釋氏要覽 1

English (machine translation) 1

Language: English

Composed by Cui (Yulin), Donative Patron, resident mountain altar master of Xianlin, Yuji, Court Gentleman for Declaring Virtue, Probationary Vice Director of the Bureau of Agricultural Colonies in the Ministry of Works, and Supreme Commandant of Light Chariots.

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Formerly, our Buddha wondrously corrected the trikāya and fully perfected the four wisdoms; without entering nirvāṇa, he personally realized [awakening], and employed upāya to deliver people. Expounding and revealing the myriad dharmas, he pointed to the reality limit; guiding and instructing the multitudes, he comprehended original emptiness. He established the gate of samādhi, adorned the complete marks, extinguished attachments to the conditioned, and returned to the forbearance of the non-arising [of dharmas]. When they converged in the ocean of awakening, pure followers truly flourished. Coming to his display of departure into extinction, the councils were held to bequeath his words; scriptures and treatises were transmitted, and the teaching and Dharma were held aloft and clarified. As for their greatness, they encompass the ultimate and cannot be measured; as for their smallness, they are so minute that nothing is omitted, yet when gazed upon they cannot be seen. Exhausting unending kalpas, they cannot be destroyed; running the course of consciousness within existence, they cannot be weighed. Their intertwined threads and clues, though contemplated, cannot be fully grasped; their vast and expansive understanding, without transcendence, cannot be attained. If one does not follow a path, upon what can one rely? Then this present Yaolan can be followed to attain it. Without traveling the western currents, one knows the origins and ends of the five Tianzhus; without roaming the Dharma treasury, one illuminates the regulations of the myriad practices. In motion and rest, according with application, it establishes standards; in cultivation and practice, knowing the destination, one does not go astray. Encompassing the subtle and the manifest, it explains the vehicles and truths to verify them; clearly organizing categories and rules, it balances them across the upper and lower volumes. For one who peruses it, it is just like the sun ascending, whereupon the myriad realms become completely unobstructed. It may be said: Tathatā does not reside in words and phrases. Furthermore, among all dharmas in their unimpeded characteristics, there is neither study nor knowledge, yet one should study and should know. We are increasingly distant from the sage, with differences as fine as hairs and horns. Although studying and although knowing, one still feels inadequate; how could one whose practice and orientation have not yet reached [the goal] distance oneself from study? The cause ground and fruition stage depend upon effort. Now Master Cheng is extensively rich in what he has heard; dedicating himself to the Dharma gift, he maintained his resolve. Inheriting the Buddha's awesome power, he compiled this essential [record]. As for wisdom and sagacity, who would say he is not discerning? Written in the fourth year of the Tianxi era of the Great Song, in the month of the plum autumn, just after the full moon, as a preface and introduction.

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Compiled by the purple-robe-bestowed Śramaṇa Shi Daocheng, lecturer under the Venerable Lecturer Ju of Tianxi in Jiankang, and resident lecturer on the scriptures and treatises at Mount Yuelun in Qiantang.

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Since I, Daocheng, was entrusted with lecturing at the capital monasteries, I returned east to my homeland. I first stayed at the Longhua Chan Monastery and later resided at the Yuelun Hermitage. In the intervening ten years, I completely cut off external affairs, solely reading the canon as my daily regular practice to fulfill my former resolve. Yet when facing the texts, I was sometimes obscure about their meanings, like a thirsty man drinking from a river: he can only fill his belly, without knowing its depth or breadth. Whenever I saw matters that those who have undertaken pravrajyā ought to know, I copied them down as convenient. Coming to the autumn of the third year of the Tianxi era,

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the Emperor extended his bright and vast grace, universally granting pravrajyā to all the postulants under heaven. Consequently, collating the texts and grouping them by category, while supplementing them with various authors' biographies, commentaries, and abbreviated texts, I divided them into twenty-seven sections, analyzed into three fascicles, and entitled it Shishi yaolan. Moreover, feeling sympathy for those newly entering the Dharma gate who do not yet know these things, if they should take pleasure in this work and store its words in their spiritual storehouse, they will for their entire lives avoid the ridicule of 'wearing the robes improperly.' As for persons of all-around talent and eminent learning, how could they discard the words of the sages merely because of my insignificance?

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Table of Contents

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According to the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, a bodhisattva has ten kinds of knowledge: namely, knowing all establishments, knowing all languages, knowing all discussions, knowing all rules, knowing all designations, knowing all regulations, knowing their conventional designations, knowing their inexhaustibility, knowing their extinction, and knowing that all is empty. Based on this, it is divided into twenty-seven sections. Thus, the sentences and phrases of the Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna sūtras, vinaya, and śāstras, when collated together, are all subsumed within these ten knowledges.

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Surnames and Clans
Designations
Residences
Pravrajyā
Masters and Disciples
Tonsure
Dharma Robes
Precept Rules
Midday Meal

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Surnames and Clans

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The Xiyu ji states: 'Surnames are that by which lineages are tied together across a hundred generations so they do not diverge. Clans are that by which the branches of descendants are distinguished.' The Shijia shi pu states: 'The origin of surnames and clans was fundamentally to name their entities; hence they were designated according to the categories of things.'

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In Tianzhu, there are four varṇas:

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The first is Kṣatriya (referring to the lineage of hereditary rulers). The second is Brāhmaṇa (translated into Chinese as 'pure actions', referring to those with pure conduct whose resolve is on the Way; this lineage has separate scriptures and books passed down generation after generation; whether householders or having undertaken pravrajyā, they practice austerities and mostly rely on their own arts, being arrogant towards others). The third is Vaiśya (also called Feishe, referring to the lineage of merchants). The fourth is Śūdra (also called Chendaluo, referring to the lineage of farmers). Our Buddha Śākyamuni, the World-Honoured One, was of the Kṣatriya varṇa. The Dīrgha Āgama states that at the initial formation of the auspicious kalpa, there were no sun or moon. At that time, beings from the Ābhāsvara heaven were born below; all had radiance from their bodies and flew freely, without distinctions of male or female, noble or base, close or distant. They ate the natural taste of the earth. Because they ate this substance, their bodily radiance vanished and their supernatural powers were lost; greedy thoughts began to sprout. Again there arose tastes of earth-cake, earth-skin, and earth-fat which they ate, whereupon various evils gathered, and male and female physical forms first appeared. Non-glutinous rice grew from the earth, harvested in the morning and regrown by evening, without husk or chaff. The people of that time grew in greedy minds and all took in advance and hoarded abundantly; consequently, the rice ceased to grow. They then individually claimed fields and lands, learning the work of weeding and planting. From this point on, treachery and theft proliferated, and there was no one to make judgments. Among them was one man of magnificent appearance and stature, whom the world admired and trusted. The multitude discussed and established him as the master of the people, styled Mahāsaṃmata-rāja (translated here as 'Great Master of Equality'). Each pledged to pay taxes to provide an abundance (this was the beginning of ancestral taxation). Therefore, his clan was named Kṣatriya (translated here as 'Master of Lands', referring to his being made master when disputes arose upon the initial division of lands).

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There are five distinct clan names:

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Our Buddha Śākyamuni, over three asaṃkhyeya-kalpas, cultivated the causes of the ṣaṭ-pāramitā and myriad practices; whether in real retribution bodies or manifested transformations, he was distinguished by names and clans according to the categories of beings.

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First, the Gautama Clan.

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Properly called Gautama in Sanskrit, also called Gautamī, translated here as 'Supreme on Earth'. This means that, aside from the devas, he was the most supreme among humankind on earth. Therefore a sūtra states: In the past, at the beginning of the kalpa, the Buddha was a king who abdicated his throne and took the ṛṣi Gautama as his master to cultivate the Way. He always roamed and rested in a garden, where he was murdered by bandits. That ṛṣi then buried the corpse, collected the blood, fashioned it into two lumps of clay, placed them in vessels, set them on the left and right, and chanted over them for a full ten months. The left transformed into a boy and the right transformed into a girl. Thereupon, the clan was named Gautama, which was the beginning.

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Second, the Ikṣvāku Clan.

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A sūtra states: Formerly there was a wheel-turning king named Mahāsammata. Descendants succeeded one another, totaling 84,000 kings. The last king was named Great Thatch Grass. In his advanced age he had no son, so he entrusted the government to his great ministers, shaved his hair himself, and undertook pravrajyā. The multitude called him the Royal Ṛṣi. Being extremely old, he was unable to walk. When his disciples went out to beg for food at that time, they placed the Royal Ṛṣi in a grass basket and hung it from a tree, fearing harm from tigers and wolves. A hunter saw him from afar, thought he was a white bird, shot him, and killed him, his blood dripping onto the ground. The disciples returned, saw that their master had been murdered, and buried the corpse together. Later, at the place where his blood had dripped, two stalks of sugarcane suddenly sprouted. Warmed and split open by the sun, one produced a boy and the other produced a girl. The ministers heard of this, welcomed them back to the palace, and raised them to adulthood. Because they were of royal stock, they established [the boy] as king. The clan was named Ikṣvāku, which was the beginning. (Or in Sanskrit, Gautama or Gautamī; both surnames mean 'Supreme' in Chinese. A commentary on the sūtra's sounds says: 'Both are of King Sugarcane's lineage.' The Nyāyānusāra states: 'The Gautama lineage was born from sunlight.')

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Third, the Sūryavaṃśa Clan.

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A sūtra states: Because King Sugarcane was not born of a womb, but was warmed and split open by the sun, he was therefore named the Sun Lineage. ○ The Mahākaruṇā Sūtra states: 'The surname Sun is because he produces light to depart from all darkness.' (Examining the two sūtras now: the former refers to the original causal conditions, the latter concerns virtues.)

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Fourth, the Śākya Clan.

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Namely, King Sugarcane banished his four princes: the first was named Torch Face, the second Golden Color, the third Elephant Multitude, and the fourth Nikura (translated into Sui as 'Separately Formed'). When the four sons first arrived north of the Snow Mountains, they halted their carriage under the luxuriant branches of a great tree; therefore, they were named Śākyaja. Now saying Sheyi is certainly an erroneous abbreviation of the Sanskrit. The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya states: 'Near the north of the Snow Mountains, at the Śākya forest, they built a city and erected residences.' Moreover, when King Bimbisāra first asked the Buddha in which country he was born, the Buddha said he was born in the Śākya country. (Examining this now: the country was definitely named after the tree, and the clan was named after the country.) ○ The Fayuan [zhulin] states: 'Śākya is a noble surname of the Western Regions.'

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Fifth, the Śākya Clan.

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Namely, those four princes won people over through virtue; within a few years, it grew into a powerful state. The father king felt remorse and longing, and sent an envoy to summon the four sons, who declined on account of their fault and did not return. The father king then sighed three times, saying: 'My sons are capable (Śākya, in Chinese meaning "Capable and Benevolent").' The Dīrgha Āgama states: 'Śākya, in the Qin language, means "Capable"; it is also translated as "Straight", referring to the straightness of the trees.' (Examining these two translations: the former derives from the persons, the latter from the place.) Examining this now: all four princes were named Śākya, but only the fourth, Nikura, was our Buddha's ancestor. According to the sūtra, Nikura had a son named Kuru; Kuru had a son named Gokuru; Gokuru had a son named Siṃhahanu; Siṃhahanu had four sons: first, Śuddhodana; second, Śuklodana; third, Droṇodana; fourth, Amṛtodana. (In Sanskrit Śuddhodana, translated here as King Pure Rice, who was the Buddha's father.)

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The Universal Surname of Those Who Have Undertaken Pravrajyā

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The Kaiyuan Record states: 'Prior to the Qin and Jin dynasties, those who undertook pravrajyā mostly took their master's surname. Later, the Śramaṇa Dao'an, [whose fame] filled heaven, said: "All who shave their hair and dye their robes inherit the Śākya lineage; thus there should be no diverse surnames, and all ought to be called the Shi (Śākya) clan." At the time, this was not yet accepted. When the Āgama sūtras were translated, they stated: "The Buddha told the bhikṣus: 'When the water of the four great rivers enters the sea, they no longer retain their original names, but are collectively called the sea. The sons of the four varṇas, when undertaking pravrajyā under the Buddha, shaving off their beard and hair, and wearing the three Dharma robes, no longer retain their original surnames, but are simply called Śramaṇa Śākyaputra.'"' ○ The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya states: 'You bhikṣus, having undertaken pravrajyā from diverse backgrounds, must all renounce your original surnames and collectively be called sons of the Śākyas.' (Now calling ourselves Śramaṇa Shi is because among those who undertook pravrajyā in Tianzhu, non-Buddhists also called themselves śramaṇas; now we distinguish them with the character Shi. Or calling oneself simply Shi is also acceptable. If addressing one another as saṃgha members, then there is no need to use it, because they belong to the same Śākya family and are Dharma brothers.)

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Designations

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Śramaṇa

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Master Zhao says: "It is the collective name for those who have left the household life (pravrajyā). In Sanskrit it is *śramaṇa* (śramaṇena). In the language of the Tang it is called 'diligent cessation' (*qinxi*), meaning that this person diligently cultivates good qualities and puts an end to all evils. Furthermore, the Qin translation renders it as 'diligent practice' (*qinxing*), meaning diligently cultivating wholesome dharmas and practicing to proceed toward nirvāṇa. Sometimes it is called *shamona* or *sangmen*, which are merely differences in pronunciation among translators." The *Nirvāṇa Sūtra* says: "*Śramaṇa*: here translated as 'Good Awakening' (*shan jue*)." The *Dārikā-ratnamañjūṣā-sūtra* says: "Free from the accumulation of all entanglements; hence it is named *śramaṇa*." The *Mahālaṅkāra-śāstra* says: "Transcending defiled attachment is called *śramaṇa*." The *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna-sūtra* says: "The mind has no delight or attachment, hopes for nothing at all, and can be liberated from all greed; this is named a *śramaṇa*." The *Kuśalamūlasaṃparigraha-sūtra* says: "Like space, free from obstruction and contact, unstained by smoke or dust; what I preach as the dharma of a *śramaṇa* is unsoiled just like this." The *Ratnakūṭa Sūtra* says: "A *śramaṇa* is so called because of extinction, because of being subdued, because of receiving instruction, because of the purity of the body of precepts, because of the true meaning, because of obtaining liberation, because of abandoning the thirty-eight dharmas, because the firm mind is unshakable like the earth, because of protecting the minds of others and oneself, and because of having no defiled attachment to forms, just as moving one's hand in space meets no obstruction. Because of accomplishing so many dharmas as these, one is called a *śramaṇa*." The *Dīrghāgama* says: "A *śramaṇa* abandons affection and love, leaves the household life to cultivate the Way, restrains the sense faculties, is not tainted by external desires, has a mind of loving-kindness toward all without harming anything, does not grieve when meeting suffering, does not rejoice when encountering pleasure, and can endure like the earth." The *Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra* says: "There are four kinds of *śramaṇas*: first, the *śramaṇa* of the superior path, namely the Buddha and others; second, the *śramaṇa* who expounds the path, meaning one who explains the true Dharma; third, the *śramaṇa* who lives the path, meaning one who cultivates all wholesome qualities; fourth, the *śramaṇa* who defiles the path, meaning those of evil conduct (the path is the noble eightfold path; if one has this path yet personally engages in evil conduct, not being a vessel to produce the path, it is named defiling the path)." The *Pañcavargika-vinaya* says: "When the Buddha first attained the Way, the world all called him the Great Śramaṇa."

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Bhikṣu

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In Sanskrit: *bhikṣu*. In the language of Qin: 'mendicant' (*qishi*), meaning that above, he begs for Dharma from the Buddhas to nourish his life of wisdom, and below, he begs for food from donors to nourish his physical body. Dharma Master Zhao says: "There are three names according to cause and fruit: first, 'terrorizer of Māra' in the causal stage, because when he leaves the household life, the palace of Māra quakes, while in the fruition stage he is called 'slayer of thieves' [arhat] (some say: one who leaves the household possesses correct faith and correct cause, arouses a valiant mind, seeks the great bodhi of Buddhahood, and vows to deliver all sentient beings; only one with a genuinely great mind can shake the palace of Māra). Second, in the causal stage he is called 'mendicant', and in the fruition stage he is called 'worthy of offerings' [arhat]. Third, in the causal stage he is called 'breaker of evil' (meaning that upholding the precepts breaks evil), and in the fruition stage he is called 'non-arising' [arhat]." The *Nirvāṇa Sūtra* says: "Able to break afflictions; hence he is called a *bhikṣu*. Breaking the notion of self and the like, cultivating precepts, concentration, and wisdom, crossing over the three realms of existence and the four currents, and abiding peacefully in the path of fearlessness; hence he is called a *bhikṣu*." The *Mahālaṅkāra-śāstra* says: "Breaking the storehouse of ignorance; hence he is called a *bhikṣu*." The *Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra* says: "A *bhikṣu* is one who abandons domestic life, approaches homelessness, is endowed with the prātimokṣa discipline, and whose intrinsic nature is belonging to that common assembly; who is diligent regarding bodily appearance; who fears the evil destinies and guards himself; and who restrains without injury; hence he is called a *bhikṣu*." A verse in the *Mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra* says: / "Do not let hands or feet act recklessly; / Moderate your words and accord with proper conduct; / Always delight in guarding a concentrated mind— / This is called a true bhikṣu." / A verse in the *Saṃyuktāgama* says: / "One called a bhikṣu / Is not merely so by begging for food; / If one upholds the ways of a householder, / How can one be called a bhikṣu? / Free from both merit and demerit, / Cultivating correct conduct, / With a mind free of fear— / Such a one is called a bhikṣu." / In the *Mahābalavardhana-dhāraṇī-sūtra*, there was an elder named Xuanze who went to the Buddha to leave the household life. After his hair was shaved, the Venerable Upananda called out: "Elder Xuanze!" He answered: "Now that I have left the household and shaved my hair to become a bhikṣu, I am no longer an elder." Then Upananda said to him: "It is not merely by shaving the hair that one is called a bhikṣu." He then spoke in verse: / "If one cuts off desire and craving / And further exhausts all outflows, / Having no desire toward all dharmas, / Unspeakable as having dharmas, / Accords with and moves toward nirvāṇa, / Accords with and approaches dispassion, / Enters into faith and reaches the other shore— / Such a one becomes a bhikṣu." / There are four kinds of bhikṣus: first, the bhikṣu who has definitively reached the path, meaning an arhat; second, the bhikṣu who displays the path, meaning the noble ones of the three fruits; third, the bhikṣu who receives the path, meaning those directed toward the first fruit; fourth, the bhikṣu who defiles the path, meaning ordinary persons who break the precepts (because an ordinary bhikṣu who upholds the precepts conforms to faith and the vinaya rules, he must be named beneath 'receiving the path'. Question: Is a bhikṣu who defiles the path fit to be a field of merit? Answer: The *Mahāvibhāṣā* says that although a bhikṣu who defiles the path has broken precepts, he has not broken right view; although he has broken preliminary application, he has not broken his noble aspiration; he believes in causes and fruits—such correct views and aspirations are absent among the ninety-six non-Buddhist schools. If a donor arouses correct faith toward him without conceiving resentment or disdain, he naturally generates great merit).

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Bhikṣu (*Bixu*)

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This is a Sanskrit word. It is the name of a grass in India that possesses five virtues, and is therefore used as a metaphor for one who has left the household life. Ancient masters said: The reason *bixu* is not translated is that it contains five meanings: First, its substance is soft and pliable, which is a metaphor for the renunciant's ability to subdue coarseness of body and speech. Second, its creeping vines spread out laterally, which is a metaphor for the renunciant's transmission of the Dharma to deliver people in an unbroken lineage. Third, its fragrance carries far, which is a metaphor for the virtue of the renunciant's precepts being fragrant and heard by the multitude. Fourth, it can heal pain, which is a metaphor for the renunciant's ability to sever the poison of afflictions. Fifth, it does not turn its back on the sunlight, which is a metaphor for the renunciant always facing the sun of the Buddha. The *Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya-ekottarakarma* says: "If there is a bhikṣu eighty years of age who has completed sixty rains retreats, yet has never recited the *Prātimokṣa Sūtra* and does not understand its meaning, this is called an 'old-child bhikṣu' (the *Prātimokṣa Sūtra* is the precept text; this is cited just as one example)."

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Saṅgha

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In Sanskrit, it is fully called *saṅgha*. In the language of the Tang, it means 'community' (now abbreviated as *seng*). The *Madhyamāgama* says: "What is called a community? Answer: Persons of various clans, various names, and various lineages who shave their hair and beards, wear the kāṣāya robes, and with utmost faith leave the household life to learn the Way from the Buddha—this is called a community." The *Sudarsanavinayavibhāṣā* says: "Equal in precepts, equal in view, equal in wisdom, and equal in community—this is the saṅgha." The *Nanshan Commentary* says: "Four or more persons who are able to maintain the noble Dharma and accomplish previous affairs are called a saṅgha. Saṅgha takes 'harmony' (*saṃgha*) as its meaning. Speaking of harmony, there are two kinds: first, harmony in principle, meaning mutually realizing analytical cessation; second, harmony in phenomena, which distinctly has six meanings: (1) harmony in precepts through joint observance; (2) harmony in views through shared understanding; (3) harmony in body through living together; (4) harmony in benefits through equal distribution; (5) harmony in speech through absence of disputation; (6) harmony in mind through mutual joy. The *Brief History of the Saṅgha* (*Sengshi lüe*) says: "Generally, four or more persons are called a saṅgha. That a single person is also now called a monk (*seng*) is because the name is taken from the community; just as twelve thousand five hundred men make up an army, yet a single man is also called a soldier [of the army]."

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Famine-eliminating man (*chujinnan*)

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Kang Senghui's commentary on the *Fajing jing* says: "Ordinary persons greedily crave the six sense objects, just like starving men craving food without knowing satiety. Now the noble ones sever greed and affection, and eliminate the famine of the six emotions; hence they are titled 'famine-eliminators'." The *Fenbie gongde lun* says: "Worldly people suffer famine regarding form and desire; because a bhikṣu eliminates this perception of famine for affection [he is called such]."

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Guide (*daoshi*, nāyaka)

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The *Sūtra on the Ten Abodes and Severing Fetters* says: "He is titled a guide because he causes the classes of sentient beings to be shown the correct path." The *Kuśalamūlasaṃparigraha-sūtra* says: "Because he can explain to people the path free from birth and death, he is named a guide." The *Sūtra on the Buddha's Requital of Kindness* says: "A great guide is one who shows the path of nirvāṇa with the correct road, enabling them to attain unconditioned, eternal bliss." The *Mahādīpadhāraṇī-sūtra* says: "Because he can avoid regressing from the bodhi path and never sever the bodhi path, he is named a guide." The *Sūtra of the Inquiries of the Deva Merchant-Chief* says: "'What is called a guide?' Mañjuśrī answered: 'Having abided on this path, being able to bring sentient beings to maturity; therefore he is named a guide.'"

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Patriarch (*zushi*)

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The *Baolin zhuan* says: Yang Xuanzhi, Governor of Qicheng, asked Bodhidharma: "In the Western lands, what is the meaning of succession being called 'ancestor/patriarch'?" Bodhidharma said: "One who clarifies the Buddha-mind school and whose practice and understanding correspond is called a patriarch." (In this land, from Bodhidharma's coming from the West down to Great Master Neng of Caoxi, six persons obtained the title of patriarch).

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Chan Master (*chanshi*)

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The *Sūtra of the Inquiries of the Deva Supratiṣṭhitamati* says: The deva asked Mañjuśrī: "What kind of bhikṣu obtains the name 'Chan master'?" Mañjuśrī said: "Regarding all dharmas, one single practice of contemplation, namely non-arising. If one knows thus, one obtains the name 'Chan master.' Even unto having not the slightest dharma that can be grasped. What dharmas are not grasped? That is to say, not grasping this world or future worlds, not grasping the three realms, up to not grasping all dharmas whatsoever, meaning that all dharmas are utterly non-existent. When a sentient being does not grasp in this way, he obtains the name 'Chan master.' With no slight grasping, non-grasping, or grasping, because nothing whatsoever is obtained among all dharmas, there is no recollection. If there is no recollection, one does not cultivate; if one does not cultivate, one does not realize—hence he is named a Chan master."

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Good Spiritual Friend (*kalyāṇamitra*)

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The *Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra* says: "One who can explain the dharmas of emptiness, signlessness, wishlessness, non-arising, and non-cessation, as well as the knowledge of all aspects, causing people's minds to enter joy, faith, and delight, is named a good spiritual friend." The *Kuśalamūlasaṃparigraha-sūtra* says: "There are four dharmas that constitute a good spiritual friend: first, being able to cause people to enter into wholesome dharmas; second, being able to obstruct unwholesome dharmas; third, being able to cause people to abide in the true Dharma; fourth, always being able to accord with teaching and transforming." The *Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra* says: "A good spiritual friend possesses ten virtues: first, subdued; second, tranquil; third, delusions removed; fourth, virtues increased; fifth, possessing vigor; sixth, rich in scriptural learning; seventh, awakened to reality; eighth, skilled in exposition; ninth, deep in compassion; tenth, free from regression. First, 'subdued' means being in accord with the precepts because the sense faculties are tamed; 'tranquil' means being in accord with concentration because of internal restraint; 'delusions removed' means that faith and mindfulness are in accord with wisdom because afflictions are severed; 'virtues increased' means that precepts, concentration, and wisdom are complete without deficiency; 'possessing vigor' means being indefatigable when benefiting others; 'rich in scriptural learning' means having heard much; 'awakened to reality' means understanding the true meaning; 'skilled in exposition' means being free of error; 'deep in compassion' means renouncing selfish expectations; 'free from regression' means being respectful at all times."

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Elder (*sthavira*)

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The *Dīrghāgama* says: "There are three kinds of elders: the elder in age (one with many years and rains retreats), the elder in Dharma (one who thoroughly penetrates the Dharma-nature and internally possesses wisdom and virtue), and the nominal elder (one who merely borrows the title)." A verse in the *Dṛṣṭānta Sūtra* says: / "One who is called an elder / Does not necessarily shave hair and beard; / Though he may be advanced in age, / He is not exempt from evil deeds. / If one sees the Dharma of the truths, / Does not harm living beings, / And abandons all filthy and evil actions, / Such a one is called an elder. / What I now call an elder / Has not necessarily left the household life earlier; / If he cultivates wholesome root activities / And discerns correct conduct, / Even if he is young in years, / His sense faculties complete without lack, / This one is called an elder." / Master Zhao says: "Internally possessing wisdom and virtue that deserve honor; hence he is called an elder." Master En says: "One who possesses the virtues of an elder and old age is called an elder."

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Lineage Master (*zongshi*)

1.50

A master who transmits the school of the Buddha-mind. It is also said: *zong* means honored; meaning that because this person opens the path of the Dharma of emptiness, he is honored by the assembly.

1.51

Dharma Master (*fazhu*)

1.52

The *Āgama* says: "The Buddha is the master of preaching the Dharma." Both in antiquity and today, a monk who preaches the Dharma and knows the Dharma is taken as a Dharma master. For example, Sengrui said to Sengdao: "You ought to be a Dharma master for ten thousand people." Emperor Xiaowu of Song decreed that Daoyou be the presiding Dharma master of Xin'an Temple.

1.53

Great Master (*dashi*)

1.54

"Great master" (dàshī) means an exemplar. "Great" distinguishes him from the small. The Buddha is called the Great Master of the Three Realms. The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra states: "Because he is able to transform and guide immeasurable sentient beings, bringing their suffering to extinction, and because he demolishes corrupt heretics and appears in the world, he is called the Great Master." If ordinary monks receive this title bestowed by imperial decree, the Sengshilüe states: "This began on the fourteenth day of the eleventh month in the eleventh year of the Xiantong era of Emperor Yizong of the Tang dynasty (870 CE), on the Festival of Prolonging Celebrations. During debates in the inner palace chapel, Yunhao of the Left Street was bestowed the title Great Master of Threefold Wisdom; Sengche of the Right Street was bestowed the title Great Master of Pure Light; Kefu was bestowed the title Great Master of Dharma Wisdom; and Chongqian was bestowed the title Great Master of the Blue Lotus. This was the beginning of it." The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra states: "In brief, a great master possesses five kinds of virtues: 1. having no error or lapse in all moral conduct; 2. skillfully establishing the Dharma; 3. skillfully instituting what is to be trained in; 4. being able to resolve skillfully all doubts regarding what has been skillfully established and instituted; and 5. instructing [sentient beings] in emancipation."

1.55

Dharma Master (fǎshī)

1.56

The Saṃyuktāgama states: "What is called a Dharma master? The Buddha said: 'If one teaches with respect to form the Dharma of wearying [of it], abandoning desire [for it], and tranquil cessation, one is called a Dharma master; if one teaches with respect to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness the Dharma of wearying [of them], abandoning desire [for them], and tranquil cessation, one is called a Dharma master.'" The Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā states: "One who practices four dharmas is called a Dharma master: 1. broad and extensive learning, able to retain all words and phrases; 2. definitively and thoroughly knowing the arising and ceasing characteristics of all mundane and supramundane dharmas; 3. attaining the wisdom of meditative absorption, conforming to all scriptures and teachings without dispute; and 4. practicing as taught, without adding or subtracting." The Madhyāntavibhāga has a verse on the ten kinds of Dharma masters, which says: "Namely, copying, making offerings, giving to others, listening, opening and reading, receiving and retaining, properly explaining and preaching, reciting, reflecting upon, and cultivating [the Dharma]."

1.57

Vinaya Master (lǜshī)

1.58

The Lüchao jieti states: "The Buddha said that one who skillfully understands a single character is called a Vinaya master. The 'single character' is the character 'Vinaya' (lǜ)." The Ratnamegha-sūtra states: "One endowed with ten qualities is called a Vinaya master: 1. skillfully understanding the origins of the vinaya; 2. skillfully understanding the profound points of the vinaya; 3. skillfully understanding the subtle details of the vinaya; 4. skillfully understanding what is permissible in this case and impermissible in that case in the vinaya; 5. skillfully understanding the inherently grave precepts in the vinaya; 6. skillfully understanding the instituted grave precepts in the vinaya; 7. skillfully understanding the causes and conditions for instituted precepts in the vinaya; 8. skillfully understanding the śrāvaka vinaya; 9. skillfully understanding the pratyekabuddha vinaya; and 10. skillfully understanding the bodhisattva vinaya." The Daśādhyāya-vinaya states: "A holder of the vinaya possesses seven virtues: 1. being able to preserve the Buddha's inner treasury; 2. being able to settle disputes skillfully; 3. upholding the precepts; 4. having heretics pay homage at their feet on account of the vinaya; 5. having no fear when reciting the precepts before the assembly without needing to consult others; 6. being able to dispel doubts; and 7. being able to cause the true Dharma to abide for a long time." The Samantapāsādikā states: "The Buddha taught that a holder of the vinaya is the very root of virtues; because they are the root, they gather and guide all teachings."

1.59

Ācārya (shélí)

1.60

The Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan states: "In Sanskrit, it is ācārya; in the language of the Tang, it means 'model of conduct.' Nowadays, one calls them shélí, which is an abbreviated and corrupt Sanskrit sound." The Bodhisambhāra-śāstra states: "Ācārya means 'correct practice' in the language of the Sui." The Nanshan chao states: "It is because they are able to rectify the conduct of their disciples."

1.61

Superior Being (shèngshì)

1.62

The Candrapradīpa-samādhi-sūtra states: "One who can purely uphold the precepts is called a superior being."

1.63

Venerable (zūnzhě)

1.64

In Sanskrit, it is ārya. In Chinese, it means 'venerable.' It refers to one who is endowed with virtuous conduct and wisdom, worthy of veneration.

1.65

Enlightened Person (kāishì)

1.66

The Jingyin shu states: "'Kāi' means open and reached, illuminated, or understood. 'Shì' means an educated person. In the scriptures, bodhisattvas are frequently called enlightened persons. Fu Jian of the Former Qin bestowed upon śramaṇas endowed with virtue and understanding the title 'Enlightened Person.'"

1.67

Bhadanta (dàdé)

1.68

The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa states: "In Sanskrit, it is bhadanta; in the language of the Qin, it is dàdé (great virtue). In the vinaya, the Buddha is frequently called bhadanta." The Vinaya states: "The Buddha said: 'From this day forward, junior monks should address senior, long-standing monks as bhadanta.'" Regarding monks who are officially appointed here [in China], the Sengshilüe states: "On the fifth day of the fourth month in the sixth year of the Dali era of Emperor Daizong of the Tang dynasty (771 CE), it was decreed that ten platform-officiating bhadantas (lintan dade) be established each for the monks and nuns of the capital as a regular institution. This was the beginning of combining 'lintan' with the two characters 'dade.'" The Zenghui ji states: "One whose practice is complete and virtue is exalted is called bhadanta."

1.69

Elder (shàngzuò, sthavira)

1.70

The Mahīśāsaka-vinaya states: "At what point is one called an elder? The Buddha said: 'One who has no one senior above him is called an elder.'" The Vinayamātṛkā states: "From no summer retreats up to nine summer retreats is a junior seat; from ten summer retreats to nineteen summer retreats is a middle seat; from twenty summer retreats to forty summer retreats is an elder; from fifty summer retreats and above, one who is venerated and respected by all śramaṇas is called a venerable elder (according to the Baiyi jiemo, even if one has sixty summer retreats, one must still be one who understands the vinaya and has moral conduct before being called a venerable elder)." The Mahāvibhāṣā states: "There are three kinds of elders: 1. elders by birth-years, which means the senior and aged who uphold the precepts, being truly born [in the Dharma]; 2. elders by worldly status, which means those who understand the law and are wealthy and noble, having great wealth, high office, a great clan, great power, and a large retinue; even if only twenty years of age, all should harmoniously nominate them as elders; 3. elders by Dharmatā, which means arhats." A verse states: "With a restless mind and much frivolous talk, an afflicted mind and disordered thoughts, though one dwells long in the grove, one is not a true elder. Endowed with precepts, wisdom, and right mindfulness, with a tranquil mind and liberation, able to contemplate the Dharma—such a one is called a true elder." The Daśādhyāya-vinaya states: "Endowed with ten qualities, one is called an elder: namely, possessing an abiding place (regarding 'abiding place,' the Vibhāṣā says it refers to the path and fruits, and the samādhi of emptiness; being able to produce its superior power and cause body and mind to abide securely and unshakeably, it is called the elder's abiding place); being fearless; being free of defilements; having many spiritual companions; having broad learning; possessing eloquent speech; having clear comprehension of principles; being trusted and accepted by those who hear; skillfully bringing peace and composure when entering other households; being able to teach the Dharma to white-robed laity to make them abandon evil and follow good; and possessing within oneself the joy of the Dharma of the four truths without lacking anything—such a one is called an elder." In the vinaya, there are the elder of the monastery (namely, the elder among the three administrators in the vinaya), the elder of the saṃgha (namely, the elder on the platform or the head of the hall), the elder of individual quarters (namely, the current head monk of the various cloisters in Chan residences), and the elder of the household (namely, the elder who counts seats at meals). The Vibhāṣā states: "As for an elder, because their mind abides securely, it is not swayed by worldly favor or adversity; this is called an elder."

1.71

Seat Master (zuòzhǔ)

1.72

The Zhiyan states: "The authorities are called the master of the seat (zuozhu). Now Buddhists use it to refer to those whose learning and understanding are abundant and prominent, calling them seat masters, meaning the master of a single seat. Ancient eminent monks called a lecturer the high seat (gaozuo), or perhaps it means the master of the high seat."

1.73

Superior Person (shàngshì)

1.74

The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra states: "One who lacks the practice of benefiting oneself and benefiting others is called a lower person. One who benefits oneself but does not benefit others is called a middling person. One who possesses both benefits is called a superior person (a superior person is endowed with both benefits, has a great mind and great practice, and is also called a great person [mahāsattva])."

1.75

Noble Person (shàngrén)

1.76

The Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra states: "Who is called a noble person? The Buddha said: 'If a bodhisattva single-mindedly practices anuttara-bodhi with an undistracted mind, this is called a noble person.'" The Ekottarikāgama states: "If a person dwelling in the world has faults and is able to reform themselves, they are called a noble person." The Daśādhyāya-vinaya states: "There are four kinds of persons: 1. coarse persons; 2. turbid persons; 3. intermediate persons; and 4. noble persons." In the vinaya, King Bimbisāra addresses the disciples of the Buddha as noble persons. Ancient masters said: "Internally possessing wisdom and virtue, and externally possessing superior conduct, standing above other people, one is called a noble person."

1.77

Person of the Way (dàorén)

1.78

The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa states: "One who has attained the Way is called a person of the Way. Other renunciants who have not yet attained the Way are also called persons of the Way (the term 'practitioner of the Way' [dàozhě] also follows this explanation)."

1.79

This Impoverished Follower of the Way (píndào)

1.80

The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa states: "There are two kinds of poverty: 1. poverty of wealth; and 2. poverty of the dharmas of merit and virtue." The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra states: "In the chapter on renunciation: poverty of wisdom and poverty of wealth." The Zhigui states: "The 'Way' is a general designation for all things, pertaining to the Way realized by the noble ones of the three vehicles. Stating that I am deficient in this Way, I therefore call myself 'this impoverished follower of the Way' (the Sengshilüe states: 'In the Han, Wei, and Western and Eastern Jin dynasties, śramaṇas addressing monarchs also simply called themselves píndào. For instance, in the Southern Qi, the Emperor asked Wang Jian: "How did former śramaṇas address the Emperor? Did they also sit in the main palace hall?" Jian replied: "In the Han and Wei, the Buddhadharma was not yet complete, and this is not seen in records and biographies. Since the illegitimate states grew somewhat prosperous, they all called themselves píndào, and we have also heard that they were permitted to sit"')."

1.81

Dhūta (tóutuó)

1.82

In Sanskrit, it is dhūta; in Chinese, it means 'shaking off.' It means that the three poisons are like dust that can soil the true mind, and this person is able to shake them off and eliminate them; hence it is nowadays corruptly called tóutuó. The Suvikrāntacintā-devaputra-paripṛcchā-sūtra states: "Dhūta means shaking off greed, anger, and delusion within the three realms, both internal and external six sense bases. If one neither grasps nor abandons, neither cultivates nor clings, yet is not non-clinging, I declare that person to be called a dhūta." The twelve ascetic practices (dhūtaguṇa) are: 1. dwelling in an araṇya; 2. constantly begging for food; 3. begging in regular order; 4. eating at a single sitting; 5. regulating food portions; 6. not drinking juices after noon; 7. wearing rag robes; 8. possessing only three robes; 9. dwelling in a charnel ground; 10. sitting beneath a tree; 11. sitting in the open; and 12. sitting constantly without lying down (that sūtra contains an extensive text on this).

1.83

Gentleman Zhi (zhīláng)

1.84

Literati ancient and modern frequently address monks as 'Gentleman Zhi.' The Gaoseng zhuan states: "In the Wei dynasty, there were three eminent monks named Zhi Qian, Zhi Xian, and Zhi Liang. Among them, Qian was slender, tall, dark, and lean, his eyes had much white and yellow pupils, yet he was very wise. A proverb of contemporary worthies said: 'Gentleman Zhi has yellow in his eyes; though small in frame, he is a bag of wisdom.'"

1.85

Black-Robed Assembly (zīliú)

1.86

This is named after the color of the robes. The Sengshilüe states: "Question: What does the color of the black robes (zīyī) look like? Answer: Purple, yet light black. The Kaogongji states: 'Dipping three times makes it light red (xūn); dipping five times makes it dark red (zōu); dipping seven times makes it zī (blackish).' Thus we know that zī originally derives from crimson bird-head color, which is a reddish purple. Therefore, when the nun Jingxiu of the Liang saw the robes of the noble assembly, they were like ripe mulberries. This is a light reddish deep black."

1.87

Dragon-Elephant (lóngxiàng)

1.88

In the Madhyamāgama, the Buddha told Udāyin: "If śramaṇas and others, from humans up to devas, do not harm with body, speech, or mind, I say that they are dragon-elephants."

1.89

Sons of the Gate of Emptiness (kōngménzǐ)

1.90

The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa states: "Nirvāṇa has three gates: 1. the gate of emptiness; 2. the gate of signlessness; and 3. the gate of wishlessness. What is the gate of emptiness? It means contemplating all dharmas as without self or what belongs to self; all dharmas arise from causes and conditions, with no agent and no receiver—this is called emptiness. Now, renunciants enter the dwelling of nirvāṇa through this gate; hence they are called the sons of the gate of emptiness."

1.91

Head of the School (zōngzhǔ)

1.92

The Sengshilüe states: "At the end of the Tang dynasty, all monasteries established one post of ācārya for taking reliance. In our present dynasty, the person holding the vinaya whose rank is highest is designated the 'head of the school.' When disputes between clerics and laity cannot be settled as right or wrong, they submit reports for him to adjudicate and decide, in order to make people cease disputes."

1.93

Monastic Registrar (sēnglù)

1.94

The Sengshilüe states: "During the Kaicheng era of Emperor Wenzong of the Tang dynasty, monastic registrars of the Left and Right were first established, beginning with Dharma Master Duanfu. Dharma Master Duanfu was summoned into the imperial palace by Emperor Dezong to debate with Confucians and Daoists; he was bestowed a purple square robe and ordered to attend the Crown Prince at the Eastern Palace. Emperor Shunzong respected him like a brother, and Emperor Xianzong treated him like an honored guest and friend. He was in charge of Dharma ceremonies in the inner halls and registered the monastic affairs of the Left Street."

1.95

Deputy Monastic Registrar (fù sēnglù)

1.96

Namely, during the Qianning era of Emperor Zhaozong, the title of head seat (shǒuzuò) was changed to deputy monastic registrar, beginning with Juehui.

1.97

Head Seat of Scripture and Treatise Lectures (jiǎng jīnglùn shǒuzuò)

1.98

The history states: "The designation 'head seat' means the elder (sthavira). It is because he occupies the head of the seats and sits above the saṃgha. Emperor Xuānzong of the Tang appointed the monk Bianzhang as Head Seat of the Three Teachings, which was the beginning of this. Nowadays, one is appointed head seat based on learning in scriptures and treatises."

1.99

Monastic Rectifier (sēngzhèng)

1.100

The History says: Rectitude (zheng) means governance (zheng). One rectifies oneself to rectify others and can thus propagate governmental orders. For if monks have no rules, it is like horses without bridles: gradually tainted by worldly customs, they would contravene the refined norms. Therefore, those of virtue and prestige are selected to regulate them by law and make them return to rectitude; hence the name sengzheng (monk rector). This began with Sengqie under the illegitimate Qin. Coming to the sixth year of the Putong era of the Liang, an imperial decree appointed Fayun as the Grand Monk Rector (da sengzheng; adding the word 'grand').

1.101

Monastic Director (Sengzhu)

1.102

This began in the Yongming era of the Southern Qi, when Emperor Wu issued an imperial decree appointing Faxian as the Monastic Director (the term 'director' [zhu] is like an official of the saṅgha).

1.103

National Preceptor (Guoshi)

1.104

The Brief History of the Saṅgha says: Formerly in the Western Regions there was a Nirgrantha-putra who thoroughly mastered the Tripiṭaka and also penetrated the five sciences. The entire country took refuge in him, whereupon this title became renowned. In this land, it began with the eminent monk Fachang of the Northern Qi, who expounded the vinaya and nirvāṇa, and was versed in the methods of dhyāna; the Lord of Qi revered him as National Preceptor. In the Tang, Shenxiu was summoned by Zetian and was titled National Preceptor across four reigns. Huizhong entered the inner palace during the two reigns of Suzong and Daizong to preach Chan, and was titled National Preceptor. In the Yuanhe era, an imperial decree appointed Zhixuan as National Preceptor Wuda (at the age of five Xuan could compose poetry; he went forth as a śrāmaṇera, and at age fourteen lectured on the Nirvāṇa Sūtra. At that time Li Shangyin presented him with a poem saying: 'A fourteen-year-old śrāmaṇera understands how to lecture on sūtras; / older monks only carry the water-pitcher. / The śrāmaṇera preaches the Dharma while the śramaṇas listen; / greatness lies not in advanced years but in spiritual intelligence'). As for the separate hegemonies: the Latter Ruler of Shu bestowed upon the Recorder of the Saṅgha Guangye the title National Preceptor Yousheng. Wuyue addressed Deshao of Tiantai as National Preceptor. The Southern Tang appointed Wensui as Grand Leader of the State (for wider knowledge, please read the Brief History of the Saṅgha).

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釋氏要覽 — Classical Chinese