仁王般若經疏 1

English (machine translation) 1

Language: English

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The Sūtra on the Prajñāpāramitā of the Benevolent King Who Protects the State Spoken by the Buddha: Chapter 1, Introductory Chapter

The compilations being disparate and varying with their respective traditions, they cannot all be cited. Tiantai Zhizhe broadly elucidated five aspects across the various sūtras; here for this text, five divisions are likewise distinguished by analogy. (First, explaining the title of the sūtra; second, setting forth the substance of the sūtra; third, clarifying the central theme of the sūtra; fourth, discerning the function of the sūtra; fifth, discussing the characteristics of the teaching of the sūtra.) Stating its title, showing the substance beneath the title, clarifying its guiding theme, discerning its efficacy and function, and discussing the characteristics of its teaching—by these the general import of the sūtra is broadly exhausted. A detailed explanation is fully set out at the beginning of [the commentary on] the Lotus Sūtra; here it is explained briefly.

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First, as for explaining the title: the various sūtras derive their titles differently. Some establish their titles by doctrine alone, or take their designations from a metaphor alone, or establish their titles by a person alone; or both doctrine and metaphor are stated, or both person and doctrine are manifested. What is meant by 'doctrine alone' is like the Mahāparinirvāṇa[-sūtra] and so forth, establishing the title from the fruit-doctrine; the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā and the Shidi jianbei [jing] take their designations from the cause. As for 'metaphor alone', sūtras such as The Withered Tree and The Parable of the Seven Carts derive their titles directly by adducing metaphorical events. As for 'person alone', it is like sūtras such as The Seven Maidens and The Old Woman. As for 'stating both doctrine and metaphor together', it is like sūtras such as the Avataṃsaka, the Lotus, and the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā. As for 'manifesting both person and doctrine', it is like sūtras such as the Vimalakīrti, the Śrīmālā, The Prajñā Inquired by the Four Heavenly Kings, and The Prajñā of the Benevolent King. What is meant by 'spoken by the Buddha' is that because he is enlightened himself and enlightens others, he is called Buddha; because the holy words are proclaimed, it is called 'spoken'. As for 'benevolent king': 'benevolent' means bestowing grace and spreading virtue, hence he is called benevolent; exercising sovereign rule at ease, hence he is called king. As for 'protecting the state': the benevolent king is the protector, and the state is that which is protected; because the benevolent king governs according to the Dharma, the myriad people are joyful and the state is secure. If the benevolent king is viewed in relation to prajñā, prajñā is the protector, and because of upholding prajñā the benevolent king is secure; because the person handles the Dharma, the benevolent king is the protector, and prajñā is that which is protected. Now, both the benevolent king and prajñā are the protectors, and the state is that which is protected. As for 'prajñā', the Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa has two explanations. The forty-third fascicle explains: 'Prajñā in the language of Qin is wisdom (zhīhuì).' Master Zang of Kaishan used this translation throughout. In the language of the Buddha-land it is prajñā, which is translated here as wisdom. Furthermore, the seventieth fascicle explains: 'Prajñā cannot be named. Prajñā is definitely dharmatā, extremely deep and exceedingly weighty; wisdom is light and shallow, therefore it cannot be named.' Master Min of Zhuangyan, relying on this passage, said: 'The name prajñā contains five meanings, whereas wisdom is merely one item; it is not an accurate translation.' When the two masters each clung to their view, disputes arose; neither attained the meaning of prajñā. Question: Since the treatise has both passages, how are they now reconciled and explained? Answer: Let us explain by relying on the treatise. There are two kinds of prajñā: first, the gate of upāya; second, the gate of dharmatā. What is called translatable is translated as wisdom with reference to the gate of upāya; what is called untranslatable is because prajñā is neither foolish nor wise, hence it is said to be untranslatable. However, regarding the explanation of 'wisdom' (zhīhuì), the sūtras and treatises differ. The Vimalakīrtinirdeśa states, explaining the two characters separately: 'Knowing the mental thoughts of all sentient beings and expounding the Dharma accordingly arises from the activity of knowledge (zhī); neither grasping nor rejecting and entering the gate of the single mark arises from the activity of wisdom (huì).' The old explanation of this passage took zhī as the understanding of existence and huì as the understanding of emptiness. Now we do not hold this. Why must the mental thoughts of sentient beings be existent? Why must entering the gate of dharmatā be empty? One should skillfully grasp this meaning. The Tattvasiddhi-śāstra explains the two characters zhī and huì together, the text stating: 'True wisdom (huì) is called knowledge (zhī)'; the meaning here is that wisdom is itself knowledge. It also states: 'In the Huiyi jing it is said that understanding knowledge (zhī) is the meaning of wisdom (huì), hence it is called wisdom (zhīhuì).' This is an integrated explanation. Question: Why are the words in sūtras and treatises sometimes emerging and sometimes submerging, sometimes opened and sometimes combined, not showing things to people in one single, distinct way? Answer: It is not that the holy ones are unable to show things clearly to people in one single way, but that there is a profound meaning in these emerging and submerging words. Sentient beings are inherently attached and hard to move; through this cause and condition they are bound to Māra, saṃsāra does not cease, the wheel of suffering turns constantly, and they do not awaken to the correct path. Now if there were again a fixed teaching in one single way, it would further increase their abiding attachment; therefore, by not being fixed but emerging and submerging, it stirs the root-foundations of their saṃsāra, causing them to attain a transcendent awakening to the saddharma. Thus the non-fixed teaching provides profound benefit. If scholars rigidly cling to a single passage in a sūtra or treatise to establish the doctrine of a single school, the error is very great indeed.

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Question: Among the five divisions and eight divisions [of prajñā literature], which one subsumes it? Answer: The five divisions are as expounded in this sūtra. As for the eight divisions, they are the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā, Aṣṭasāhasrikā, Guangzan, Fangguang, Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā, Vajracchedikā, Daoxing, and Heavenly King's Inquiries on Prajñā. This Prajñā Inquired by the Benevolent King is subsumed under The Prajñā Inquired by the Heavenly King. A human king is also a heavenly king; therefore we know it is subsumed under The Prajñā Inquired by the Heavenly King.

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Next, explaining 'pāramitā': it means 'arrived at the other shore'. Pāra means 'the other shore', and mitā means 'arrived'. Relinquishing marks and converging with reality is called arriving at the other shore; furthermore, the cause being able to reach the fruit is called arriving at the other shore. One ought to say 'arrived at the other shore', yet retaining the barbarian original it is called pāramitā. As for 'sūtra': it is called sūtra (xiūduōluó), which is translated here as 'root of the Dharma'. The principle does not manifest of itself but relies on the teaching to be revealed; the teaching is the root of the principle. The teaching does not arise of itself but is produced due to the principle; the principle is the root of the teaching. Teaching and principle depend on each other, and both are called the root. Now we properly take the text as the root of the principle. The Hīnayāna treatises have five meanings: first, 'giving birth', because it gives birth to various meanings; second, 'gushing spring', because the flavor of its meaning is inexhaustible; third, 'displaying', because it displays various meanings; fourth, 'marking line', because it eliminates the erroneous and attains the correct; fifth, 'stringing garlands', because it threads through various meanings. In common gloss it is 'root'. A sūtra is a warp thread: the text is the warp and the meaning is the weft, weaving together the mind of the practitioner; hence it is called a sūtra. As for 'Introductory Chapter, Chapter 1': that which initiates and gives rise is called 'introduction'; categories of meaning grouped together are termed 'chapter'. Residing first among the eight [chapters], it is called 'the first'. This briefly distinguishes the different stages and titles in The Prajñā of the Benevolent King. As for 'benevolent kings', according to the Yingluo jing: 'There are fourteen kings: 1. scattered millet kings, the inferior grade of the ten good deeds; 2. practice-nature bodhisattvas, bronze-wheel kings; 3. disposition-nature bodhisattvas, silver-wheel kings; 4. path-nature bodhisattvas, gold-wheel kings, also called cakravartins; 5. first-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the four heavenly kings; 6. second-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the Trāyastriṃśa king; 7. third-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the Yāma king; 8. fourth-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the Tuṣita king; 9. fifth-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the Nirmāṇarati king; 10. sixth-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the Paranirmitavaśavartin king; 11. seventh-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the First Dhyāna king; 12. eighth-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the Second Dhyāna king; 13. ninth-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the Third Dhyāna king; 14. tenth-bhūmi bodhisattvas, the Fourth Dhyāna king.' Now, what is called the 'benevolent king' here is precisely the scattered millet king of the inferior grade of the ten good deeds, the lowest grade among the fourteen kings.

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Second, setting forth the substance of the sūtra. It takes the five patiences and the ten bhūmis as its substance. Therefore the text below states: 'The five patiences are the Dharma of bodhisattvas.' Having fully enumerated the five patiences, the concluding text below states: 'They are called the cultivation of prajñāpāramitā by all buddhas and bodhisattvas.' Therefore we know that by cultivating prajñā one realizes the five patiences. There is no buddha or bodhisattva who does not achieve sagehood through these five patiences; therefore we know that the five patiences and ten bhūmis are the substance. The meaning of the five patiences will be explained in detail in the text below.

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Third, clarifying the central theme of the sūtra. Whoever wishes to lecture on or read a sūtra must first recognize its major purport. This sūtra takes the correct contemplation of anutpāda as its central theme; leaving behind the two views of existence and non-existence, it provisionally speaks of the Madhyamā-pratipad. Therefore the text below states: 'Prajñā is without knowing and without seeing, without functioning and without receiving, without arising and without ceasing, because prajñā is inconceivable.' 'Without arising and without ceasing' is an alternative name for the Madhyamā-pratipad, a distinct designation for inconceivable extinction; it is also called the buddhadhātu, which is the mother of the buddhas of the ten directions. That which is called the 'one great matter' is precisely this matter.

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Question: What difference is there between the central theme and the substance? Answer: All dharmas are fundamentally quiescent and extinct; what central theme or what substance could there be? Now, wishing to display it for the sake of conditions, within that which is devoid of names and marks it is spoken of through provisional names and marks, and divided to make distinctions. In terms of the general gate, the central theme is also the substance, and the substance is also the central theme. Now in terms of the specific gate, the wheel rim illustrates the central theme, and the empty space within illustrates the substance; the central theme is like the guiding collar, and the substance is like the furs and mesh. The meaning is that if one shakes a fur robe by holding its collar, or lifts a net by raising its head-rope, the substance of the fur robe and the net—the furs and the mesh—will naturally spread out. Such is the meaning of the distinction between central theme and substance.

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Fourth, discerning the function of the sūtra. This sūtra takes the two protections, internal and external, as its function. As for the internal protection, the text below states: 'I expound for the bodhisattvas the causes and conditions for protecting the buddha-fruit and the causes and conditions for protecting the practice of the ten bhūmis.' As for the external protection, the text below states: 'I now expound for you the causes and conditions for protecting the state', causing the state to obtain security, the seven calamities not to arise, disasters not to be produced, and the myriad people to be peaceful and joyful; this is called external protection.

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Fifth, clarifying the doctrinal characteristics (jiaoxiang). Whoever wishes to propagate the saddharma must recognize whether a teaching is partial or complete, for only then can one attain an awakening to the teaching that one has received. If one were to clarify the doctrinal characteristics in full, the various sūtras differ, as is fully explained in the Fahua xuanyi; here I shall clarify them briefly. As for the various masters of Jiangdong, they divide the teachings into three kinds: the first is the sudden teaching, which means that when the Buddha first appeared in the world he suddenly expounded the profound principle; the second is the gradual teaching, which means proceeding from the shallow to the profound; the third is the indeterminate teaching without fixed direction, which means that shallowness and profundity are not fixed. However, regarding the gradual teaching, there are two explanations: one says that the gradual has four periods, and this sūtra was preached in the second period and is Mahāyāna; the other says that the gradual has five periods, and this sūtra was preached in the second period, being the shared teaching of the three vehicles. Both masters say that the Prajñā was preached in the second period, for the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā states: "One sees the second turning of the wheel of the Dharma." I now maintain that this is not so. If, in contrast to the initial teaching, the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā were said to belong to the second period, then the "Parable Chapter" of the Lotus Sūtra says: "Formerly in Vārāṇasī... now again I turn the most wondrous [wheel of the Dharma]." Thus, in contrast to the initial teaching, it too clearly should be a teaching of the second period. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra also says: "Formerly in Vārāṇasī... now in the city of Kuśinagara I expound the Great Nirvāṇa." This also, in contrast to the initial teaching, should belong to the second period. Later scholars ought to investigate this themselves and must not blindly rely on past explanations. Furthermore, the masters of the Daśabhūmikā-śāstra divide the Buddha's teachings into four or five traditions; I shall not elaborate on them here with redundant words. Now, relying on Bodhiruci, I directly make a division of the teachings into half-letter and full-letter: if it is the Hīnayāna teaching, it is called the half-letter and called the Śrāvakapiṭaka; if it is the Mahāyāna, it is called the full-letter and called the Bodhisattvapiṭaka. Investigating the various sūtras and treatises now, these words are truly apt. As for the so-called Hīnayāna half-teaching: if one clarifies its ultimate principle, it expounds only the two emptynesses of person and phenomena; speaking of its cause and effect, it speaks only of the four noble truths with activity. This is a teaching that does not exhaust the fundamental purport, its words do not reach the ultimate meaning, its expounding accords with inferior capacities, and its progress brings about inferior practice; because its virtue has deficiency, it is called "half"—hence it is said that the Hīnayāna is called the Śrāvakapiṭaka. As for the Mahāyāna full-letter teaching: if one clarifies the ultimate extreme of its principle, it takes non-duality of equality, non-attainment, and correct contemplation as its fundamental purport; speaking of its cause and effect, it expounds the unconditioned four noble truths. This teaching accords with the Mahāyāna fundamental purport, its words reach the ultimate, complete meaning, its expounding accords with superior capacities, and its progress brings about great practice; being complete without lack, it is called "full"—hence it is said that the Mahāyāna is called the Bodhisattvapiṭaka. Now, as for this sūtra, between the two piṭakas it is subsumed under the Mahāyāna full-letter Bodhisattvapiṭaka. Therefore the sūtra states: "Its practice is solely the Mahāyāna; practicing within the patience of the three levels of worthy ones and ten levels of noble ones, only the Buddha alone resides in the pure land." Therefore it is said that the Mahāyāna full teaching refers to the Bodhisattvapiṭaka.

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Next, entering the text of the sūtra. In truth, when the Buddhas expounded sūtras there were originally no sections and paragraphs; it began with Dharma Master Dao'an, who divided sūtras into three sections: first, the introductory exposition; second, the main exposition; third, the transmission exposition. The introductory exposition means the rationale and prelude, the rationale and prelude for expounding the sūtra. The main exposition means impartiality, the fundamental purport of the unified teaching. The transmission exposition means: "transmitting" (liu) signifies broadcasting afar, and "circulating" (tong) signifies unobstructed; it means wishing to cause the sound of the Dharma to spread far and wide without blockage. The reason there are three expositions is: wishing to make clear that when a superior person delivers a teaching there must be causes and conditions, he first makes clear the introductory exposition, and once the gradual unfolding is manifested, the main sūtra ought to be distinguished, hence there is again the main exposition; the great compassion of the Sage is boundless and sentient beings receiving transformation are limitless, so not only does it benefit the present time, he furthermore wishes to transmit it far into future generations, hence there is the third, the transmission. However, these three are not three; thus the three are just a single-three. The introduction is itself the main, and so on up to the transmission being the introduction, just as the three jewels are one-three and three-one. As for the textual locations: this sūtra has eight chapters and is divided into three sections: first, the "Introductory Chapter" is the introductory section; second, the six chapters from the "Chapter on Contemplating Emptiness" downward are the main exposition section; third, taking the single chapter of "Entrustment" as the transmission section. If determined according to the text, from "the Buddha told Candradeva" at the end of the "Chapter on Receiving and Upholding" downward, that is the entrustment. But the previous chapter clarifies the entrustment in terms of preventing the arising of the seven calamities, while the subsequent chapter clarifies the entrustment in terms of distinguishing the scope of the sūtra; therefore it is said that the "Chapter on Entrustment" is named the transmission.

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Within the introductory chapter, there are two parts: first, clarifying the preface attesting to faith; second, clarifying the preface initiating the teaching. Although the various masters have many different explanations regarding these two prefaces, I now encompass them with four pairs, leaving no meaning unexhausted: first, attesting to faith versus initiating the teaching; second, general preface versus specific preface; third, Tathāgata preface versus Ānanda preface; fourth, pre-sūtra preface versus post-sūtra preface. Ānanda personally receiving the spoken purport is called the preface attesting to faith; initiating the main sūtra is called the preface initiating the teaching. Being shared in common by all sūtras is called the general preface; initiating the teaching differently in each case is called the specific preface. Spoken by the Buddha's own mouth is called the Tathāgata preface; Ānanda attesting to faith is called the Ānanda preface. What was spoken by the Buddha is called the pre-sūtra preface; what was compiled later by Ānanda to attest to faith is called the post-sūtra preface. Although the various masters have engaged in all kinds of forced interpretations, cumbersome and inaccurate, I now set them aside without discussion, and for now rely on the single pair of pre-sūtra and post-sūtra to explain the two prefaces. The two prefaces then constitute two distinct parts: from the beginning up to "the great assembly sat solemnly together" is called the post-sūtra preface. When the Buddha was in the world, this preface did not yet exist; when the Buddha was about to enter nirvāṇa, he instructed Ānanda, saying: "After my demise, when you compile the treasury of the Dharma, you should set down such matters as these." Therefore it is called the preface after the Buddha's demise. Second, from "At that time, the One of Ten Epithets" downward clarifies the preface at the time of preaching the sūtra. When preaching the sūtra, the teaching was initiated by means of events; therefore it is called the preface at the time of preaching the sūtra. Now I first clarify the preface after the Buddha's demise. If one relies on the Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, it directly interprets the text continuously without distinguishing the number of sub-sections; later masters also had no fixed opinion, proposing either five or six. Now, relying on the Jin'gangxian lun, I distinguish six phrases: first, "Thus" indicates the mark of faith; second, "have I heard" clarifies Ānanda receiving the instruction, attesting and narrating rather than composing; third, "At one time" clarifies the season and moment of hearing the sūtra; fourth clarifies the Buddha as the master of conversion; fifth clarifies the dwelling place, clarifying that preaching and listening have a location; sixth distinguishes those who heard together, verifying that it is not false. However, these six matters cannot be attributed exclusively to Ānanda.

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"Thus have I heard:"

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"Thus have I heard" can be attributed exclusively to Ānanda. From "at one time" downward, the meaning partakes of both. If Ānanda compiled the treasury of the Dharma according to the bequeathed instruction to set them down, it belongs to after the sūtra; when the sūtra was preached, there could not fail to be time, place, and an assembly of disciples, and looking at it from this perspective, it belongs to before the sūtra. This is an expedient distinction of conventional designation within the realm devoid of names and marks; one must not rigidly cling to it and form disputes. Now, in explaining "Thus," there are two points: first, explaining the causes and conditions for setting down "Thus"; second, explaining the nominal meaning of "Thus." Regarding the causes and conditions for setting down "Thus," the sources differ; now, relying on Nāgārjuna, I explain why "Thus" is set down at the beginning of all sūtras. Fascicle two of the Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa states: "When the Buddha was about to pass into extinction, Ānanda's heart sank into an ocean of sorrow. Aniruddha, who was his cousin, said: 'You are the person to transmit the treasury of the Dharma; you should not be like an ordinary worldling. If you have any doubts, you must ask in time.' Ānanda still harbored sorrow, so Aniruddha instructed him to ask four questions: 'After the Buddha passes into extinction, how should we practice the path? Who shall be our teacher? How should we dwell together with the foul-mouthed Chanda? What words should be placed at the beginning of the Buddha's sūtras?' Ānanda presented these questions to the Buddha. The Buddha answered the first question, saying: 'Rely on your own Dharma to cultivate the four foundations of mindfulness.' He answered the second question, saying: 'The Prātimokṣa Sūtra is the great teacher.' He answered the third question, saying: 'Chanda should be punished by the Brahmadaṇḍa.' He answered the fourth question, saying: 'Throughout three asaṃkhyeya kalpas I collected the treasury of the Dharma; at its beginning you should set down such words as "Thus [have I heard]"; the Buddhas of the three periods of time all spoke thus.'" Second, explaining the nominal meaning of "Thus." "Thus" is an expression of faith and compliance. In the great ocean of the Buddhadharma, faith is what enables one to enter, and wisdom is what enables one to cross over. Stating "Thus" is precisely for the sake of faith. Therefore, a person of faith says, 'this matter is thus,' which is the mark of faith; a person of disbelief says, 'this matter is not thus,' which is the mark of disbelief. Therefore, the heads of sūtras state 'Thus.' Master Sengzhao said: 'Now, "Thus" is an expression of faith and compliance: when there is faith, then the principle spoken is complied with; when complied with, then the path of master and disciple is accomplished. Whether a sūtra is expansive or concise, without faith it cannot be transmitted; that "Thus" is precisely faith.' Furthermore, "Thus" means non-difference. Now it clarifies that this Dharma is without dependence, without attainment, without conceptual proliferation, ultimately pure, and truly trustworthy; therefore it is called 'Thus.' As for 'have I heard,' when the Buddha instructed Ānanda to bring forth the treasury of the Dharma, he told him to say, 'I heard it from the Buddha's presence,' fearing that people might not believe Ānanda and would reject the path on account of the person. Self and selflessness are in their nature not two; it is only for the sake of the conventional world that 'I' is spoken. 'Hearing' is also like this: the ear indriya, the sound dust, and the ear consciousness, even when uninterruptedly harmonized across the three locations, do not hear. Now stating 'heard' is hearing without hearing.

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Question: Ānanda was born at midnight on the night the Buddha attained the path, and came to serve the Buddha only when he was twenty-five years old. What the Buddha expounded since his attainment of the path was very extensive; Ānanda was not present for any of it, yet he says of all of it, 'have I heard'—what is the meaning of this? Answer: Fascicle six of the Bao'en jing fully relates that Ānanda made several vows: 'May the Buddha repeat for me the sūtras I have not yet heard'; therefore, all were received personally. In the second fascicle of the Commentary, Ānanda speaks a verse himself: 'When the Buddha first expounded the Dharma, / at that time I did not see it; / thus hearing it indirectly: / the Buddha in Vārāṇasī, / for the sake of the five monks, / first opened the gate of ambrosia, / expounding the Dharma of the four true truths.' This refers to the Buddha repeating it, which is called 'hearing indirectly.' The Pusa chutai jing states: 'When the Buddha in the Twin Trees had already entered the golden coffin, he arose, extended his golden hand, and asked Ānanda: "From my beginning onward, I have expounded the Mahāyāna Vaipulya sūtras for the bodhisattvas; do you know them all or not?" Ānanda replied: "Only the Buddha knows." The Buddha again asked: "Formerly I ascended to the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven to expound the Dharma for my mother; do you know it or not?" Ānanda answered: "I do not know." The Buddha again asked: "When I dwelt in the dragon palace expounding the Dharma for the dragons; do you know it or not?" Ānanda answered: "I do not know." The Buddha again asked: "Formerly when I dwelt in the womb turning the wondrous wheel of the Dharma; do you know it or not?" Ānanda answered: "I do not know." Having questioned him thus, the Buddha told Ānanda: "Listen attentively now, and I shall explain them to you one by one." The Tathāgata's oral secret was transmitted all at once, and Ānanda attained the samādhi of awakening to the Buddha, grasping everything all at once.' Ānanda's attainment of the samādhi of awakening to the Buddha comes from the Śāriputraparipṛcchā-sūtra: 'Ānanda cultivated the dhyāna of realizing without forgetting, had long practiced dhāraṇī, and attained the samādhi of awakening to the Buddha.' If one relies on the Jin'gangxian lun, it clarifies three kinds of Ānanda: first, the Mahāyāna Ānanda, who is Ānandasāgara, upholding the Mahāyāna treasury of the Dharma; second, the Middle Vehicle Ānanda, who is Ānandabhadra, upholding the Middle Vehicle treasury of the Dharma; third, the Hīnayāna Ānanda, who is named Ānandabhadra [the Worthy], upholding the Hīnayāna treasury of the Dharma. Now the principle of this sūtra is profound and its marks quiescent, its causes complete and its fruits full, vast as the dharmadhātu and ultimate as empty space; therefore it was Ānandasāgara who stated 'have I heard.'

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Question: The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa states: "All phenomena are non-existent"; why then does he say 'I'? Answer: Although he knows that all phenomena are non-existent, he accords with convention; in the words circulated in the world, 'I' is conventionally designated, and thus there is no fault.

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At one time the Buddha was dwelling in Rājagṛha.

1.19

"At one time" is the time of the preaching of the sūtra, just as when the Nirvāṇa [Sūtra] was spoken, it was the fifteenth day of the second month. For this sūtra, it was the eighth day of the first month in the thirtieth year. There are three kinds of time: first, samaya-time, which is a long time; second, kāla-time, which is a short time; third, khalu-time, which is neither long nor short. The "time" mentioned here is samaya-time. Although various masters have engaged in far-fetched interpretations, they ultimately amount to nothing fitting. If one upholds the style of Nāgārjuna, it must be refuted, refuting the notion of explaining "at one time" as samaya. As for "the Buddha," in the language of the Buddha's country it is buddha, translated here as "the Awakened One." Having awakened himself and being able to awaken others, he is therefore called "Buddha." The Dazhidu lun says: "Buddha is a foreign word; translated here it means 'the Wise One,' who knows that which is within the count of sentient beings of the three times and that which is not within the count of sentient beings." As for "dwelling in Rājagṛha," there are three parts: first, explaining "dwelling"; second, explaining "Rājagṛha"; third, [explaining] "Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain." As for "dwelling," there are celestial dwelling, brahma dwelling, and noble dwelling. The six desire heavens are called celestial dwellings; the first dhyāna and above are called brahma dwellings; persons of the three vehicles are called noble dwellings. Among these three dwellings, the Buddha mostly abides in the noble dwelling. There are also eight dwellings: first, celestial dwelling, dwelling in the four dhyānas; second, brahma dwelling, dwelling in the four immeasurable minds; third, demeanor dwelling, dwelling in the four bodily deportments; fourth, noble dwelling, dwelling in the three emptynesses; fifth, lifespan dwelling, dwelling in the fivefold dharmakāya; sixth, reliance dwelling, dwelling on Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain in Rājagṛha; seventh, teaching dwelling, dwelling in the sixteen great states; eighth, buddha dwelling, dwelling in the ultimate truth. As for the term "dwelling" (zhù), temporarily residing is called being present (zài), while residing long is called dwelling (zhù); it can also be that remaining for a period is called dwelling. As for "Rājagṛha," in foreign language it is Mahā-rajagṛha. Mahā means great; raja means king's abode; gṛha means city. In the country of Magadha there are twelve cities; Magadha means "the place possessing ambrosia." In all there are twelve cities: first, the great city of Ujjayinī; second, the great city of Puṇḍravardhana; third, the great city of Ahicchatra; fourth, the great city of Puṣkalāvatī; fifth, the great city of Rājagṛha; sixth, the great city of Śrāvastī; seventh, the great city of Vārāṇasī; eighth, the great city of Kapilavastu; ninth, the city of Campā; tenth, the city of Sāketa; eleventh, the city of Kauśāmbī; twelfth, the city of Kuru. Among these twelve cities, the Buddha rarely dwelt in the latter six cities; among the former six cities, the Buddha did not dwell in the first four cities, but mostly dwelt in the latter two cities. Between the two cities, he mostly dwelt in Rājagṛha in order to repay the kindness of the dharmakāya; he dwelt rarely in Śrāvastī in order to repay the kindness of the physical body. Why is it called "the city of the royal abode" (Rājagṛha)? This city was built together by the Four Heavenly Kings and had many kings, and the Buddha is the King of the Wheel of Dharma; taking its name from the majority, it is therefore called Rājagṛha. The king of Magadha gave birth to a son who had one head, two faces, and four hands. People of the time looked upon him and thought it inauspicious, so the king tore his body and head apart and abandoned them in the wilderness. There was a rākṣasī spirit named Līlā who rejoined his body and nourished him with milk. When he grew up, he had great strength and power, and was able to conquer and assimilate various kingdoms, capturing eighty-four thousand kings and placing them within five mountains, where he established a city and ruled. Because it was the dwelling place of many kings, it is called Rājagṛha. The various causes and conditions are not just one; they cannot be completely recounted.

1.20

On Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa.

1.21

As for "on Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa": in Rājagṛha there are six monasteries: first, the Bamboo Grove Monastery, on flat ground, built by the elder Kalandaka, thirty li northwest of the city; second, the Small-Strength Sole-Ascent Mountain Monastery; third, the Saptaparṇa Cave Mountain Monastery; fourth, the Cave Mountain Monastery of the Four Heavenly Kings; fifth, the Serpent Cave Monastery; sixth, the Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain Monastery, translated here as Vulture Peak Mountain—gṛdhra means vulture, kūṭa means peak; this mountain summit resembles a vulture, and the people of Rājagṛha, seeing that it resembled a vulture, consequently handed down the name Vulture Peak Mountain. Furthermore, south of Rājagṛha there are many śmaśānas (charnel grounds) where birds and beasts come to feed, and many vultures gather there; hence it is called Vulture Peak Mountain. The five mountains are: Elephant Head in the east, Horse Head in the south, Sheep Head in the west, Lion Head in the north, and Vulture Peak in the center.

1.22

Together with a great assembly of bhikṣus, eight hundred million [in all], both trainees and those beyond training, all arhats.

1.23

As for "together with a great assembly of bhikṣus": the sixth section lists the audience who heard [the teaching] together. In general, at the beginning of all sūtras, the listed assemblies do not exceed four kinds: first, the shadowing audience; second, the karmic-affinity audience; third, the initiating audience; fourth, the primary recipient audience. First, the shadowing audience: such as the emanated bodies of various buddhas coming to listen to the Dharma. Second, the karmic-affinity audience: those who are not yet enlightened here, but form causes and conditions for attaining enlightenment in future lives; this is called the karmic-affinity audience. Third, the initiating audience: the dharmakāya bodhisattvas who prompt and manifest [the teaching] for one another. Fourth, the primary recipient audience: the assembly that is directly targeted to attain the Way through the preaching of the sūtra. This sūtra being so, the rest are all analogous. Within the audience who heard together, there are two parts: first, listing the assemblies individually; second, a general conclusion. Within listing individually, although there are twelve assemblies, broadly speaking they are classified into three: the preceding ten assemblies correspond to the assembly of this world; the eleventh is the assembly from other directions; the twelfth is the magically created assembly. Concerning the first ten assemblies, if listing from the superior, one should first list the bodhisattvas and afterwards the śrāvakas. If listing from the inferior, one should first list the upāsikās and so on. Why now are the śrāvakas listed first and the bodhisattvas listed afterwards? There are two kinds of paths within the Buddha-Dharma: first, the manifest path; second, the esoteric path. Now, in terms of the manifest path, the śrāvakas are listed first. Furthermore, bodhisattvas manifest as not having extinguished outflows, and their forms have no fixed mode; if they were listed first, there is fear that worldly people would have doubts, and therefore the śrāvakas are listed first. Within the assembly of śrāvakas there are five passages: first, giving the name of the great assembly of bhikṣus; second, listing their number; third, presenting their status; fourth, praising their virtues; fifth, a general conclusion. "With" (yǔ) means together. "Great" means superior, and also means numerous. "Bhikṣu" has five meanings, as in the Dazhidu lun: first, mendicant; second, destroyer of afflictions; third, titular bhikṣu; fourth, one who receives the precepts is called a bhikṣu; fifth, terrifier of Māra. "Mendicant" refers to pure livelihood, as explained in the story of Śāriputra. "Destroyer of evil": bhi means evil, kṣu means capable; being capable of destroying evil, he is therefore called a bhikṣu. Third, "titular bhikṣu": just as in the regions of the Hu, Han, and Yi peoples each has their own designation, hence he is called a bhikṣu. Fourth, "receiving the precepts" is called a bhikṣu. Fifth, bhi means capable, kṣu means terrify; being capable of terrifying the army of Māra, he is therefore called a bhikṣu. Because bhikṣus are not merely one, they are also called an "assembly." From "eight hundred million" onward is the second part, listing their number. From "trainees and those beyond training, all arhats" onward is the third part, revealing their status and stages. "Arhat" has three meanings: first, an arhat is called one worthy of offerings; second, an arhat is called non-arising; third, an arakha is called slayer of the enemy. Universally, all disciples possess these three meanings. Why are those of the lower three fruits all called arhats? They also partially possess the three meanings, and it also cites the superior to praise [them].

1.24

Conditioned merits, unconditioned merits.

1.25

From "conditioned merits" onward is the fourth part, praising virtues. As for "conditioned merits, unconditioned merits": conditioned brings out the virtue of wisdom, while unconditioned brings out the virtue of elimination. If analyzed in terms of the cognitive object, the truth of the path is conditioned, and the truth of cessation is unconditioned. Exerting effort is called merit (gōng); returning to oneself is called virtue (dé); hence they are called "merits" (gōngdé).

1.26

The ten knowledges of those beyond training, the eight knowledges of trainees, the six knowledges of trainees, the three faculties, the sixteen mental practices.

1.27

As for the "ten knowledges of those beyond training": the dharma-knowledge and inductive knowledge of the four truths, conventional knowledge, knowledge of other minds, and the knowledges of destruction and non-arising; only those of this fourth fruit possess them completely. As for the "eight knowledges of trainees": these belong to anāgāmins, who, excluding [the knowledges of] destruction and non-arising, possess the remaining eight knowledges. Speaking of the "six knowledges of trainees": this refers to the two persons, the srotāpanna and the sakṛdāgāmin, who exclude destruction and non-arising because these belong to those beyond training; exclude knowledge of other minds because they have not yet attained the fundamental dhyāna; and exclude conventional knowledge because it was previously possessed and not newly attained. It can also be that the srotāpanna possesses six knowledges because conventional knowledge is not a knowledge that severs fetters for a srotāpanna, and is thus excluded. As for the "three faculties": first, the faculty of not-yet-knowing, in the path of seeing, because it has not yet made repeated definitive judgments; second, the faculty of having known, in the path of cultivation, because it makes repeated definitive judgments; third, the faculty of the one with knowledge, in the path beyond training, because one no longer seeks superior knowledge. Tripiṭaka masters say: first, the nature faculty, originally an ordinary person; second, the faculty of leading and taking, from the ten faiths to the ten stages; third, the fruit-attainment faculty, the buddha stage. If relying on the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā-sūtra and its treatise: the faculty of one who has not known but desires to know, in the path of seeing, combines the nine undefiled faculties to make up the substance of the faculty of one who has not known but desires to know; second, the faculty of knowing, in the path of cultivation, enhances the nine faculties to make up the substance of the faculty of knowing; third, the faculty of one who has known, in the path beyond training, enhances the nine faculties to make up the substance of the faculty of one who has known. As for the "sixteen mental practices": if fully stated according to the sūtra text, it should say the sixteen minds and sixteen practices, but the sūtra compiler was skillful. A single phrase "sixteen mental practices" encompasses both phenomena. As for the sixteen minds, according to the Hīnayāna, they are: the patience with the dharma of suffering, the knowledge of the dharma of suffering, the inductive patience with suffering, the inductive knowledge of suffering; the patience with the dharma of origination, the knowledge of the dharma of origination, the inductive patience with origination, the inductive knowledge of origination; the patience with the dharma of cessation, the knowledge of the dharma of cessation, the inductive patience with cessation, the inductive knowledge of cessation; the patience with the dharma of the path, the knowledge of the dharma of the path, the inductive patience with the path, the inductive knowledge of the path—these constitute the sixteen minds. As for the sixteen practices: there are four practices under each of the four truths: suffering, emptiness, impermanence, non-self; cause, origination, condition, arising; cessation, extinction, excellence, renunciation; path, correctness, trace, vehicle—also called the sixteen truths. Another explanation: it can also be the sixteen minds that sever the delusions of the path of seeing, namely the eight patiences and eight knowledges. If relying on the sixteen minds presented by the Tripiṭaka master: the thirty minds are combined into four; there are ten upon ascending the stages; the vajra-like mind; and the buddha stage—combining to make sixteen.

1.28

The contemplation of the unreal and real of nominal entities, the contemplation of the unreal and real of nominal recipients, the contemplation of the unreal and real of nominal designations.

1.29

Speaking of the contemplation of nominal entities: phenomena such as the five aggregates are called nominal entities. The five aggregates forming sentient beings is called the nominal recipient. Taking the names upon the above two nominalities is called nominal designations. Having no substance and relying on others is called "nominal." The contemplation of the unreal and real of nominal entities is understood by mutual comparison: nominal entities are real, while the other two nominalities are unreal; hence it is called the contemplation of the unreal and real of nominal entities. As for the contemplation of the unreal and real of nominal designations: nominal designations are unreal, while nominal entities and nominal recipients are real; hence it is called the contemplation of the unreal and real. The Tripiṭaka master explains it in terms of the three natures: nominal entities are the consummate nature, nominal recipients are the dependent nature, and nominal designations are the imagined nature. Entities are real phenomena, nominally established to contrast with the conventional; reception is the mind of false conceptualization and other-dependence, receiving the objective realm before it; nominal designations are all names and marks, corresponding with the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā. The reason each nominality is called a contemplation of the unreal and real is that grasping turns them into unreal and false objects. As for real contemplation: its meaning is observing and penetrating. If one explains nominality according to correct contemplation, it is not like this. Phenomena produced by causes and conditions are simultaneously empty, nominal, and middle; speaking of "nominal designation," it is a name of quiescent extinction and non-attainment.

1.30

The gates of contemplation of the three emptynesses, the four truths, and the twelve links of dependent origination; immeasurable merits were all accomplished.

1.31

Regarding the "threefold emptiness": emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness. Being empty of the twenty-five states of existence is called the liberation gate of emptiness. Lacking the ten signs is called the liberation gate of signlessness. Not forming vows or seeking within the twenty-five states of existence is called the liberation gate of wishlessness. They are also called the three samādhis and the three liberation gates. What is the difference between these two dharmas? The three samādhis apply to both the contaminated and the uncontaminated, whereas the three liberation gates are exclusively uncontaminated. The Tripiṭaka master says: "The emptiness of the three prajñaptis is called the threefold emptiness; the threefold emptiness is the principle of the three lack-of-natures." Another explanation: the eighteen kinds of emptiness are called the gate of emptiness, destroying the signs of male and female is called the gate of signlessness, and not seeking amid desires is called the gate of wishlessness. As for the "four truths", there are two kinds of four truths: active and non-active. For people of the Small Vehicle, their cognitive illumination has not reached the ultimate, their cognition is termed finite, and their object is not supremely subtle; therefore, it is termed active. For people of the Great Vehicle, with the true cognition of no-mind they illuminate the empty principle of signlessness; the object is probed and the cognition is ultimate, so it is called non-active. What is discussed today are the active four truths. The oppression of sectioned saṃsāra is called suffering; not being false is called truth. Karma and defilements are called accumulation; not being false is called truth. Quiescence is called cessation; not being false is called truth. The eight path factors are called the path; not being false is called truth.

1.32

Question: Why is it called "truth"? Answer: Some say that the object is taken as truth. If so, all cattle, horses, and beasts would also possess the truths. The present interpretation is not so: cognitive illumination according to reality is called "truth". Thus the Viśeṣacintibrahma-paripṛcchā-sūtra says: "Knowing suffering as non-arising, accumulation as non-conjunction, that within the dharma of ultimate cessation there is neither arising nor perishing, being equal toward all dharmas, and attaining the path through the non-dual dharma—this is called the noble truth." Regarding the "twelve links of dependent origination": the two past causes and the five present fruits, and the three present causes and the two future fruits; hence they are called the twelve. From "immeasurable merits are all accomplished" onward is the fifth part, the general conclusion.

1.33

"There were further eight million koti of great rṣi pratyekabuddhas; non-annihilation, non-permanence, the four truths, and the twelve links [of dependent origination] were all accomplished."

1.34

From "There were further eight million" onward, the second part sets out the assembly of pratyekabuddhas, having four sections: first, presenting the number; second, indicating the designation; third, praising their virtues; fourth, the general conclusion. First, "eight million" presents the number. Second, indicating the designation has three distinctions. First, as for the "great ṛṣi pratyekabuddha": formerly, in the causal stage, he was a king who went with various palace women into a park to play, and then took a brief rest. Before he fell asleep, the woods were exquisite, with luxuriant foliage and vibrant colors, but suddenly the palace women broke and ruined them. The king immediately reflected: "Before long, I too shall become like this." Applying the external to the internal, he directly became a great pratyekabuddha; therefore, he is called a "great ṛṣi pratyekabuddha". Second, after a Buddha has passed away, one resides at ease in a quiet room, sits cross-legged, awakens on one's own through reflection, and suddenly attains the path; this is called a "solitary realizer (pratyekabuddha)". Third, there is a srotāpanna of seven rebirths who, relying on his previous roots of good conducive to liberation, is reborn seven times as human and seven times as god, no longer undergoes an eighth rebirth, and directly becomes a lesser pratyekabuddha. Among these three kinds of pratyekabuddhas, the first is the greatest, attaining the path from dependent origination; hence he is called a "great ṛṣi pratyekabuddha". From "non-annihilation, non-permanence" onward, the third part praises their virtues. Contemplating the twelve links of dependent origination, the two past causes and conditions form the five present fruits—this is non-annihilation; the three present causes and conditions enter the future—this is non-permanence. Furthermore, arising from conditions, it is non-annihilation; having arisen, it perishes, so it is non-permanence. Furthermore, the continuity of cause and condition exists, so it is non-annihilation; the phenomenon itself lacks intrinsic nature, so it is non-permanence. "All accomplished" is the fourth part, the general conclusion.

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仁王般若經疏 — Classical Chinese