitās. By far the larger part of the general subjects is not dealt with in the first sthāna, but in the third and fourth ones. The basic medical concepts are the same as those in human

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āyurveda, but much less space is devoted to them. A nidāna-, śārīra-, and kalpasthāna are absent. The nidāna and treatment of a disease are in all cases found in one and the same chapter. The properties of medicinal substances are not enumerated, although those of articles of food are elaborately described. Most of the subjects of the anonymous *Gajaśāstra* are either absent or much more concisely discussed. The medical science, applied to elephants and their diseases, is the major concern of the *Hastyāyurveda*.⁵³⁷ Section one is called mahārogasthāna, which conveys the impression that the diseases it describes were considered to be the major diseases of elephants.⁵³⁸ Chapter one (vanānucarita) deals with stories about Pālakāpya, his encounter with Romapāda, and the exposition of the hastyāyurveda by the former to the latter. Chapter two (annasamācāra) is about the care for and feeding of elephants. Chapter three (sāmyāsātmyaviniścaya) is concerned with the fifteen causes of death in wild elephants, and with their natural food. Chapter four (śāstrasaṃgraha) gives a table of contents of the treatise, their chapter. Chapter five (gajalakṣaṇavinayāsa) contains a eulogy of elephants and verses on the care for them. Chapter six (śiṣyopanayana) is about the initiation of pupils.⁵³⁹ Chapter seven (rogavibhakti) contains interesting classifications of the diseases of elephants. Chapter eight (jvarotpatti) tells mythical stories about the origin of fever. Chapters nine to eighteen deal with a series of diseases and their treatment: jvara (fever; 9),⁵⁴⁰ skanda (10),⁵⁴¹ pāṇḍuroga (11),⁵⁴² ānāha (12),⁵⁴³ mūrcchā (13),⁵⁴⁴ śiroroga (diseases of the head; 14),⁵⁴⁵ pādarōga (diseases of the legs; 15),⁵⁴⁶ vyāpad (disorders caused by the wrong employment of particular articles of food or medicinal preparations; 16),⁵⁴⁷ śopha (17),⁵⁴⁸ and akṣiroga (eye diseases; 18).⁵⁴⁹ Section two is called kṣudrarogasthāna.⁵⁵⁰ Its subjects are: vamathu (vomiting; 1), atisāra (2),⁵⁵¹ madanajagdhaka (3),⁵⁵² tṛṇasoṣin (4),⁵⁵³ karmātinīta (5),⁵⁵⁴ viṣa (poisoning; 6-8),⁵⁵⁵ digdhaviddha (disorders in elephants pierced by poisoned arrows; 9), sarpadaṣṭa (snake-bites; 10), sphoṭikā (boils and bites by spiders; 11), apavādabaddha (12),⁵⁵⁶ pūrvābaddha (13),⁵⁵⁷ visarpa (14),⁵⁵⁸ hṛdayasphālana (15),⁵⁵⁹ vālakṣaṇī (16),⁵⁶⁰ medhrakṣāṇī (17),⁵⁶¹ hastonmathita (18),⁵⁶² udāvarta (19), utkarṇaka (20),⁵⁶³ vātagati (21),⁵⁶⁴ manyāgraha (22),⁵⁶⁵ madakṣīṇa (23),⁵⁶⁶ kṛśa (24),⁵⁶⁷ balakṣīṇa (25),⁵⁶⁸ śleṣmābhiṣaṅga (26),⁵⁶⁹ vanasātmyānulomika (27),⁵⁷⁰ talakāśī (28-29),⁵⁷¹ galagraha (30),⁵⁷² tṛṣṇā (thirst) and siddhārthaka (31),⁵⁷³ bhūtagraha (32),⁵⁷⁴ unmāda (insanity; 33), apasmāra (epilepsy; 34), vātakundalikā (35),⁵⁷⁵ bhāronmathita (36),⁵⁷⁶ lupta (37),⁵⁷⁷ paṭṭakṛmi (38),⁵⁷⁸ uraḥkṣata (39),⁵⁷⁹ śoṇitāṇḍa (40),⁵⁸⁰ yavagaṇḍaśiras (41),⁵⁸¹ carmakīla (warts; 42), vṛddha or jarā (old age; 43), avasāda (lassitude; 44), jaṭharaka (45),⁵⁸² bālacikitsā (diseases of young elephants, separated from their parents; 46), rātrikṣipta (47),⁵⁸³ mūtrasaṅgha (48),⁵⁸⁴ sūtīkāvāta (49),⁵⁸⁵ dantaroga (diseases of the teeth; 50), cetobhramśa (51),⁵⁸⁶ śūla (52),⁵⁸⁷ śarada (53),⁵⁸⁸ madhumakṣikādaṣṭa (stings by honeybees; 54), chavīdoṣa (55),⁵⁸⁹ mṛttikābhakṣaṇa (56),⁵⁹⁰ grahaṇīdoṣa (chronic diarrhoea; 57), āma (58),⁵⁹¹ kṛmikoṣṭha (infestation of the intestinal tract by worms; 59),⁵⁹² kṣaya (60),⁵⁹³ mada (61),⁵⁹⁴ karṇavālakṛmi (parasites living in the ears and on the hairs of the tail; 62), karṇaroga (diseases of the ears; 63), abhakṭacandha (want of appetite; 64), bhaktagrāsoparodha (65),⁵⁹⁵ droṇikāśopha (66),⁵⁹⁶ atiyāta (67),⁵⁹⁷ gulma (swelling of the abdominal viscera; 68), hṛdroga (diseases of the heart; 69), and gātraroga (70–72).598

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Section three, called śalyasthāna, is mainly concerned with disorders requiring surgical treatment and with surgical procedures; it also deals with embryology and anatomy.599

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Its subjects are: vraṇa (sores and ulcers; 1), sadyaḥkṣata (flesh wounds; 2–3),600 ṣaḍatyaya (4),601 vraṇopakrama (5),602 dvādaśopakrama (6),603 garbhasambhava (embryology; 7), garbhāvakrānti (8),604 śarīravicaya (anatomy; 9), śastrāgnipraṇidhi (sharp instruments and cautery; 10),605 yantravidhi (blunt instruments; 11), śalyoddharaṇa (12),606 vidradhi (abscesses; 13), vraṇa (the treatment of wounds and sores; 14),607 nāḍīvraṇa (fistulas and sinuses; 15), śirāvyuhavyadha (16),608 dantanāḍī (dental sinuses; 17), adhikadanta (supernumerary teeth; 18), śirāccheda (19),609 marmapramāṇa (20),610 eraṇḍaka (21),611 marmaviddha (injuries to vital points; 22–23), doṣavicaya (24),612 agnidagdha (burns; 25), lūtā (26),613 viṣakīṭa (bites by poisonous insects; 27), vyāladaṣṭa (snake-bites; 28), pradeśajñāna (29),614 śastravidhi (30),615 kṣāra (caustics; 31), bhagna (fractures; 32), mūḍhagarbha (malpositions of the foetus; 33) and dantoddharaṇa (34).616

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Section four, the uttarasthāna, is about the following subjects: snehapāna (the administration of oleaginous substances; 1–2), annapānavidhi (foods and drinks; 3),617 snehavidhi (the procedures for the administration of oleaginous substances; 4), basti (enemas; 5), śālāvidhāna (the construction of stables; 6),618 nasya (errhines; 7), yavasa (8),619 ariṣṭa (signs foreboding death; 9), dantakalpanā (10),620 rasavīryavipāka (11), ikṣudāna (feeding with sugarcane; 12), nasya (errhines; 13), añjana (collyria; 14), ṛtucaryā (the regimen during the seasons; 15), kāryākāryavidhi (16),621 anupāna (postprandial drinks; 17), sauvīrakapānavidhi (18),622 surāpratipānavidhi (19),623 gugguluvidhi (the administration of guggulu; 20), kṣīradāna (the administration of different kinds of milk; 21), śrīgajasambhava (22),624 kimarthakī (23),625 paricāraka (24),626 trividhi (25),627 pathyāpathyavicāra (wholesome and unwholesome substances; 26), karīṣamūtra (27),628 laśunakalpa (28),629 lavaṇayoga (29),630 pāmśudāna (30),631 mādavasthā (31),632 nāgatantukagrāha (32),633 jalahastin (33),634 jalaukā (leeches; 34),635 upasarga (35),636 and gajaśānti (36).637

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The first chapter of the treatise mentions a large number of sages who assemble at the court of Romapāda in order to be instructed in the science of hastyāyurveda. Their names are: Acūḍa, Agastya, Agniveśa, Āṅgirasa, Arimeda, atri, prince Bāṣkali, Bhāradvāja, Bhārgava, Bhṛgu, Bṛhaspati, Cyavana, Dīrgha,638 Gārgya, Gautama,639 Hiraṇya,640 Jamadagni, Kāṅkāyana, Kāpya, Kāśyapa, Kratu,641 Kumuda, Māṇḍavya, Marīci, Mataṅga,642 Mṛgaśarman,643 Nārada,644 Parāśara,645 Parikara, Pulaha,646 Pulastya, Raibhya,647 Sārasvata,648 Saubala,649 Suparvaṇa, Triśanku,650 Ūrmimālin, Vasiṣṭha, Viśvāmitra, and Yājñavalkya.651

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Some of these and their opinions are referred to in the Hastyāyurveda: Agniveśa (I.3.3 and IV.4),652 Arimeda (III.8.301), Bāṣkali (III.8),653 Bharadvāja (IV.4), Gārgya (IV.4), Gautama (I.3.3; III.8.298; IV.4), Kāśyapa (II.8 and 11; III.8.28, 279, 295–296),654 rājaputra (= Bāṣkali; III.8.299),655 Vasiṣṭha (II.11), and Yājñavalkya (III.8.273).656 The following sages are occasionally mentioned: Bhṛgu,657 Kāśyapa, Marīci,658 and Uddāla;659 Āṅgiras, Cyavana, Dīrgha, Jamadagni, Kratu, Pulaha,

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Pulastya, and Vasiṣṭha.660 Caraka is referred to once (II.58).

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Pālakāpya is quoted or referred to in the Agnipuraṇa, Anantakumāra’s Yogaratnasamuccaya, Ballālasena’s Adbhutasāgara,661 Basava’s Śivatattvaratnākara, Bhoja’s Yuktikalpataru, the anonymous Gajaśāstra and Gajavaidya, Godāvara’s Hariharacaturaṅga,662 Hemādri’s Caturvargacintāmaṇi,663 Hemādri’s Lakṣaṇaprakāśa,664 Jayaratna’s Jvaraparājaya, Kṣīrasvāmin’s commentary on the Amarakoṣa,665 Mallinātha’s commentary on Kālidāsa’s Raghuvamśa,666 Mitramiśra’s Vīramitrodaya,667 Narahari’s Śārṅgadharapaddhati, Śivadāsasena’s commentary on the Cakradatta, Śrīdāsapaṇḍita’s commentary on the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā,671 Toḍara’s Āyurvedasaukhya, Ugrāditya’s Kalyāṇakāraka,672 Umāpati’s commentary on Nārada’s Gajaśikṣā, and Vijayarakṣita’s part of the Madhukośa on the Mādhavanidāna.

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Pālakāpya’s work is quoted as Hastivaidyaka in Cakrapāṇidatta’s Āyurvedadīpikā, and as Gajavaidya in Vācaspati’s commentary on the Mādhavanidāna.

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A Hindī commentary on the Hastyāyurveda, called Amarasubodhinī, was written by Rākhecā in the second half of the seventeenth century.673 A Kannaḍa commentary by Vīrabhadrarāja (about A.D. 1600) is also known.674

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Six types of burns (dagdha) are distinguished: agni-, arka-, vidyud-, saṃtāpa-, kṣāra-, and viṣadagdha (III.2). Wounds (sadyaḥkṣata) are of several types: chinna, vicchinna, nirviddha, sāvaṇaṣṭa, vidārita, uttuṇḍita, atividdha, viddha, avamṛṣṭa, dagdha, and dūṣīviṣakṣata (III.3–4–5ab).675 Seven kinds of surgical intervention are listed: chedya, bhedya, lekhya, viśrāvaṇa, eṣaṇa, and sīvana (III.30).676 The names of surgical instruments are partly identical with those of the Suśrutasaṃhitā.677 Thirteen types of fracture are distinguished: niṣpiṣṭa, viśliṣṭa, prakṣipta, tiryakkṣipta, atikṣipta, muktakāṇḍa, sthāpita, jarjarībhūta, cūrṇita, mathita, cyuta, majjānujātamathita, and bhagna (III.32).678 The varieties of leeches are related to those of human medicine.679 The number of marmans is one hundred and seven, as in human āyurveda.

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A discussion on the problem which part of the embryo develops first is also found in Pālakāpya’s work, without, however, mentioning names of authorities who held a particular opinion on this subject.680 The stages of embryonic development are described.681

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