法苑珠林 93

English (machine translation) 93

Language: English

93.1

Compiled by the Śramaṇa Shi Daoshi of Ximing Temple

93.2

Section Ninety-Three: On Alcohol and Meat (This contains three parts)

93.3

Part on Stating the Intent
Part on Drinking Alcohol
Part on Eating Meat

Alcohol is the gateway to heedlessness; the Great Sage knows it to be the root of suffering. Therefore, he distanced himself from indulging in revelry, kept apart from the conditions of alcohol, discarded drunken companions, drew close to Dharma friends, exited the gate of stupor, and entered the realm of awakening. Meat severs the seed of great compassion; the Great Sage knows it to be the cause of killing. Therefore, he cast away fishy stench, purified body and speech, ate vegetables, clarified the mind and spirit, attracted benevolence and goodness, and gained longevity. Thus the secular Book of Rites says: 'Seeing them alive, one cannot bear to see them die; hearing their cries, one cannot bear to eat their meat.' This also conveys the meaning of not killing. If one eats meat and drinks alcohol, one is no different from beasts, jackals, and wolves; one also fully slaughters all of one's own kin and drinks and devours one's own relatives. Turning into enemies and taking retribution, through kalpas of long nights there is no end. As the treatise quoted above explains: a woman killed a wolf cub for five hundred lives, and the wolf cub also killed her as its mother for five hundred lives. Furthermore, a woman severed the life-faculty of a ghost for five hundred lives, and the ghost also severed her life-faculty for five hundred lives. Hence one knows that undergoing transmigration through the six destinies, one fully receives vengeful retribution: they may once have been one's teachers, one's parents, one's brothers, one's sisters, one's children and grandchildren, or one's friends. Now, in this mortal body, each lacks the eye of the Way and cannot distinguish them; devouring one another in turn, they do not realize it themselves. When devouring them, this creature possesses a spirit; it immediately gives rise to anger and hatred, turning back into an enemy. What were once the closest kin on the contrary become enemies. How could one not ponder such a matter? To momentarily vie for a brief trivial taste on the tip of the tongue, and forever become hostile adversaries with one's closest kin—this is truly heartbreaking and difficult to put into words! Therefore the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra says: 'All meat is entirely severed, including that which dies of itself.' Even what dies of itself is still prohibited, how much more so that which does not die of itself! Furthermore, the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra says: 'For profit, living beings are killed; with wealth, meat is netted. Both karmas are unwholesome; dying, they fall into the Raurava Hell.' What is meant by 'netting meat with wealth'? On land one sets traps and snares; in water one sets nets and fish-traps: this is netting meat with nets. If one buys meat with money among butchers, this is netting meat with wealth. If one causes this person not to net meat with wealth, practicing evil vows and capturing and harming living beings, does this person intend merely to feed his own mouth, or does he also intend it for something else? If he intends it for something else, does the one who eats the meat not partake in the act of killing? How can one say 'I do not kill living beings'? This is obvious: it contradicts the sūtra texts, severs the seed of great compassion, and creates an obstacle to seeing the Buddha.

93.6

Part on Drinking Alcohol, Second

93.7

The commentary states: This single teaching has the provisional and the real. The provisional is the instruction of gradual inducement, using the light to escape the heavy; at first permission is granted without an offense. But based on its principle of obscuration, it is not without fault. If considered according to the real teaching, both light and heavy are forbidden; from beginning to end without violation is what is called holding the precepts. Regarding the initial provisional explanation, the Scripture on What Has Never Been Before states: At that time, the King's crown prince, named Jeta, heard the Dharma of the ten paths of wholesome action explained by the Buddha, whose retributions are boundless. Kneeling long with palms joined, he addressed the Buddha: 'Formerly, the Buddha had me receive and uphold the five precepts; now I wish to return and renounce them. Why is this? Among the five precepts, the precept against alcohol is difficult to uphold, and I fear incurring transgression.' The World-Honoured One said: 'When you drink alcohol, what evil do you commit?' Jeta addressed the Buddha: 'The powerful and wealthy of the state from time to time gather together, bringing alcohol and food to amuse themselves together and bring about joy. In itself there is no evil. Why is this? When obtaining alcohol, I am mindful of the precepts, so there is no heedlessness. When drinking alcohol, I do not commit evil.' The Buddha said: 'Excellent, excellent! Jeta, you have now attained wisdom and skillful means. If people of the world could be like you, what evil would there be in drinking alcohol throughout life? For such a practitioner, it will rather generate merit and there will be no sin. If a person drinks alcohol without giving rise to evil karma, because of a joyful mind they do not give rise to afflictions; through the causal condition of a wholesome mind, they receive wholesome retribution. As when holding the five precepts, what loss could there be? Drinking alcohol while mindful of the precepts increases their merit even more. Having previously held the five precepts and now receiving the ten wholesome actions, the merit is twice as superior as the retribution of the ten wholesome actions.'

93.8

At that time, King Prasenajit said to the Buddha: "World-Honoured One, as the Buddha has said, when the mind is joyful and does not generate evil karma, this is called 'contaminated goodness'; yet that is not so. Why is this? When a person drinks liquor, their mind is joyful. Because the mind is joyful, afflictions do not arise. Because there are no afflictions, one does not commit harm. Because one does not harm living things, the three types of activity are pure. The path of purity is precisely uncontaminated karma. World-Honoured One, I recall that formerly, when going on a hunting expedition, I forgot to take the head cook along. In the deep mountains I felt hungry and demanded food. Those in attendance replied: 'When the king departed this morning, no order was given to bring the head cook; therefore at present there is no food.' Having heard these words, I galloped back to the palace and ordered food to be provided. The supervisor of the royal kitchen was named Śukla. Śukla said: 'There is no ready-made food at the moment; it will now be prepared.' Pressed by hunger at that time, I fell into a rage without reflection and ordered the ministers to execute the kitchen supervisor. Upon receiving the king's order, the ministers consulted together, saying: 'Searching through the whole kingdom, this is the only man who is loyal, upright, and serves straightforwardly. If we kill him now, there will be no one else capable of supervising the kitchen for the king and pleasing his wishes.' At that time Queen Mallikā heard the king's order to kill Śukla, and she felt great pity and concern. Knowing that the king was hungry and exhausted, she immediately ordered fine meat and delicious liquor to be prepared, bathed in famous perfumes, adorned her body, and, taking along various courtesans, came to my presence. When I saw the queen exquisitely adorned, leading courtesans and bringing fine liquor and meat, my angry mind instantly ceased. Why was this? Queen Mallikā upheld the five precepts and had severed liquor, not drinking it; I had always resented this. Today she suddenly brought liquor and meat to make merry together and display affection; thereupon I drank liquor and ate meat with the queen, making various sorts of music, joyful and merry, and my wrathful mind was extinguished. The queen, knowing that I had forgotten my anger, immediately sent a eunuch to convey my command without authorization, bidding him tell the ministers outside not to kill the kitchen supervisor. They complied with the command. When the next morning came, I felt deep remorse, was sorrowful and did not eat, and my complexion was haggard. The queen asked me: 'Why are you sorrowful? What troubles you?' I said: 'Yesterday, pressed by the fire of hunger, out of a wrathful mind I had Śukla killed. Considering it myself, there is no one else in the kingdom capable of supervising my kitchen like Śukla. It is for this reason that I feel remorse and sorrow.' The queen smiled and said: 'That man is still alive. May the king not grieve.' I asked again: 'Is it truly so, or is it in jest?' She replied: 'He is truly alive; it is not in jest.' I ordered my attendants to summon the kitchen supervisor. The messenger went to summon him, and in an instant brought him. I was exceedingly joyful, and my sorrow and remorse were immediately dispelled." The king said to the Buddha: "Queen Mallikā upholds the Buddha's five precepts and observes the six days of purification each month. In a single day, of the lifelong five precepts, she already violated the two precepts against drinking liquor and false speech; and among the eight purification precepts, she abruptly violated six precepts. How is this matter? Is the guilt of the precepts she violated light or heavy?" The World-Honoured One answered: "By violating the precepts in such a manner, she obtained great merit and was free of guilt. Why is this? Because it was done for the sake of benefit. As I said before, when the queen cultivates goodness, there are altogether two kinds: the first is contaminated goodness, and the second is uncontaminated goodness. The precepts that Queen Mallikā violated enter into contaminated goodness; those she did not violate are called uncontaminated goodness. If one relies on literal words, breaking precepts to cultivate goodness is called contaminated goodness; if one relies on the implicit meaning, whatever goodness arises from an ordinary mind is uncontaminated karma." The king said to the Buddha: "As the World-Honoured One has said, when Queen Mallikā drank liquor and broke the precepts without generating an evil mind, she obtained merit and had no retribution of guilt; all the common people are also likewise. Why is this? I recall that recently in the city of Śrāvastī there were various eminent kṣatriya nobles and lords who, on account of a petty dispute, gave rise to great enmity. Each hatched plots and raised troops to attack one another. Both families were royal relatives; they could not be arrested, yet they were engaged in clamorous combat and would not listen to rational admonition, which caused me deep concern. I also thought to myself: 'Formerly, when I was crown prince, I was angry with the great minister Dīrgha; our feelings could not be reconciled, and I intended to execute him. Because the queen mother gave us liquor to drink, our feelings harmonized.' Having reflected thus, I immediately ordered loyal ministers to prepare fine liquor and various sweet delicacies, and sent orders to proclaim to the eminent clans, ministers, officials, and commoners throughout the kingdom that all should assemble, as there was a great national affair to discuss. The disputing ministers and both factions of retinues numbered five hundred each; answering the summons, they assembled. In the royal hall great music was arranged. The king ordered loyal ministers to prepare lapis lazuli bowls, each bowl holding three sheng. The various precious bowls were filled with fine liquor. Before the assembly, I first gulped down a bowl. The king said: 'Today we discuss state affairs, and I presume there are no dissenting intentions. Today everyone must empty this one bowl of fine nectar medicine before we discuss affairs.' All said: 'We shall obey.' Great music was played and sung. When the people obtained the liquor and heard the music, their minds were joyful and they forgot their feuds and hatred. Because of liquor, disputes ceased and great peace was obtained. How could this not be the merit of liquor? In secret I see the poor, low, common people, slaves, servants, maids, and barbarian peoples of the world gathering to drink liquor either on festivals or in wine shops. Because of their joyful minds, without needing anyone to teach them, they all begin to dance. When they have not had liquor, there is never such a thing. Therefore one should know that when people drink liquor, it leads to joy. When the mind is joyful, evil thoughts do not arise. When evil thoughts do not arise, this is precisely a good mind. Through the causes and conditions of a good mind, one should receive good retribution. Even monkeys, when getting liquor, are able to dance, not to mention people of the world! As the World-Honoured One said, giving goodness brings good retribution, and giving evil brings evil retribution. Queen Mallikā, entirely because in a previous life she liked to give to others, now receives a good retribution. World-Honoured One, why do you make people uphold the five precepts and observe the six days of purification each month? On the six days of purification, one must not wear adornments, fragrances, flowers, or fine clothing, nor play music or sing, nor is one permitted to approach one's husband with endearing charms. What purpose does this serve in the end? Its merit is praised in vain—is this not suffering?" The Buddha told the king: "What the great king objects to is not without reason. Yet when Queen Mallikā was young, had I not instructed her to receive the rules of the precepts and cultivate wisdom, how could she have today's virtue so as to be able to cross over herself and further cross over the king's person? To whom else would merit such as this belong?"

93.9

Commentary: This second [perspective] is stated according to the definitive truth: not violating precepts, whether light or heavy, is truly called upholding precepts. Therefore the Great Sage knows the proper times, weighs the capacities [of beings], and understands when to open or close [the precepts]. When opening, he relaxes the prohibition, weighing the pros and cons in advance according to the occasion. Just as King Prasenajit wished to kill the kitchen supervisor and the prince wished to harm his father, in these cases, through liquor they forgot their anger, preserved lives, and avoided great guilt; by using a light offense to escape a heavy one, they did not suffer cumulative disasters. However, it is not that there is no fault in drinking liquor or retribution of guilt in the future. One must not, seeing the previous opening, indiscriminately follow suit and universally violate [the precept]. Each person must weigh the intent of the teaching, and also examine whether the virtues of one's own conduct are superior or inferior, and whether one is counted among the sages. The circumstances under which the prohibitions were relaxed for King Prasenajit and Mallikā were not identical [to ordinary situations]. Thus one must rely on the scriptures and not violate even the slightest bit; this is the most sublime. Therefore the Sifen lü says: 'Those who are my disciples shall not even use the tip of a blade of grass to drip liquor into their mouths, how much less drink a lot.' For this reason, with each swallow a pātayantikā is incurred.

93.10

Furthermore, the *Satyasiddhi-śāstra* asks: "Is drinking liquor an actual sin?" The answer says: "It is not. Why is this? Because drinking liquor is not done to afflict sentient beings; rather, it is a cause of sin. If a person drinks liquor, it opens the gateway to unwholesome actions, because it can obstruct meditative concentration and all wholesome dharmas. Just as planting various fruit trees requires a wall or hedge for protection, so know that the fault of liquor is like fruit without an orchard."

93.11

Furthermore, the *Upāsaka-śīla-sūtra* says: "If there is a person who delights in drinking liquor, that person in the present life is prone to losing property and wealth, suffers many illnesses of body and mind, constantly delights in quarreling, has evil repute spread far and wide, loses wisdom, has a mind without shame or remorse, obtains an ugly complexion and poor vitality, is constantly rebuked by all, is disliked by people, and cannot cultivate goodness. This is called the evil retribution of drinking liquor in the present life. After casting off this body, one resides in hell, suffering immeasurable afflictions of hunger, thirst, and the like. This is called the fruit of evil karma in future lives. If one obtains a human body, one's mind is constantly deranged and cannot fix mindfulness on contemplating wholesome dharmas. By the force of this one evil cause and condition, all external material requisites for living are completely ruined."

93.12

Furthermore, the *Dīrgha-āgama* says: "For one who drinks liquor there are six kinds of loss: first, loss of wealth; second, occurrence of illness; third, quarreling; fourth, spread of an evil reputation; fifth, sudden arising of rage; sixth, daily decrease of wisdom." Furthermore, the *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra* states that drinking liquor has thirty-five faults, as explained earlier in the chapter on receiving the precepts.

93.13

Furthermore, the *Śrāmaṇerikā-śīla-sūtra* says: "One must not drink liquor; one must not be fond of liquor; one must not taste liquor. Liquor has thirty-six faults: losing the Way, ruining the family, endangering the body, and losing life—all stem from it. It pulls one east and drags one west, takes one south and sets one north. One cannot recite scriptures, does not revere the Three Honoured Ones, treats teachers and friends flippantly, and is unfilial to parents. The mind is closed and the thoughts are obstructed; life after life one is foolish, does not encounter the Great Way, and the mind lacks understanding. Therefore, do not drink liquor. If one wishes to depart from the five aggregates, the five desires, and the five hindrances, to attain the five supernatural powers, and to cross beyond the five destinies, therefore do not drink liquor."

93.14

Furthermore, a verse in the *Satyaka-nirgrantha-sūtra* says:

93.15

"Drinking liquor causes much heedlessness; / In the present life one is constantly foolish,
Forgetting all affairs, / And constantly rebuked by the wise.
In future lives one is constantly dull and dim, / Losing much of all merits.
Therefore, an intelligent person / Leaves behind all faults of drinking liquor."

93.16

Furthermore, the *Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā* asks: "If someone gives liquor as charity, is it known whether they incur guilt or not?" The answer says: "The giver gains merit; the recipient must not drink it. Therefore the treatise says: 'This bodhisattva sometimes delights in giving everything away: giving food when food is needed, giving drink when drink is needed. If giving with liquor, one should generate this thought: "Now is the time for practicing dāna; I give according to what is needed. Later, through skillful means, I shall instruct them to abandon liquor, obtain mindfulness and wisdom, and be free from heedlessness." Why is this? The dharma of dāna-pāramitā completely fulfills people's wishes. When a lay bodhisattva gives liquor, this is without guilt.'"

93.17

Furthermore, the *Brahmajāla Sūtra* states: "If one passes a vessel containing liquor with one's own hands to another person for them to drink, one will lack hands for five hundred lifetimes. How much more so if one drinks it oneself! One must not teach any person to drink, nor any sentient being to drink liquor. How much more so drinking liquor oneself!" Furthermore, the *Upāsakapañcaśīla-sūtra* states: "The Buddha was in Bhadravatī town in the country of Ceti. In this place there was an evil nāga named Amratīrtha, who was violent and harmed people. No person could reach that place, nor could elephants or horses approach it, and even birds could not fly over it. When the autumn grain ripened, it was completely destroyed. At that time, there was an elder arhat bhikṣu named Sāgata traveling through the country of Ceti, who gradually arrived at the town of Bhadravatī. After that night passed, in the morning he donned his robes, took up his bowl, and entered the village to beg for alms. At that time, he heard that this town had an evil nāga that was violent and harmed people, birds, and beasts, and destroyed the autumn grain. Having heard this, he begged for alms and went to the dwelling place of the nāga Amratīrtha beneath a grove of trees frequented by birds. He spread out his sitting mat and sat cross-legged. The nāga smelled the scent of his robes and immediately flew into a rage, emitting smoke from its body. The elder Sāgata immediately entered samādhi, and through the power of his supernatural faculties, he also emitted smoke from his body. The nāga's anger doubled, and it emitted fire from its body. Sāgata again entered the fire-radiance samādhi, and his body also emitted fire. The nāga then rained down hail; Sāgata immediately transformed the hail into śaṣkulī cakes, marrow cakes, and the like. The nāga then hurled thunderbolts; Sāgata transformed them into various delight-balls (modakas). The nāga then rained down bows, arrows, knives, and spears; Sāgata immediately transformed them into utpala flowers, padma flowers, and the like. The nāga then rained down venomous snakes, centipedes, vipers, adders, and house centipedes; Sāgata immediately transformed them into garlands of utpala flowers, garlands of campaka flowers, and the like. When all such powers possessed by the nāga were fully displayed against Sāgata, none could prevail, and it immediately lost its power and radiance. Sāgata knew the nāga's strength was exhausted and it could no longer stir; he then transformed himself into a minute body, entered through the nāga's two ears and exited through its two eyes, then entered through its nose. Having entered through the nose, he exited through its mouth. On top of the nāga's head, he walked back and forth, not harming the nāga's body. At that time, when the nāga saw such events, its heart was struck with great terror and its hair stood on end. It joined its palms toward Sāgata and said: 'I take refuge in you.' Sāgata replied: 'Do not take refuge in me; you should take refuge in my teacher, the Buddha.' The nāga replied: 'From now on, I take refuge in the Three Jewels; know that for the rest of my life I will be a lay disciple (upāsaka) of the Buddha.' Once this nāga received the three refuges and became a disciple of the Buddha, it never again performed such violent and evil acts as before. All the people, birds, and beasts were able to reach the place, and the autumn grain was uninjured. His fame spread throughout all the countries, and everyone knew that the elder Sāgata was able to subdue the evil nāga and tame it to goodness. Because Sāgata's fame spread, people all prepared food and vied with one another to invite him. Among them was a poor woman who, with faithful veneration, succeeded in inviting Sāgata. This woman prepared milk rice with ghee for him to eat. The woman thought to herself: 'This śramaṇa has eaten this milk rice with ghee, and it may cause coldness to arise.' She then took water-colored liquor and brought it to Sāgata. Sāgata drank it without looking. Having drunk it, he preached the Dharma for her, then left and headed toward the monastery. At that time, the potency of the liquor took effect, and near the monastery gate he inadvertently collapsed to the ground. His saṃghāṭī robe, water strainer, bowl, staff, and other items were scattered in different places, while his body lay in another, drunk and completely senseless. The Buddha and Ānanda walked to that place and saw this bhikṣu. Knowing full well, the Buddha intentionally asked: 'Ānanda, who is this person?' Ānanda replied: 'World-Honoured One, this is the elder Sāgata.' The Buddha then said to Ānanda: 'Spread out a seat for me here, prepare water, and assemble the saṃgha.' Ānanda received the instruction, spread out the seat, prepared water, assembled the saṃgha, and addressed the Buddha, saying: 'They are assembled; the Buddha knows the proper time.' The Buddha washed his feet, sat down, and asked the bhikṣus: 'Have you ever seen or heard that there was a nāga named Amratīrtha, violent, evil, and harmful, whose dwelling place no person had reached before, nor could birds or beasts reach, and which destroyed all the crops when the autumn grain ripened, but whom Sāgata was able to subdue and make good, so that birds and beasts could reach the spring?' Among them, those who had seen or heard said they had heard. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus: 'What do you think? Can this good man Sāgata now subdue even a frog?' They replied: 'He cannot.' The Buddha said: 'If even a holy person has such a failing from drinking liquor, how much more so an ordinary person! Such transgressions are all caused by drinking liquor. From now on, if anyone says, "I am a disciple of the Buddha," they must not drink liquor—even a drop on the tip of a blade of grass may not be drunk.' After the Buddha had admonished the faults of drinking liquor in various ways, in accordance with the Vinaya, he instituted the precept against drinking liquor on account of this bhikṣu."

93.18

Question: "Is it known whether there is the taste of liquor in the heavens?" Answer: "There is no real liquor made from yeast and grain; there is only liquor produced by the transformation of karma. Thus the *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna-sūtra* states: 'The gods and multitudes of devīs in that Yāma Heaven enter pools to play and together drink heavenly liquor, free from the fault of intoxication, experiencing present pleasures and virtues, fully endowed with taste, touch, color, and fragrance. Among them, some gods drink liquor from jeweled vessels, enjoying sudhā food, fully endowed with color, touch, fragrance, and taste. They form the thought: "May this water become liquor for me to drink," and at the very moment of thought, it is all heavenly liquor, free from the fault of intoxication. When the gods drink it, it increases supreme pleasure, and due to the power of wholesome karma, their minds give rise to joy. Yet those gods experience pleasure in this way because of their own karmic power.' A bird named Constantly Joyful saw those gods drinking liquor in the River of Joy and spoke a verse for them:

93.19

"Sunk into the ocean of heedlessness,
Clinging greedily to the sensory realms;
This liquor can delude the mind,
What use is there in drinking liquor again?
Burned by the fire of the sensory realms,
Not knowing what should or should not be done;
Giving rise to greed in the park groves,
What use is there in drinking liquor again?"

93.20

That Constantly Joyful bird, seeing the gods who delighted in drinking liquor drinking in the river, spoke this verse to tame them.

93.21

Furthermore, the *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna-sūtra* states that King Yama, in rebuking and recording the sinners, spoke a verse, saying:

93.22

"Liquor can confuse a person's mind,
Making people like sheep and the like;
Not knowing what should or should not be done,
Thus one should abandon liquor.
If a person is drunk on liquor,
They are no different from a dead person;
If one wishes never to die,
That person should abandon liquor.
Liquor is the abode of all faults,
Always bringing no benefit;
The stairway to all evil destinies,
The place where darkness resides.
Drinking liquor leads to hell,
And also leads to the realm of hungry ghosts;
Engaging in the karma of beasts,
One is deceived by the fault of liquor.
Liquor is the poison among poisons,
The hell within hells;
The great illness among illnesses—
This is what the wise have taught.
If a person drinks liquor,
They become joyful without cause;
They become angry without cause,
And perform evil without cause.
Toward the Buddha they give rise to folly,
Destroying worldly and supramundane matters;
It burns liberation like fire:
Namely, this single phenomenon of liquor.
If a person can abandon liquor,
And practice the Dharma and precepts correctly,
They will reach the foremost place,
The place free from death and free from birth."

93.23

Question: "Drinking when healthy incurs guilt; is drinking permitted when ill?" Answer: "According to the *Dharmaguptaka Vinaya*, if there is genuine illness that other medicines fail to cure, using liquor as medicine does not constitute an infraction."

93.24

Question: "How much is permitted to be taken?" Answer: "According to the *Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā-sūtra*, if compounded into medicine as instructed by a physician, blending many medicines with little liquor, where medicine is plentiful, it may be used."

93.25

Furthermore, the *Śāriputraparipṛcchā-sūtra* states: "Śāriputra addressed the Buddha, saying: 'How is it, World-Honoured One, that you taught the Dharma obstructing the path: one must not drink liquor even the size of a mustard seed, for this is called breaking the precept and opening the gate to heedlessness; yet why is it that in the Kalandaka Bamboo Grove monastery there was a bhikṣu who had been ill for years, critically ill and near death? At that time, Upāli asked him: "What medicine do you need? I will search for it for you in heaven, among humans, and even throughout the ten directions; whatever is necessary, I will obtain it for you." He replied: "The medicine I need violates the Vinaya; therefore I have not sought it, reaching this point. I would rather end my life than have any violation of the Vinaya." Upāli said: "What is your medicine?" He replied: "I need five pints of liquor." Upāli said: "If it is permitted for illness, it is allowed by the Tathāgata." He begged and obtained the liquor for him. Having taken it, his illness cleared and was cured. Having been cured, he felt ashamed, still thinking he had violated the Vinaya. He went to the Buddha's dwelling and earnestly repented his fault. The Buddha preached the Dharma for him; upon hearing it, he rejoiced and attained the state of an arhat. The Buddha said: "Liquor has many faults and opens the gate to heedlessness. Drinking even the size of a mustard seed accumulates guilt. But if it cures the suffering of illness, it was not previously prohibited."'"

93.26

The commentary states: "One must not look at the previous text allowing an exception and drink indiscriminately. There must be genuine, severe illness on the verge of death, where prior treatment with other medicines has all failed to cure it, and only when liquor must be blended to achieve a cure is it permitted according to the preceding passage. Recently, one sees ignorant persons, physically strong and rushing about every day, who do not follow the etiquette of the community; upon the slightest minor ailment, they indulge their greedy desires, do not protect their path of practice, and falsely cite the sūtras and Vinaya saying: 'The Buddha permitted various decoctions, medicines, fine robes, and superior garments to be offered to the Buddha and the Saṃgha.' Using public matters for private ends, they deceive both clerics and laypeople. Therefore, wise persons guard the precepts like their very lives, not daring to violate them."

93.27

Therefore, the verse of the *Satyakanirgrantha-sūtra* states:

93.28

"Liquor is the root of heedlessness;
Not drinking closes the evil destinies.
I would rather give up hundreds of thousands of bodies
Than violate the teachings of the Dharma.
I would rather let my body wither away
Than ever drink this liquor.
Even if by violating the precepts
One's lifespan reached a full hundred years,
It would not be as good as protecting the prohibitive precepts
Though one's body be destroyed immediately.
Even if it were certain to bring a cure,
I would still not drink it;
How much more so now, when it is not known with certainty
Whether it will bring a cure or not!
Forming such a resolute determination,
Great joy arises in the mind;
One immediately attains insight into the true reality,
And one's ailment is instantly eliminated."

93.29

One should know that all illnesses of sentient beings take greed, anger, and pride as their causes. From causes there are effects, yielding this painful retribution; it is not because of failing to obtain medicinal liquor that illness cannot be cured. Thus the *Nirvāṇa Sūtra* states: 'All sentient beings have four poisoned arrows, which are the causes of illness. What are the four? First, greed; second, anger; third, folly; fourth, arrogance. When there are causes of illness, then illness arises: namely, passionate heat, lung ailments, rising breath and vomiting, numbness and aching of the skin and body, mental confusion and distress, diarrhea, retching, hiccuping, strangury, pain in the eyes and ears, swelling and fullness in the abdomen and back, madness, emaciation, and possession by demonic ghosts. With such various physical and mental illnesses, if one recognizes the root of illness, cuts off evil, and cultivates the good, the painful retributions of the three periods of time will be permanently eliminated and not received. If one does not contemplate the principle, even if one uses all the medicinal liquors under heaven to treat it, the illness will only increase and be difficult to cure.'

93.30

Furthermore, the *Vinayamātṛkā* states: 'The Venerable Mahīśāsaka said: "The bhikṣu Svāti was nurtured and sustained by liquor from childhood. Later, after going forth, because he could not obtain liquor, his four elements fell into disharmony. The bhikṣus reported this to the Buddha. The Buddha said: 'The sick one is permitted to smell it above the jar. If cured, he is not permitted to smell it. If not cured, he is permitted to wash his body with liquor. If still not cured, he is permitted to mix flour with liquor to make cakes and eat them. If still not cured, he is permitted to soak in liquor.'"'

93.31

Furthermore, the *New Vibhāṣā* states: 'As the sūtra says: The Venerable Śāriputra was dwelling in a forest in the country of Kosala. At that time, an Ājīvika non-Buddhist renunciant was also living in that forest, neighboring the Venerable One. Not far from the forest, in the various villages and towns, a four-month festival gathering was occasionally held on a grand scale. At that time, that non-Buddhist went around the villages and towns, gorging himself on pork and indulging freely in drinking liquor. He secretly carried what remained back to the forest. Seeing Śāriputra sitting beneath a tree, being confused by the liquor, he gave rise to contempt: "Now, although he and I have both gone forth, I alone am rich and happy, while he is poor and suffering." He immediately approached the Venerable One and spoke this verse:

93.32

"I have already gorged on liquor and meat,
And secretly carried the rest back here;
The grass, trees, and mountains on the earth
I see all as heaps of gold."

93.33

At that time Śāriputra heard this and thought: "This damned non-Buddhist is utterly devoid of shame or remorse, and so shamelessly recites this verse. I should now recite a verse in response to him." Having so thought, he immediately recited a verse, saying:

93.34

"I am constantly sated with signlessness, / Always dwelling within the absorption gate of emptiness; / The grass, trees, and mountains upon the earth / I view entirely as a place of spittle."

93.35

Here, in this verse, the Venerable Śāriputra roars the lion's roar and expounds the three liberation gates: namely, with the first line he proclaims the signless liberation gate; with the second line, the emptiness liberation gate; and with the final two lines, the wishless liberation gate.

93.36

Section 3: Meat Eating

93.37

The commentary states: This single teaching also contains the provisional and the real. As for the 'provisional teaching', according to the Vinaya, when the World-Honoured One first attained awakening, in order to ferry across crude and coarse ordinary people, they were not yet capable of receiving subtle [teachings]. For the time being, within the gradual teaching, he spoke of three kinds of pure meat—free from seeing, hearing, or suspecting [that it was killed for oneself]—as well as meat leftover by birds or of natural death, permitting it to be eaten. Leading them first from the crude to the subtle, he gradually caused them to abandon error. This was with an intention for a particular period, an inexplicit statement. If based on the real teaching, from the time he first attained the Way up to the night of nirvāṇa, the Great Sage earnestly never permitted it from beginning to end.

93.38

Furthermore, the Nirvāṇa Sūtra states: "All sentient beings who smell the stench of meat are entirely terrified and give rise to thoughts of the fear of death. The classes of living beings that move in water, on land, or in the air, all abandon him and flee, all saying: 'This person is our enemy!' For this reason, bodhisattvas do not practice eating meat. To save sentient beings, they manifest eating meat; although they manifest eating it, in reality they do not eat it. But those sentient beings who cling to views do not understand the Tathāgata's intention in expediently speaking, and then dogmatically cling to the Vinaya's limited teachings, saying that the Buddha permitted eating the three kinds of pure meat, and also slander me by saying that the Tathāgata ate it himself. Those foolish people accumulate great sinful hindrances, falling for a long night into a place devoid of benefit, nor will they behold the worthy and noble disciples of the present or future, let alone the Buddhas and Tathāgatas. Mahāmati, things that the śrāvakas and others should always eat—such as rice, flour, oil, and honey—can produce pure livelihood. If hoarded against the Dharma or received against the Dharma, I say they are impure, and do not even permit them to be eaten; how much less do I permit eating the impurity of meat and blood? Not only does eating meat destroy the good and obstruct the Way, but even wrong livelihood and crooked flattery to seek one's own subsistence also obstruct the Way."

93.39

Furthermore, the Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā Sūtra states: "If it is killed for oneself, one must not eat it. If the meat is like timber and has already decomposed of itself, and one wishes to eat it, one may eat it. If one wishes to eat meat, one should recite this mantra: [...]

93.41

"[...] When this mantra is recited three times, one may then eat meat. Even rice should not be eaten [in an improper manner]. Why is that? If devoid of mindful reflection, rice should not be eaten; how much less should meat be eaten!" The Buddha told Mañjuśrī: "Because sentient beings lack the power of loving-kindness and compassion and harbour the intention to kill and harm, for this reason and condition meat-eating is banned. If one can harbour no intention to harm, [possess] a mind of great loving-kindness and compassion, and [do so only] for the sake of transforming all sentient beings, then there is no fault or transgression."

93.42

Question: Wine is a medicine that harmonises the spirit; meat is food that satisfies hunger. From antiquity to the present their flavour is the same; what view is held now that despises them and refrains from consuming them? If the Buddha's teachings of pure prohibition were applied to the mourning rituals, and, for example, one were facing a strict monarch bestowing secular food by imperial decree, how could it be the monk's fault to refuse and not eat it?

93.43

Answer: Greed for wealth and delight in sensuality are despised by the chaste; a passion for fine delicacies is hated by the pure. Suppressing feelings to follow the Way was praised by former sages; restraining desires to esteem virtue was commended alike by past philosophers. How much more so when meat arises from taking life, and wine can disorder the spirit! Not consuming them is principle; how could it be wrong? Even if one encounters duress from superiors, one must strictly sever them to the end. Though it defies the sovereign's command, it accords with the Buddha's mind.

93.44

Question: Meat arises from harming life, so to forbid it is understandable; wine does not harm life, so why is it banned unconditionally? If there is no harm, reckoning it a fault and calling it wrong is groundless. Drinking broth or eating rice should also incur guilt, yet in reality it is not so; why then is wine forbidden in particular? Answer: The establishment of precepts follows the circumstance; the incurring of guilt is based on the mind. The nature of meat stems from killing; eating it is immediately a transgression. The nature of wine does not harm, but the fault arises from impairing the spirit: transgressions arise elsewhere, yet their arising stems from wine; severing wine removes them. This is why it is prohibited by interdiction; unlike [natural transgressions], it does not mean that the substance of wine is itself a transgression.

93.45

Question: Transgressions are either interdictory or natural; does the substance of wine produce transgression? Now there are people with a high tolerance for wine who can drink without becoming intoxicated, and without impairing their spirit or generating transgressions. Such a person should not incur guilt by drinking wine. In that case, being able to drink is faultless and only inability incurs blame; what has this to do with severing wine in order to accomplish the goodness of precepts? One could say that being able to drink with high tolerance should always be called keeping the precepts, and that getting drunk from drinking a little makes one a great sinner. Answer: Establishing precepts to prevent wrongdoing is fundamentally to generate good. The precepts generate good; when body and speech do not contravene, and [desires] cease in the presence of circumstances, both the interdictory and natural transgressions are severed, and only then is it called the goodness of precepts. Now a person tolerant of wine neither disorders their spirit nor breaks other precepts, so in terms of actual principle it is not a [natural] transgression. Yet precisely because drinking gives rise to guilt through externally violating the interdictory teaching and giving rise to infractions in the presence of circumstances, it is still called having transgression, for defying the non-drinking of wine is not keeping the precepts.

93.46

First, that based on truth there is harm: according to the sūtras, those who eat meat possess ten kinds of faults. The first clarifies that all sentient beings, since beginningless time, have all been one's own kin, and it is unfit to eat meat. Thus the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra states: "I see sentient beings transmigrating in the five destinies, together in birth and death, giving birth to and nurturing one another, mutually being fathers, mothers, brothers, and sisters, whether male or female, maternal cousins or paternal relatives, the six kinds of kin, or born into other destinies—in good destinies and bad destinies always being kin. By this cause and condition, when I observe sentient beings mutually eating each other's flesh, there are none who are not kin. Because of eating the taste of meat they mutually devour one another, constantly giving rise to harming minds and multiplying painful karma, revolving in birth and death without being able to escape." When the Buddha spoke this, the wicked rākṣasas, hearing what the Buddha spoke, entirely cast aside their evil minds, ceased and did not eat meat, and mutually encouraged each other to generate the bodhicitta, protecting sentient beings' lives more than they protected their own bodies, leaving behind all meat and not eating it. Weeping with tears flowing, they addressed the Buddha, saying: "World-Honoured One, having heard the Buddha's words and carefully contemplating the six destinies, the flesh that I have eaten has all been my own kin; thus I know that sentient beings who eat meat are my great enemies, severing the seeds of great loving-kindness, increasing unwholesome karma, and forming the root of great suffering. From this day forward I sever and do not eat meat, nor will I allow my retinue to eat it. If there are disciples of the Tathāgata who do not eat meat, I shall approach and protect them day and night; if they eat meat, I shall bring great harm to them." "Mahāmati, even rākṣasas and evil ghosts who constantly eat meat, upon hearing what I said, gave rise to a mind of loving-kindness and abandoned meat and did not eat it; how much less should my disciples who practice wholesome dharmas be permitted to eat meat! If they eat meat, know that they are the great enemies of sentient beings and sever my noble lineage. Mahāmati, if my disciples hear what I say, yet without careful examination eat meat, know that they are of the caṇḍāla caste, not my disciples, and I am not their teacher."

93.47

The second clarifies that when sentient beings see one who eats meat, they are all terrified; therefore one should not eat it. As that sūtra states: "When sentient beings smell the odour of a person who eats meat, they are all terrified and flee far away. For this reason, bodhisattvas who cultivate true practice should not eat meat for the sake of transforming sentient beings. For example, when sentient beings anywhere see from afar caṇḍālas, hunters, butchers, or fowlers and fishermen, they think: 'Now I will certainly die, for this person coming here is a greatly evil person who does not recognize sin or merit, severing sentient beings' lives in pursuit of immediate profit; coming here now is to hunt for us. Now our bodies all have flesh; therefore, with his coming now, we will certainly die.' Mahāmati, because people eat meat, they cause all sentient beings who see them to generate such terror. Mahāmati, all sentient beings in the sky and upon the earth, seeing one who eats meat, give rise to terror and produce doubting thoughts: 'Am I now to die, or to live? Such an evil person does not cultivate a mind of loving-kindness, and is like a jackal or wolf roaming the world always seeking meat to eat, or like an ox eating grass or a dung beetle pursuing dung, never knowing satiety. My body is meat, precisely his food; I should not meet him,' and immediately abandon him, flee, and go far away, no different from people fearing rākṣasas."

93.48

The third clarifies that a person who eats meat destroys others' faith; therefore one should not eat meat. As that sūtra states: "If one eats meat, sentient beings then lose all faith, and then say that there is no one in the world who can be trusted, severing the roots of faith. For this reason, Mahāmati, a bodhisattva, to protect sentient beings' faith, should not eat any meat at all. Why is that? Because there are people in the world who, seeing meat being eaten, slander the Three Jewels, speaking thus: 'Within the Buddha's Dharma, where could there be true śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas cultivating pure conduct? Abandoning what noble ones originally should eat, they devour sentient beings like rākṣasas, halting my Wheel of the Dharma and extinguishing the noble lineage.' This is all due to the fault of meat eaters. Therefore, Mahāmati, my disciples, to protect against evil people slandering the Three Jewels, should not even give rise to thoughts of desiring meat, let alone eating it."

93.49

The fourth clarifies that practitioners with a mind of loving-kindness and few desires should not eat meat. As that sūtra states: "A bodhisattva, seeking escape from birth and death, should single-mindedly reflect upon practices of loving-kindness and compassion, having few desires and being content, weary of the sufferings of the world, and swiftly seeking liberation. If they abandon noise and bustle and go to an empty and quiet place, dwelling in a śmaśāna, an araṇya, among charnel grounds or under trees, sitting alone in contemplation, they view all worlds as having nothing enjoyable, viewing wives, children, and kin as shackles, viewing palaces and pavilions as prisons, viewing all precious jewels as piles of dung, viewing all food and drink as pus and blood, and receiving food and drink as applying ointment to an ulcerated sore. They seek merely to stay alive, fixing their mindfulness on the noble path, and not out of greed for flavours. Wine, meat, onions, leeks, garlic, shallots, and pungent flavours are all abandoned and not eaten. If one is like this, one is a true cultivator, worthy of receiving the offerings of all humans and devas. If one does not give rise to disgust and renunciation toward the world, but is greedily attached to all flavours, consuming wine, meat, and pungent herbs, one should not receive the faithful alms of the world."

93.50

The fifth clarifies that those who eat meat were all evil rākṣasas in the past; due to residual habit energy, they are still greedy for meat in the present; therefore one should not eat meat. As that sūtra states: "There are sentient beings who, having cultivated immeasurable conditions in the past, possess slight wholesome roots, get to hear my Dharma, and with faithful minds go forth into homelessness within my Dharma. In the past they were the retinue of rākṣasas, or born among tigers, wolves, lions, and cats. Although they are within my Dharma, their residual habits of eating meat remain; seeing those who eat meat, they delight in approaching them. Entering cities, towns, villages, stupas, and monasteries, they drink wine and eat meat, taking it as delight. The devas looking down see them as no different from rākṣasas squabbling to devour a dead corpse, yet they do not know that they have already fallen from my assembly and become the retinue of rākṣasas. Although they wear the kāṣāya and shave their hair and beards, living beings seeing them give rise to terror in their hearts, as if fearing rākṣasas." This clarifies that meat eaters have all come from having previously been rākṣasas, lions, tigers, wolves, or cats; therefore it should be strictly cut off.

93.51

The sixth clarifies that a person who eats meat cannot even accomplish worldly incantations, let alone supermundane dharmas—how could they ever be realized? Therefore practitioners should not eat meat. As that sūtra states: "If worldly sorcerers of wrong views eat meat, their spells will not succeed. In order to accomplish even heterodox arts, they still do not eat meat; how much less can my disciples, seeking the Tathāgata's unexcelled noble path and supermundane liberation, cultivating great loving-kindness and compassion with diligent austerities, still fearing they will not attain it—where could there ever be such liberation attained as a reward by those foolish people eating meat? For this reason, Mahāmati, all my disciples, seeking the bliss of supermundane liberation, should not eat meat."

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法苑珠林 — 道世, Classical Chinese