華嚴經探玄記 1

English (machine translation) 1

Language: English

1.1

Composed by the Śramaṇa Fazang of the Western Monastery of the State of Wei.

I take refuge in the ocean of great wisdom, the ten-bodied Rocana,
Who pervades all dharmadhātus, the unsurpassed Great Compassionate Honoured One;
The extensive and taint-free Dharma, the perfect wheel of liberation,
And Samantabhadra, Mañjuśrī, and the others, the great bodhisattvas of the ocean-like assembly.
I, dwelling on the stage of being bound by afflictions, long in my heart for the great Dharma door;
I pray only that you bestow your compassionate aid to augment the power of my mindfulness and wisdom,
To uncover this secret and profound treasury and broadly benefit both myself and others,
Wishing that the Dharma will endure long, transmitting the lamp to repay the Buddha's kindness.

1.3

Now, the empty space of dharmatā is vast and boundless, transcending sight and hearing; the great ocean of wisdom is immeasurably deep, defying thought and deliberation. The profound path is subtle and far-reaching, where names and words rarely trace its course; its pure standard is vast and hazy, so that none can exhaust its source. Yet, because the capacities and responses are myriad and varied, forms and words are stirred forth to fill the dharmadhātu; mind and objects are of a single taste, obliterating subject and object to return to silence. Essence and function are without fixed direction, and their perfect interpenetration cannot be fathomed. Thereupon, the formless displays forms, like the sun rising over the Yanggu Valley; the wordless indicates words, like the blue waves pouring into a vast abyss. Therefore, first in the Padmagarbha-lokadhātu, the endless profound guidelines were expounded, encompassing those of superior attainment and drawing them forward to ascend to the stage of Buddhahood. Thereafter, transformation moistened the Sahā world, gradually spreading the clouds of compassion, showering fine dew to moisten the three roots, and nourishing the sprouts of the Path so that they return to a single principle. From this we know that when the capacities and conditions that elicit response differ, the sage's responses are therefore diversely divided; yet although the sage's responses are diverse, they are one in being inconceivable. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra is the grand discourse that gathers the ocean-like assembly, the ultimate exposition that illumines the king of mountains. Its principle and wisdom are vast and far-reaching, exhausting the dharmadhātu and spanning the true source; its billowing, subtle words are equal to empty space and cover the dust-mote realms. Thereupon, without diminishing the great or the small, it conceals gigantic lands within the tip of a hair; without changing the vast or the fine, it fuses the ultimate atom to pervade the dharmadhātu. Hence, like Indra's net, reflections interpenetrate layer upon layer; like a crystal reflecting dusty directions, it shines dimly yet clearly. One is many without obstruction; many is one in complete integration. It gathers nine times into a single kṣaṇa; it extends a single thought to encompass eternal kalpas. The ultimate firm seed across three lifetimes serves as the cause; when the path of the ten faiths is perfected, universal virtue is manifested to form the fruit. The fruit is not a fruit distinct from the cause, branching into five stages with parted reins; the cause is not a cause distinct from the fruit, uniting the ten bodies in uniform attainment. Thus the Mother of Awakening adapted to capacities at Eastern City, where six thousand opened their ten eyes; the youth inquired of spiritual friends in the southern realm, and the hundred and ten were completely fulfilled within a single lifetime. Consequently, without departing from the King of Trees, the six heavens were reached; without moving from the Padmagarbha, the ten lands were subtly fused. Manifesting precious gāthās within dust motes, the eight assemblies shone equally; disclosing the royal jewel in natural virtue, the seven locations were completely revealed. Vast and resonant, it towers far beyond thought and deliberation; towering and resplendent, it surpasses sight and hearing for the blind and deaf. Therefore, Rocana first formed and fashioned it in the sāgara-mudrā, which arose at dawn on the fourteenth day; Nāgārjuna at last looked down to investigate it in the dragon palace, and only after six hundred years was it made manifest. Furthermore, "great" has the meaning of all-encompassing; "square" [in "extensive"] has the efficacy of standard and model; "extensive" means that the essence is ultimate and the function universal; "Buddha" is the fruit perfected and awakening fulfilled; "flower" [in "Avataṃsaka"] is a metaphor for the blossoming forth of the myriad practices; "adornment" is a simile for decorating this original essence; "sūtra" means threading and stringing together, whereby the teaching that is the signifier becomes evident. Relying on dharma, taking recourse to persons, and employing metaphor as title, it is therefore called the Mahāvaipulya Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra. As for "Chapter on the Pure Eyes of the World", the three kinds of world, such as the receptacle world, shone brightly at that time, and their pure and shining illumination is compared to pure eyes; dharma and metaphor being presented together, it is thus called "The Pure Eyes of the World". The words and principles being unified and grouped according to category, it is called a "chapter". This sūtra contains thirty-four chapters; this chapter stands at the beginning and is therefore called the first. Thus it is called "Mahāvaipulya Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra, Chapter One: The Pure Eyes of the World". The remaining meanings are explained below.

1.4

In preparing to explain this sūtra, ten sections are briefly opened: first, clarifying the reasons for the arising of the teaching; second, clarifying what it subsumes in terms of Piṭakas and divisions; third, demonstrating the distinctions in the establishment of the teachings; fourth, selecting the capacities addressed by the teaching; fifth, discerning the essence of the teaching that serves as the signifier; sixth, clarifying the principal tenet that is signified; seventh, fully explaining the title of the sūtra; eighth, clarifying the transmissions and translations of its lineages; ninth, discerning the divisions and limits of the text and its meaning; tenth, explaining in accordance with the text.

1.5

First, as for the reasons for the arising of the teaching, they will first be discerned generally, and then demonstrated specifically.

1.6

Generally speaking, the arising of the great teaching has boundless causes and conditions; thus at the beginning of the Dà zhìdù lùn, the causes and conditions for the arising of the prajñā teaching are extensively discerned. Just as Mount Sumeru cannot be moved for no reason or through minor causes and conditions, the Buddha is likewise: through great causes and conditions he has something to expound, namely to circulate the prajñāpāramitā in the world and broadly benefit all kinds of living beings. The Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra also says: "The Tathāgata appears in the world on account of a single great cause and condition, namely, to open, reveal, awaken [sentient beings] to, and cause them to enter the Buddha's vision and knowledge, and so forth." Below in this sūtra it says: "The Tathāgata, Arhat, Samyaksaṃbuddha's proper Dharma of nature manifestation is inconceivable. Why is this? It is not through minor causes and conditions that he attains samyaksaṃbodhi and appears in the world. Through ten kinds of immeasurable, innumerable, hundreds of thousands of asaṃkhyeya causes and conditions, he attains samyaksaṃbodhi and appears in the world. What are the ten? First, generating an immeasurable mind of bodhi and not abandoning any sentient beings." One should know that it continues extensively in this manner.

1.7

Next, as for demonstrating specifically, ten meanings are briefly proposed to clarify its inexhaustibility. What are the ten? Namely, due to dharmatā; due to the power of vows; due to the elicitation of capacities; due to serving as the root; due to revealing virtues; due to revealing stages; due to developing [insight]; due to seeing and hearing; due to accomplishing practice; and due to attaining the fruit.

1.8

First, "due to dharmatā": by dharmatā all Buddhas constantly turn such an inexhaustible dharmacakra in inexhaustible worlds, just as the king's high road is by nature a constant rule, unceasing and unresting to the utmost limit of the future. Therefore, the "Chapter on the Inconceivable" below states: "All worlds equal to the empty space of the dharmadhātu are fully measured with the tip of a hair. At the site of each hair-tip, in thought-moment after thought-moment, bodies equal to the dust motes of unspeakable-unspeakable Buddha lands are manifested, continuing until kalpas at the utmost limit of the future. Each transformed Buddha body has heads equal to the dust motes of unspeakable-unspeakable Buddha lands; each head has tongues equal to the dust motes of unspeakable-unspeakable Buddha lands; each tongue emits sounds equal to the dust motes of unspeakable-unspeakable Buddha lands; each sound expounds sūtras equal to the dust motes of unspeakable-unspeakable Buddha lands; each sūtra expounds dharmas equal to the dust motes of unspeakable-unspeakable Buddha lands; and within each dharma are expounded padakāyas and vyañjanakāyas equal to the dust motes of unspeakable-unspeakable Buddha lands. Furthermore, for kalpas equal to the dust motes of unspeakable-unspeakable Buddha lands, distinct padakāyas and vyañjanakāyas are expounded, and their sounds fill the dharmadhātu so that none among all sentient beings fails to hear them. Throughout all kalpas at the utmost limit of the future, the dharmacakra is constantly turned, and the Tathāgata's voice is without difference, without interruption, and inexhaustible." Explanation: According to this sūtra text, at the site of a single hair-tip and within a single thought-moment, such karmic functions as described above are brought forth, and it is also like this in all other thought-moments. Just as at the site of a single hair-tip such karmic functions are inexhaustible in thought-moment after thought-moment, each and every other hair-tip in succession, pervading all worlds equal to empty space and the dharmadhātu, is likewise endlessly inexhaustible. This means that spatially a hair-tip encompasses the dharmadhātu, and temporally a kṣaṇa exhausts an ocean of kalpas. This site explains the sudden arising of karmic functions, while this time explains the constant arising of karmic functions; nor does this await causes and conditions, for it is the dharmatā of all Buddhas. All that is expounded below in this sūtra is like this. Question: If so, why are the places limited to eight assemblies and the time restricted to two weeks? Answer: The "Chapter on Rocana" states: "Within each single dust mote, / An ocean of Buddha lands resides; / The Buddha's clouds everywhere protectively mindful, / All-encompassing, cover everything." It also states: "Within a single pore, / Immeasurable Buddha lands, / Adorned and pure, / Abide spaciously. / In all those places, / Rocana Buddha, / Amid the ocean-like assemblies, / Expounds the true Dharma." Explanation: How much more so must the places of the eight assemblies encompass the dharmadhātus of the ten directions? Furthermore, the "Chapter on Generating the Mind" states: "Knowing that immeasurable kalpas are just a single thought, / And a single thought is just immeasurable kalpas." Explanation: How much more so does the time of two weeks encompass an ocean of immeasurable kalpas? The "Chapter on the Inconceivable" states: "All Buddhas universally manifest all Buddha lands of the three times within a single dust mote; they universally manifest the sovereign supernatural powers of all Buddhas of the three times within a single dust mote; they universally manifest all sentient beings of the three times within a single dust mote; they universally manifest all Buddha-works of all Buddhas of the three times within a single dust mote." Explanation: The three times within a dust mote here fully encompass all kalpas of the past and future limits; this is what is meant by all Buddhas constantly expounding by dharmatā.

1.9

Second, "due to the power of vows": this means that due to the power of the Tathāgata's original vows, he causes this teaching to be manifested in accordance with capacities. Therefore, the "Chapter on Rocana" states: "In the lands of the ten directions, / In all oceans of worlds, / By the sovereignty of the Buddha's vow-power, / The turning of the dharmacakra is universally manifested." It also states: "Due to Rocana Buddha's supernatural power, / He turns the dharmacakra in all lands; / The sound of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva's vows / Pervades all oceans of worlds." Explanation: This means that this sūtra encompasses the empty space of the dharmadhātu in the ten directions, equals all worlds, and is simultaneously expounded within all lands inside dust motes—all of this is brought about by the vow-power of the fundamental teacher. Therefore, the beginnings of the subsequent assemblies all state: "Due to Rocana Buddha's original vow-power." Furthermore, a verse in the "Chapter on the Assembly of Clouds" states: "For immeasurable and innumerable kalpas, / This Dharma is extremely difficult to encounter; / If there are those who get to hear it, / You should know it is by the power of his original vows." Explanation: This shows that it is due to the Buddha's vow-power that the assembly is able to hear it. It also states: "The Tathāgata does not appear in the world, / Nor does he enter nirvāṇa; / Through the power of his great original vows, / He manifests sovereign dharmas."

1.10

Third, "due to the elicitation of capacities": the Tathāgata is impartial and without alteration, appearing in bodily form and expounding the Dharma in accordance with sentient beings as appropriate. This has three meanings: First, taking the pure virtues of form and sound of the Buddha fruit as the predominant condition, he responds to the elicitation of those capacities to effect gathering and transformation. A verse in "Assembly of Clouds" states: "When there are eyes and there is sunlight, / One can see subtle colors; / Due to the supreme supernatural power, / With a pure mind one sees all Buddhas (this is the manifestation of the body)." Furthermore, the "Chapter on the Dharmadhātu" states: "Through his past practices, the Buddha / Attained a single subtle and wondrous sound; / Having no intention toward this or that, / He is nevertheless able to respond to everything (this is the expounding of the Dharma)." Second, the Buddha fruit is devoid of coarse marks of form and sound; solely through the predominant vow-power of impartial principle and wisdom, forms and words are manifested when capacities and response correspond. A verse in "Assembly of Clouds" states: "All Buddhas of the three times / Have dharmakāyas that are entirely pure; / In accordance with those who are to be transformed, / They universally manifest wondrous form-bodies." It also states: "All Tathāgatas / Have no Buddhadharma that they expound; / In accordance with those who are to be transformed, / They expound the Dharma for them." Third, reconciling the above two meanings, existence and non-existence are unobstructed, because they accord with the unobstructed dharmadhātu. The "Chapter on Rocana" states: "The Buddha's body fills all dharmadhātus, / Universally appearing before all sentient beings; / Vessels fit to receive transformation are completely filled, / And therefore the Buddha abides under this bodhi tree. / Lands equal to the dust motes of all Buddha lands— / As many Buddhas as that sit within a single pore, / Each having immeasurable assemblies of bodhisattvas, / For whom they each expound Samantabhadra's practices in full." Explanation: This is precisely the scope expounded by this sūtra.

1.11

Fourth, "due to serving as the root": this means that wishing to gradually dispense the branch teachings according to capacity, it is fitting to first demonstrate the root Dharma at the very beginning. Clarifying that it is only relying on this that the branches subsequently arise, he therefore expounded this sūtra's teaching at the very beginning, and only thereafter gradually expounded the branch teachings of the Hīnayāna and so forth in the Deer Park and other places. Furthermore, the "Chapter on Nature Manifestation" below states: "Just as when the sun rises, it first illumines the high mountains," and so forth, as cited and explained below under the establishment of the teachings.

1.12

Fifth, because it reveals virtues: it reveals the extraordinary virtues of the fruit of buddhahood to lead the bodhisattvas to have faith in, aspire to, and realize them. In this there are two kinds: first, the fruit of dependence, that is, the sea of worlds of the Padmagarbha adornment; second, the principal fruit, that is, the Tathāgata's ten bodies penetrating the three realms of existence, and so on. Both are as explained in the text below. The unimpededness of these two has four propositions: (1) dependence manifesting within dependence, such as a sea of realms manifesting within a dust particle; (2) principal manifesting within principal, such as Buddhas manifesting within a pore, and so on; (3) dependence manifesting within principal, such as realms manifesting within a pore, and so on; (4) principal manifesting within dependence, such as Buddhas manifesting within a dust particle, and so on. Therefore, whichever gate is taken up, it completely subsumes all without remainder, both being as explained below. It is to reveal these virtues of the fruit that this sūtra was preached.

1.13

Sixth, because it reveals stages: it reveals the bodhisattva's practice of the causes of buddhahood, which proceeds along a single path to the fruit, possessing five stages. In this there are also two kinds: first, the gate of sequential array, meaning that only after fulfilling the ten faiths, ten understandings, ten practices, ten dedications, and ten bhūmis does one finally reach the Buddha stage, proceeding step by step from the subtle to the prominent. Second, the gate of perfect interpenetration and mutual subsumption, meaning that within one stage all prior and subsequent stages are subsumed; therefore, as each and every stage is fulfilled, one reaches the Buddha stage. The unimpededness of these two is expounded in detail in the various assemblies described in the text below.

1.14

Seventh, because it unfolds and discloses: to unfold and disclose the virtues of the nature manifestation of the tathāgatagarbha within the minds of sentient beings, leading the bodhisattvas to cultivate and study in reliance upon this, shattering the shell of ignorance and revealing the virtues of their nature. In this there are also two kinds: first, by verbal demonstration, causing them to know that it exists; second, by teaching them cultivation, causing it to become manifested. This is just like the passage below on 'shattering a speck of dust to take out a scroll of scripture,' and so forth, fully as explained there.

1.15

Eighth, because of seeing and hearing: to demonstrate that this inexhaustible and sovereign dharma-gate, while strictly the realm of great bodhisattvas at the ultimate stage, is nevertheless made accessible to the seeing and hearing of sentient beings and others of lower stages, so that they attain that vajra seed, indestructible and inexhaustible, which will unfailingly bring them to the ultimate stage. This is also as explained in the 'Nature Manifestation Chapter.'

1.16

Ninth, because it brings practice to completion: to demonstrate this universal Dharma, causing the bodhisattvas to complete Samantabhadra's practice. One practice is all practices; at the initial moment of generating the mind [for bodhi], one immediately attains samyaksaṃbuddha, possessing the body of wisdom without relying on an awakening through another. It is also said: 'When a bodhisattva accepts and upholds this Dharma, by applying a little upāya, they quickly attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi,' and so on. In this there are also two kinds: first, suddenly completing multiple practices; second, pervasively completing universal practices. Both are as explained below.

1.17

Tenth, because it attains the fruit: to cause them to attain the fruit of knowledge and abandonment of the Buddha stage. This also has two kinds: first, the fruit of abandonment, which means the elimination of hindrances—namely, the 'Samantabhadra Chapter' explains that one hindrance is all hindrances, and the 'Lesser Characteristics Chapter' explains that one abandonment is all abandonments, expounded in detail below; second, the fruit of knowledge, which means the accomplishment of virtues, possessing the ten bodies, sovereign in conforming with or reversing throughout the three realms of existence, free from impediments between dependence and principal, as explained in the 'Inconceivable Chapter' and elsewhere. It is briefly by revealing these ten senses above that this scripture and its teaching arose.

1.18

Second, explaining subsumption under the baskets and divisions: ten points are briefly shown to clarify subsumption: (1) explaining the three baskets; (2) showing what is subsumed; (3) distinguishing the two baskets; (4) resolving contradictions; (5) opening categories; (6) determining what subsumes [it]; (7) subsumed under a single division; (8) subsumed under three divisions; (9) or nine divisions; (10) possessing all twelve.

1.19

First, explaining the three baskets: The first is called sūtra, also termed *xiuduluo*, or *sudalan*; here translated as 'tallying scripture' (*qijing*). 'Tallying' (*qi*) has two senses: tallying with principle and fitting the faculties. 'Scripture' (*jing*) also has two senses: stringing together the characteristics of dharmas and holding together those who are transformed. As for 'stringing together,' Vasubandhu explains: because it can string together the basis, the characteristic, the dharma, and the meaning, it is called *sūtra*. That is, in such a place, due to this, and for the sake of this something was spoken—this is called the 'basis.' The characteristics of the ultimate and conventional truths are called 'characteristics.' Dharmas such as the ten skills are called 'dharmas.' Preaching the dharmas in accord with secret intent and so forth is called 'meaning.' Furthermore, Asvabhāva explains it as 'stringing together and sewing together.' The explanation says: 'stringing together' is the sense of penetrating into, and 'sewing together' is the sense of fitting together. That is, by means of holy words one strings together the meaning and principle so that they are neither scattered and lost nor concealed and vanished, and sews and joins them so that they form an expression and endure for a long time. The *Buddhabhūmi-vyākhyāna* says: 'Because it can string together and hold together, it is called *jing*. Because the holy teaching of the Buddha strings together and holds together the meanings that should be taught and the living beings who are to be transformed, it is called *qijing*.' 'A scripture that tallies with principle' is a genitive compound (*tatpuruṣa*); 'the tallying scripture itself is the basket' is an appositional compound (*karmadhāraya*). Furthermore, the *Saṃyuktābhidharma-hṛdaya* gives five meanings: (1) welling spring, (2) issuing lord, (3) displaying, (4) marking cord, and (5) woven garland. The literal translation is 'thread' (*xian*); why then is it called 'scripture' (*jing*)? Because a thread can string flowers together, and the warp threads (*jing*) can hold the woof; their function and sense are similar. But because this country honors the term *jing* and does not value the designation 'thread,' the translators followed what was esteemed, discarding 'thread' and preserving *jing*, establishing the name based on the metaphor.

1.20

Second, vinaya, here translated as 'regulation and subdual' (*tiaofu*). 'Regulation' (*tiao*) is harmonizing and governing; 'subdual' (*fu*) is suppressing and eliminating: because it harmonizes and governs the karmic actions of body and speech, and suppresses and eliminates various evil actions. This is the practice that is signified; it is the basket of regulation and subdual. Or it is translated as 'extinction' (*mie*); extinction has three senses: (1) extinguishing karmic faults, (2) extinguishing afflictions, and (3) attaining the fruit of extinction. Or it is called *śīla*, here meaning 'coolness' (*qingliang*): the faults of the three karmas are like blazing fire, and morality can extinguish them, hence it is called 'coolness.' In the *Daśabhāṇavāra-vinaya* it is called 'goodness of nature' (*xingshan*), or called 'keeping faith' (*shouxin*), because one can truly uphold what was previously received. Or it is called *prātimokṣa*, here translated as 'conformable liberation' (*suishun jietuo*): because by upholding precepts one conformably reaches liberation; it is also called 'separate liberation' (*bie jietuo*).

1.21

Third, the basket called abhidharma. *Dharma* means dharma (phenomenon or teaching). *Abhi* has seven meanings: (1) 'Facing the Dharma' (*duifa*). This has two senses: first, facing toward, meaning that the causal knowledge aims toward the fruit of nirvāṇa; second, facing in contemplation, meaning that the fruitional knowledge contemplates and realizes the cessation of nirvāṇa. Although the causal knowledge also has facing in contemplation, because it aspires and advances in cultivation, it is merely named 'facing toward.' Vasubandhu's *Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya* says: 'This dharma faces toward non-abiding nirvāṇa, because it can teach the various sublime gates such as the truths and the factors of bodhi.' This is said with respect to causal knowledge, and refers purely to the signified. (2) 'Numbering dharmas' (*shufa*). The Liang translation of the *Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya* explains: 'Among the various dharmas, in accordance with any single dharma, one repeatedly clarifies this one dharma either through its nominal characteristic, its particular characteristic, or its common characteristic; hence it is called numbering dharmas.' (3) 'Subduing dharmas' (*fufa*). That treatise says: 'This dharma can subdue all [rival] assertions, possessing the two capabilities of establishing and refuting, through expedients such as the basis of correct discourse; therefore it is called subduing.' (4) 'Penetrating dharmas' (*tongfa*), because it can comprehensively explain the meanings of the sūtras. Sūtras are called dharma, and this dharma can penetrate them—that is, the penetration of dharma; the Liang *Mahāyānasaṃgraha-bhāṣya* names it 'comprehending dharmas' (*jiefa*), because through abhidharma the meaning of the sūtras is easily understood. (5) 'Peerless dharma' (*wubifa*); (6) 'great dharma' (*dafa*); (7) 'discerning dharmas' (*zefa*). These three pertain solely to the signified. Furthermore, the *Nyāyānusāra* says: 'Alternatively, sūtras are called dharma, and the treatise that can decisively comprehend them is called abhidharma.' This brings teaching against teaching, identical to the 'penetrating dharmas' above. Or it is called *mātṛkā*, here translated as 'matrix' (*benmu*), taking teaching and meaning as root and mother; it is also called 'discriminative liberation.' Or it is called *upadeśa*, here translated as 'treatise on meaning' (*lunyi*); in the *Abhidharmasamuccaya-vyākhyā* it is called 'exposition.' These three kinds above—the sūtras and so forth—all contain and subsume the signified and give birth to meaning and principle; all are named 'baskets.' The fourth fascicle of the *Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra* says: 'Why are those three and these two called baskets? Answer: Because of subsumption, meaning that they subsume all knowable meanings. The first basket admits of both appositional (*karmadhāraya*) and genitive (*tatpuruṣa*) compounds; the latter two baskets are strictly genitive compounds, because they take their names from what they signify.' The remaining matters of identifying their essential nature and the various categorical analyses are as expounded in detail elsewhere.

1.22

Second, showing what is subsumed: Under which basket is this sūtra subsumed? It may be subsumed solely under the sūtra basket, since it is not the other two; or it may be subsumed under two, because it contains the abhidharma that resolves meaning and principle; or it may be subsumed under all three, since the text below also demonstrates the various practices of precepts. This is distinguished in terms of the Shared Teaching. Alternatively, it is subsumed under the ten baskets [expounded in] the text below, because possessing both principal and retinue completely, it reveals the inexhaustible. This is in terms of the Distinct Teaching. Question: The three baskets are based on teaching, while the ten baskets are based on meaning; how can meaning be said to subsume teaching? Answer: In the Hinayāna, teaching and meaning are both non-interpenetrating; in the three vehicles, meaning interpenetrates but teaching does not; in the One Vehicle, teaching and meaning both interpenetrate, and therefore it can subsume it. Just as the non-conceptual contemplation of mental discourse enters subsumption under teaching and so on even in the three vehicles, how much more so in the One Vehicle! Merely designating and expressing falls under subsumption by teaching; reflection will make this clear.

1.23

Third, distinguishing the two baskets: that is, the śrāvaka basket and the bodhisattva basket. The first establishes the three-basket teaching based on the lesser capacities of the śrāvakas, explaining the principle, practice, fruit, and so on of the śrāvakas; this is the śrāvaka basket. The second establishes the three-basket teaching based on the great capacities of the bodhisattvas, explaining the dharmas practiced by bodhisattvas, and so forth; this is the bodhisattva basket. The fourth fascicle of the *Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra* says: 'Due to the distinction between the higher and lower vehicles, these three baskets are further spoken of as the śrāvaka basket and the bodhisattva basket.'

1.24

Fourth, resolving contradictions: Question: Sūtras also say, 'For those seeking [to be] pratyekabuddhas, the twelve links of dependent origination are taught.' Why then is there no pratyekabuddha basket? Answer: Because pratyekabuddhas also only sever the grasping at self and only realize the emptiness of persons; in fruit they become arhats and their entering cessation is no different. Looked at in comparison to bodhisattvas, both are the lower vehicle; hence it is not spoken of separately. Question: If both are equally the lower [vehicle], why is it uniquely named the śrāvaka basket? Answer: Because pratyekabuddhas also appear in world-ages without Buddhas, where there are no teachings; śrāvakas are not so; hence it exclusively receives the name. Question: In the Hinayāna teachings, there are also expositions of the bodhisattva vehicle; why is that not also named the bodhisattva basket? Answer: Because in that school, what the bodhisattva severs, what they realize, and the nirvāṇa they enter are likewise not different from those of the two vehicles. Furthermore, because a bodhisattva is solitary and not multiple, it is also not spoken of. Question: If so, why do the 'Three Baskets Chapter' of the *Samantamukha-parivarta-samādhi Sūtra* and the *Mahāyānāvatāra-śāstra* state that the three vehicles are precisely the three baskets: (1) the śrāvaka basket, (2) the pratyekabuddha basket, and (3) the bodhisattva basket? Answer: In those sūtras and treatises, it is always stated that these three baskets exist within the Mahāyāna, not meaning the Hinayāna. Question: Even based on this text, a pratyekabuddha has a basket; how is this reconciled with the *Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra*? Answer: The former combined them because principle and fruit do not differ; the latter separated them because teaching and practice have slight differences. Therefore, the two explanations do not contradict each other.

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Fifth, discerning categories: within the śrāvaka pitaka, according with the various sūtras and treatises, three kinds are subdivided: First, the śrāvaka pitaka of dispute. This refers to the sūtras of the four Āgamas, the vinaya of the five divisions, and the abhidharma of the twenty schools; as they contradict and dispute with one another, their expositions being not uniform, yet they do not hinder [attaining] the noble fruition, it is therefore collectively named the pitaka of dispute. Second, the śrāvaka pitaka according with reality. This refers to [texts] such as the Śrāvakabhūmi and the Śrāvaka-viniścaya in the Yogācārabhūmi, which expound the practices, stages, fruitions, and so forth of the śrāvakas, all according with reality and corresponding with principle, differing from the Mahāvibhāṣā and the various heterodox treatises; because what is expounded by [Maitreya,] the one bound to one more birth, cannot be disputed by the various heterodox treatises, it is therefore collectively named the śrāvaka pitaka according with reality. Question: Since what is expounded here differs from the various Hīnayāna schools, could there be two kinds of śrāvakas? Answer: This is opened into two on the basis that in the teaching, the exposition of śrāvaka phenomena is exhaustive while that of the principle is not; it does not mean that the śrāvakas themselves have differences. Third, the conventionally established śrāvaka pitaka. For instance, in the Mahāyāna sūtras, in order to guide śrāvakas to turn their minds, the doctrinal teachings established are expounded in accordance with the names and enumerations of the śrāvakas, such as the uncreated four noble truths and the factors of awakening. As expounded in the various Mahāyāna sūtras, they cannot be cited at length. Since these are not what bodhisattvas study, it is therefore called the conventionally established śrāvaka pitaka. Question: Although the names here are identical to the Hīnayāna, the meaning is actually Mahāyāna; how can it be collectively called a śrāvaka pitaka? Answer: It is precisely for this reason that it is named conventionally established. Question: What the śrāvakas whose faculties have matured and who have turned their minds study is subsumed under the bodhisattva pitaka; of what use is this conventionally established pitaka to them? Answer: But there are two kinds of śrāvakas who turn their minds: first, the superior; second, the inferior. The superior directly enter the Mahāyāna without relying on this pitaka; the inferior still fear the Mahāyāna, and therefore, by upāya, [the teaching] accords with their names and enumerations to make it easy for them to faithfully accept it; hence this gate is established.

1.26

Second, within the bodhisattva pitaka, according with the various holy teachings, there are also three classes: First, the bodhisattva pitaka within the Hīnayāna. This refers to expounding that the bodhisattva attains Buddhahood sequentially on the basis of the thirty-four minds and the like, without discussing the practices and stages of the ten bhūmis, yet still differing from the śrāvakas and others, as expounded in the Mahāvibhāṣā and the Abhidharmakośa. Second, the bodhisattva pitaka within the common teaching of the Mahāyāna. This refers to expounding the sequential practices and stages of the bodhisattva: although there are differences between turning one's mind and proceeding directly, both rely on the layout of the ten bhūmis to gradually cultivate toward the Buddha fruit, as expounded in the Bodhisattvabhūmi of the Yogācārabhūmi and in various Mahāyāna sūtras and treatises. Third, the bodhisattva pitaka within the uncommon teaching. This expounds that the bodhisattva relies on the practices and stages of Samantabhadra, wherein the five stages are perfectly interpenetrating; that is, one stage is all stages, one practice is all practices, perfectly culminating in the unobstructed freedom of the dharmadhātu, equal from beginning to end; upon the fulfillment of each individual stage, one immediately becomes a ten-bodied Buddha, completely endowed with host and retinue. Therefore, the Dà zhìdù lùn states: 'Prajñāpāramitā has two [types]: first, the common, referring to this Pañcaviṃśati-sāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra and other vaipulya sūtras, because they are expounded in common with the śrāvakas; second, the uncommon, referring to the Inconceivable Sūtra, because it is not expounded in common with the śrāvakas.' The explanation says: Here, the small of the common Mahāyāna is not foolish in the Dharma; the great of the common Hīnayāna is not the distinct teaching; therefore, there are three bodhisattva pitakas. Question: Since the two pitakas of bodhisattva and śrāvaka are distinct, those two kinds of persons each separately attain their fruition. Since three stages are differentiated in the bodhisattva pitaka, the three kinds of bodhisattvas should each separately attain Buddhahood. Answer: Attaining Buddhahood is only one; but faculties have shallowness and depth, and the teaching expounds three classes; it does not mean that the essence of attaining Buddhahood actually has three. Now it is divided according to the teachings, not with respect to the Buddha's essence. Question: If all three expositions accord with principle, the Buddha's essence would also become three; if the principle of attaining Buddhahood is one, two of the expositions would be false. Answer: In the one attainment of Buddhahood, three meanings are comprehensively present: First, the approach of following the branch from the root, as expounded in the Hīnayāna, because it is identical with the śrāvaka. Second, the approach of opening the root to differentiate the branch, as expounded in the common teaching, because it is contrasted with the śrāvaka to discern differences. Third, the approach where the branches are exhausted and only the root remains, as expounded in the uncommon teaching, because the two vehicles are deaf and blind, having nothing with which to contrast and differentiate. The Buddha's essence perfectly interpenetrates and possesses these three meanings; therefore, the three expositions each differ, while the Buddha has no multiplicity. Hence, there are these three classes within the present bodhisattva pitaka.

1.27

Sixth, determining what subsumes [it]: as to which pitaka subsumes this sūtra, it is not subsumed under any of the former three śrāvaka pitakas; among the latter three bodhisattva pitakas, it is properly subsumed only under the last, because the Dà zhìdù lùn specifically points to this sūtra as the uncommon. Alternatively, among the three classes, only the first is excluded, and it is subsumed under both of the latter two, because this sūtra completely possesses both the universal and the distinct. Or, it may also extend to being subsumed under that conventionally established śrāvaka pitaka, because the sūtra also discerns the four truths and so forth. Or again, it may comprehensively extend to being subsumed under both pitakas, because the phenomena of the śrāvaka pitaka all flow from and rely upon the dharmadhātu of the one vehicle, their taste having no difference.

1.28

Seventh, being subsumed under one division: among the twelve divisions, it is perhaps subsumed solely under the one division of vaipulya, because the Abhidharma-samuccaya states that it is the foundation for the benefit, ease, and joy of all sentient beings, and because it proclaims broad, great, and profoundly deep teachings, it is called vaipulya. Furthermore, the Yogācārabhūmi states that there is no vaipulya in the śrāvaka pitaka, or because the title of this sūtra has already made it manifest.

1.29

Eighth, being subsumed under three divisions: namely, vyākaraṇa (prophecy), udāna (inspired utterances), and vaipulya (corrective expansion). Because the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra states that the remaining nine divisions belong to the Hīnayāna, and this sūtra is not that, it is therefore subsumed under only three.

1.30

Ninth, or being subsumed under nine divisions: namely, excluding nidāna (causes and conditions), avadāna (parables), and upadeśa (discussions), because the third fascicle of the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra states that protectors of the Mahāyāna uphold nine divisions, excluding the previous three.

1.31

Tenth, being fully endowed with the twelve: First, it is subsumed under sūtra (契經), because the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra states that from 'Thus [have I heard]' to 'faithfully practiced' is sūtra. Second, geya (應頌), because the text below fully contains reiterative verses. Third, vyākaraṇa (記別), because the text below fully contains prophecies of attaining Buddhahood and so forth. Fourth, gāthā (諷頌), because the text below has direct verses and so forth. Fifth, udāna (自說), as in the text below where arising from samādhi [the Buddha] immediately speaks of the original portion and so forth. Sixth, nidāna (緣起), as in the text below being expounded due to requests. Seventh, avadāna (譬喻), as in the text below broadly expounding similes. Eighth, itivṛttaka (本事), as in the expositions below of the past events formerly experienced by Rocana and others as well as Samantabhadra. Ninth, jātaka (本生), as in the expositions below of the past birth aspects of Rocana and others. Tenth, vaipulya (方廣), which can be known through the single approach [above]. Eleventh, adbhutadharma (希法), as in the text below where pores expound the Dharma, and the seat brings forth multitudes of precious pillars in which Buddhas appear, etc. Twelfth, upadeśa (論義), as stated in fascicle 81 of the Yogācārabhūmi, which refers to circulating and investigating the mātṛkā among the various scriptures. All definitive sūtras are called mātṛkā, meaning that in those places the World-Honoured One himself broadly analyzes the characteristics of phenomena, as expounded below in the chapter 'Clarifying Difficulties' and others. Therefore, this sūtra is fully endowed with being subsumed under the twelve divisions. The remaining meanings will be expounded below under the section on the twelve divisions of sūtras. The subsumption under pitakas and divisions is concluded.

1.32

Third, explaining the distinctions in establishing teachings, ten categories are briefly raised: 1. Narrating ancient views; 2. Discerning what is right and wrong; 3. Describing the Western Regions; 4. Reconciling contradictions; 5. Clarifying present transmissions; 6. Determining the provisional and the real; 7. Revealing division and integration; 8. The sequence of the teachings; 9. Differentiating teachings according to meaning; 10. Opening schools based on principle.

1.33

In the first [category], the various virtuous ones since antiquity have established teachings in manifold ways, difficult to present fully; ten masters are briefly narrated to serve as a mirror.

1.34

First, Bodhiruci of the Later Wei established the teaching of the single sound, asserting that all holy teachings are solely the Tathāgata's teaching of one perfect sound, which is only divided into various kinds according to differences in faculties, as in the sūtra, 'nourished by a single rain,' etc. Also, a sūtra states: 'The Buddha proclaims the Dharma with a single sound, and sentient beings each attain understanding according to their kind,' etc.

1.35

Second, the Tripiṭaka Master Paramārtha of the Chen dynasty and others established the two teachings of gradual and sudden. That is, with respect to faculties of gradual awakening, where the great arises from the small, what is established is a teaching possessing the three vehicles, hence called gradual, namely the Mahāparinirvāṇa and other sūtras. If with respect to sudden faculties that advance directly, where the great does not arise from the small, what is established is solely the teaching of the bodhisattva vehicle, hence called sudden, namely the Avataṃsaka and other sūtras. Later, Dharma Master Huiyuan and others also followed this theory.

1.36

Third, Vinaya Master Guangtong of the Later Wei, inheriting the tradition of Tripiṭaka Master Buddhabhadra, established three kinds of teachings: gradual, sudden, and perfect. Master Guang's meaning explained: First, for those whose faculties are not yet mature, first expounding impermanence and later expounding permanence, first emptiness and later non-emptiness, and so forth; such gradual progression is named the gradual teaching. Second, for those whose faculties are mature, completely expounding all Buddha-dharmas within a single doctrinal gate—meaning permanence and impermanence, emptiness and non-emptiness are all fully expounded without any dependence on gradual progression—hence named the sudden. Third, for those of superior attainment who have stepped into the Buddha realm, expounding the Tathāgata's unimpeded liberation, ultimate fruition virtues, and the perfectly culminating, esoteric, autonomous doctrinal gate, hence named the perfect. Thus, this sūtra is subsumed under the perfect and sudden. Later, Zuntong and other disciples of Guangtong all maintained and followed this, agreeing with this view.

1.37

Fourth, Dharma Master Dayan of the Qi dynasty and others established four doctrinal schools: 1. The school of causes and conditions, referring to the Hīnayāna Sarvāstivāda and other schools. 2. The school of provisional designation, referring to the expositions of the Tattvasiddhi-śāstra, Sautrāntika, and others. 3. The school of non-reality, referring to the various Prajñā sūtras, which speak of the principle of identity-with-emptiness and clarify that all dharmas are not real. 4. The school of reality, referring to the Avataṃsaka and Mahāparinirvāṇa, which clarify the true principle of the dharmadhātu, Buddha-nature, and so forth.

1.38

Fifth, Dharma Master Hushen and others established five doctrinal schools: within the aforementioned fourth school, they separated true Buddha-nature to make it the school of reality, namely the Mahāparinirvāṇa and other sūtras; the fifth was named the dharmadhātu school, namely the Avataṃsaka, clarifying the autonomous and unobstructed doctrinal gate of the dharmadhātu.

1.39

Sixth, Dhyāna Master Nanyue Huisi, Dhyāna Master Zhizhe, and others of the Chen dynasty established four teachings: 1. The Tripiṭaka teaching, also called the Hīnayāna teaching, as the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra says, 'Do not approach students of the Hīnayāna Tripiṭaka.' The Dà zhìdù lùn states that the Hīnayāna is the Tripiṭaka, and the Mahāyāna is called the Mahāyāna piṭaka. 2. The common teaching, also called the gradual teaching, referring to Mahāyāna sūtras that expound the three vehicles in common and universally cover the three faculties, etc.; also like the ten bhūmis such as the dry wisdom bhūmi in the Pañcaviṃśati-sāhasrikā, which are common to the three vehicles. 3. The distinct teaching, also called the sudden teaching, referring to the doctrinal principles expounded in the various Mahāyāna sūtras that are not common to the Hīnayāna, etc. 4. The perfect teaching, also called the esoteric teaching, referring to the unobstructed doctrinal gate where the dharmadhātu is autonomous, complete, and fulfilled, one is all and all is one, which is also the Avataṃsaka and others.

1.40

Seventh, Dharma Master Wonhyo of the kingdom of Silla in the Eastern Sea during the Tang dynasty composed a commentary on this sūtra, and also established four teachings: 1. The distinct teaching of the three vehicles, referring to teachings such as the four noble truths and the Pratītyasamutpāda-sūtra. 2. The common teaching of the three vehicles, referring to sūtras such as the Prajñāpāramitā-sūtras and Sandhinirmocana-sūtra. 3. The partial teaching of the one vehicle, such as the Yingluo jing and Brahmajāla-sūtra. 4. The complete teaching of the one vehicle, referring to the Samantabhadra teaching of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra. The explanation of these four distinctions is as in his commentary.

1.41

Eighth, Dharma Master Jizang of the Tang dynasty established three kinds of teachings as the three wheels of the Dharma: 1. The root wheel of the Dharma, namely the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, which was expounded first. 2. The branch wheel of the Dharma, namely the Hīnayāna and others, expounded afterward. 3. The wheel of the Dharma that gathers the branches back to the root, namely the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra, expounded after forty years as the teaching that turns the three into the one. The detailed explanation is as in his work.

1.42

Ninth, Dharma Master Yun of Guangzhai Temple under the Liang dynasty established a teaching of four vehicles. He held that, as in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra, the three carts [promised] at the threshold of the gate are the three vehicles, whereas the great white-ox cart conferred at the crossroads is the fourth vehicle, because the ox cart at the threshold was also not obtained, just like the goat and deer [carts]. Were this not so, when the elder inside the house enticed the children, he said that these three carts were right outside the gate; upon leaving the house, the children should have obtained the carts. How is it that after exiting and arriving at the place where the carts were originally indicated to be, they did not obtain them and later asked for them again? Therefore, one knows that this [promised cart] was provisional, just like the goat and deer [carts], because it was a provisional teaching and an upāya spoken within the Mahāyāna. The full explanation is as found in his Commentary on the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra.

1.43

Tenth, Dharma Master Yin, Dharma Master Min, and others of Jiangnan under the Tang dynasty established two teachings: First, the sūtras of Śākyamuni are called the crooked teaching, because they adapt to the capacities and natures [of beings] and break attachments according to their imputations, as in the Nirvāṇa Sūtra and others. Second, the sūtras of Rocana are called the straight-path teaching, because they are expounded with unimpeded mastery in accord with the dharmatā, as in the Avataṃsaka Sūtra and others. Those masters explained four brief differences between these two teachings: First, a difference in teacher: the former is spoken by the nirmāṇakāya Śākyamuni, whereas the latter is spoken by the ten bodies of Rocana. Second, a difference in place: the former was spoken in the Sahā world under a wooden tree on a grass seat, whereas the latter was spoken in the Padmagarbha-lokadhātu under a jewel tree on a golden seat. Third, a difference in audience: the former was spoken to śrāvakas and bodhisattvas, whereas the latter was spoken exclusively with bodhisattvas of the utmost rank. Fourth, a difference in exposition: the former was spoken only in a single direction, whereas the latter must be spoken comprehensively and identically in the ten directions. The extensive explanation is as found in their Commentary on the Avataṃsaka Sūtra.

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