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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c41: Chapter V. Position of the Mānasāra in Literature

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c41

Language
English

Contents

Chapter V. Position of the Mānasāra in Literature

The Types of Buildings

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WITH A VIEW to ascertaining the position of the *Mānasāra* in relation to the non-architectural literature it will be necessary to discuss the points of similarity in detail. It is, however, practicable, in an article like this, to take into consideration only the architectural portions of works which deal with the subject specially. For the purpose of an elaborate treatment we propose to compare the *Mānasāra* with the *Agni-Purāṇa*, the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa*, the *Matsya-Purāṇa*, the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, the *Kāmikāgama*, and the *Suprabhedāgama*.

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It has been pointed out at the outset that architecture comprises a variety of subjects, but it cannot be denied that the fundamental business of the architect is with buildings, residential, religious, and military. It appears to be a fashion among many peoples of the past, as of the present, to designate individual buildings by proper names, with or without a meaning.¹ It seems to have been a custom among the ancient Hindu architects to describe buildings under some such names. In the eight treatises we have proposed to compare in detail, we find buildings bearing proper names classified and described in the following way :

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¹ Compare, for instance, Whitehall, Guildhall, Mansion House, Cosy Corner, Gordon Castle, Benmore, Barnes Castle, Svastika, Vijaya, Vipulāṅka, Indra-kānta, Chatur-mukha, Pāñchāla, Drāviḍa Kamalā-Bhavana, Chitta-Viśrāma, etc.

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1. In the *Mānasāra* the main buildings are described in some thirteen chapters.² Their common features from bottom to top are given under storeys, varying from one to twelve. They are also classified under styles—Nāgara, Vesara, and Drāviḍa—chiefly in accordance with the shape of the topmost part³; under sizes⁴—as Śuddha, Miśra, and Saṁkīrṇa—in accordance with the materials of which they are built¹; under Jāti, Chhanda, Vikalpa, and Ābhāsa in accordance with the various lengths of the cubit with which the buildings are measured²; under Sthānaka, Āsana, and Śayana, which are otherwise called Saṁchita, Asaṁchita, and Apasaṁchita respectively³; and under shapes, Puṁliṅga (masculine), Strīliṅga (feminine)⁴ and Napuṁsaka (neuter).

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² Chapters XVIII to XXX, *see* the summary of contents in the preceding section under XVIII.

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³ For details of these styles, *see* the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Nāgara*.

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⁴ Large, intermediate, and small.

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¹ (a) Śuddha, or pure, made of one material (brick, iron or wood); (*b*) Miśra, or mixed, made of two materials; (*c*) Saṁkīrṇa, or amalgamated, made of three or more materials. *M.*, XVIII, 139–142.

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² *M.*, XIX, 2–5.

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³ Referring respectively to height, breadth, and length, *M.*, XIX 7–9, 10–11. The three latter sets also refer to the postures of the idols in case of temples, namely, erect, sitting, and recumbent.

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⁴ Equiangular and rectangular respectively. But in case of temples, the former contains the male deities, while the latter may contain both female and male deities, *M.*, XIX, 14–17. For the neuter class, see the *Kāmikāgama* below.

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The details of the ninety-eight types of buildings, described according to the number of storeys, are given below. The numerical figures on the left indicate the serial numbers, and those on the right refer to the lines or verses of the chapters.

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I. The eight kinds of single-storeyed buildings with their characteristic features, Chapter XIX—

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(1) Vaijayantika, with round spire (*śīrsha*), pinnacle (*śīraḥ*), and neck (*gīrvā*) (line 166); (2) Bhoga has *karṇa* or ears (187); (3) Śrīviśāla has the *bhadra* or front porch in it (168); (4) Svastibandha has octagonal finial (*śīrsha*) (168); (5) Śrīkara has quadrangular *śikhara* or steeple (170); (6) Hastipṛishṭha has oval steeple (171); (7) Skandatāra has hexagonal spire and neck (172); (8) Keśara has the front porches in the centre of the side-towers at the corners of the roof, and its nose, head, and neck are round or quadrangular (173–175).⁵

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⁵ For further details, *see* the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Ekabhūmi*.

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II. The eight kinds of two-storeyed buildings, Chapter XX (the general features are the same in all the eight kinds; the distinction lies in the different proportions given to the component parts from above the ground floor to the top)—

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(9) Śrīkara (lines 94, 2–9); (10) Vijaya (94, 10–15); (11) Siddha (94, 16–18); (12) Paushṭika (94, 19–25); (13) Antika (94, 25–27); (14) Adbhuta (94, 28–33); (15) Svastika (95, 34–41); and (16) Pushkala (94, 42-43). The projection, the general description, and the carvings on the doors, when these buildings are used as temples, are given (44-93, 96-116).¹

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III. The eight kinds of three-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXI (the general features and characteristic marks are similar to those of two-storeyed buildings)—

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(17) Śrīkānta (lines 2-11); (18) Āsana (12-21); (19) Sukhālaya (22-30); (20) Kesara (31-32); (21) Kamalāṅga (33-38); (22) Brahmakānta (39-40); (23) Merukānta (41-49); and (24) Kailāśa (50-52).¹

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¹ ^1 For further details, see the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *dvi-tala* and *tri-tala*.

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The general features, characteristic marks, and other details of the following kinds are similar to those of the two- and three-storeyed buildings—

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IV. The eight kinds of four-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXII—

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(25) Vishṇukānta (lines 3-12); (26) Chaturmukha (13-24); (27) Sadāśiva (25-33); (28) Rudrakānta (34-43); (29) Iśvarakānta (44-46); (30) Mañchakānta (47-57); (31) Vedikānta (58-59); and (32) Indrakānta (60-88).²

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V. The nine kinds of five-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXIII—

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(33) Airāvata (lines 3-12); (34) Bhūtakānta (13-15); (35) Viśvakānta (16-18); (36) Mūrtikānta (19-24); (37) Yamakānta (25-29); (38) Gṛihakānta (30-38); (39) Yajñakānta (33-40); (40) Brahmakānta; and (41-42) Mahākānta and Kalyāṇa.²

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VI. The thirteen kinds of six-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXIV—

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(41) Padmakānta (lines 3-12); (42) Kāntāra (13-14); (43) Sundara (15); (44) Upakānta (16); (45) Kamala-aksha (17-18); (46) Ratnakānta (19); (47) Vipulāṅka (20); (48) Jyoti(sh)kānta (50); (49) Saroruha (51-52); (50) Vipulākṛitika (53); (51) Svastikānta (53); (52) Nandyāvarta (54); and (53) Ikshukānta (55).²

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VII. The eight kinds of seven-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXV—

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(54) Puṇḍarīka (lines 3-23); (55) Śrīkānta (24); (56) Śrībhoga (25); (57) Dhāraṇa (26); (58) Pañjara (27); (59) Āśramāgāra (28); (60) Harmyakānta (29); and (61) Himakānta (30).²

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² ^2 For further details, see the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *chatus-tala*, *pañcha-tala*, *shaṭ-tala*, *sapta-tala*, *ashṭa-tala*, *nava-tala*, *daśa-tala*, and *ekādaśa-tala*.

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VIII. The eight kinds of eight-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXVI—

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(62) Bhūkānta (lines 3-21); (63) Bhūpakānta (22–28); (64) Svargakānta (29–34); (65) Mahākānta (35-39); (66) Janakānta (40); (67) Tapa(s)kānta (41–42); (68) Satyakānta (43–45); and (69) Devakānta (46–47).¹

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IX. The seven kinds of nine-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXVII—

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(70) Saurakānta (lines 5–9); (71) Raurava (10); (72) Chaṇḍita (11–12); (73) Bhūshaṇa (13–14); (74) Vivṛita (20–22); (75) Supratikānta (23–26); and (76) Viśvakānta (27–33).¹

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X. The six kinds of ten-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXVIII—

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(77) Bhūkānta (lines 6–8); (78) Chandrakānta (6–8); (79) Bhavanakānta (9–13); (80) Antarikshakānta (14–15); (81) Meghakānta (16–17); and (82) Abjakānta (18).¹

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XI. The six kinds of eleven-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXIX—

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(83) Śambhukānta (lines 3–7); (84) Iśakānta (8–9); (85) Chakrakānta (10–14); (86) Yamakānta (15–17); (87) Vajrakānta (18–24); and (88) Arkakānta (24–33).¹

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¹ For further details, *see* the writer’s *Encyclopaedia*, under *chatus-tala*, *pañcha-tala*, *shaṭ-tala*, *sapta-tala*, *ashṭa-tala*, *nava-tala*, *daśa-tala* and *ekadaśa-tala*.

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XII. The ten kinds of twelve-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXX—

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(83) Pāñchāla (lines 8–10); (90) Drāviḍa (8–10); (91) Madhyakānta (11–14); (92) Kāliṅgakānta (14–16); (93) Varāṭa (Virāṭa ?) (17–27); (94) Kerala (28–30); (95) Vaṁśakānta (31–32); (96) Māgadhakānta (33–34); (97) Jana(ka)kānta (33–36); and (98) Sphūrjaka (? Gurjaraka) (7, 37–84); description of the twelfth storey.²

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² These ten kinds are named, it should be noticed, after the historic places, well marked in the ancient geography of India, which cover the whole length and breadth of the continent. The topography of these places is described elsewhere (pp. 254–256). For the architectural details of these buildings, *see* the writer’s *Encyclopaedia*, under these ten terms. The description of the twelfth storey is given under *dvādaśa-tala*.

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2. *Agni-Purāṇa*, Chapter XLII, verses 1–9 (general plan), 10–25 (plan with reference to the idol), Chapter 104, vv. 1–11, 22–34 (further general plan), 11–21 (names, classes, shapes, and description of forty-five kinds of temples).

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Five divisions depending on five shapes (plans), each including nine kinds of temples (Chapter CIV, vv. 11-13)—

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I. Vairāja—quadrangular (square)—includes (1) Meru, (2) Mandara, (3) Vimāna, (4) Bhadra, (5) Sarvatobhadra, (6) Charuka (in the Kāmikāgama, XXXV, 87, 91 : Ruchaka), (7) Nandika, (8) Nandi-varddhana, and (9) Śrīvatsa (Chapter CIV, vv. 14, 15).

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II. Pushpaka—rectangular—includes (10) Ba(Va)labhi, (11) Gṛiharāja, (12) Śālāgṛiha or Sālāmandira, (13) Viśāla, (14) Sama, (15) Brahma-mandira, (16) Bhavana or Bhuvana, (17) Prabhava, and (18) Śivikāveśma (Chapter CIV, vv. 16, 17).

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III. Kailāśa—round—includes (19) Ba(va)laya, (20) Dundubhi, (21) Padma, (22) Mahā-padmaka, (23) Varddhanī, (24), Ushṇī, (25) Śaṅkha, (26) Kalaśa, and (27) Svavṛiksha (Chapter CIV, vv. 17-18).

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IV. Maṇika—oval (*vṛittāyata*)—includes (28) Gaja, (29) Vṛishabha, (30) Haṁsa, (31) Garutmat, (32) Ṛikshanāyaka, (33) Bhūshaṇa, (34) Bhūdhara, (35) Śrījaya, and (36) Pṛithivī-dhara (Chapter CIV, vv. 19-20).

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V. Trivishṭapa—octagonal—includes (37) Vajra, (38) Chakra, (39) Svastika, (40) Vajra-svastika, (41) Chitra, (42) Svastika-khaḍga, (43) Gadā, (44) Śrīkaṇṭha, and (45) Vijaya (Chapter CIV, vv. 20-21).

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3. *Garuḍa-Purāṇa* (Chapter XLVII) has exactly the same general plan (vv. 1-20, 32-47), five shapes, five classes (v. 21-23), and forty-five kinds of buildings (vv. 24-32), but the wording is not identical. The fourth class is read Mālikā (v. 21) in the general description, but the name ' Maṇika ' (v. 30) is given later on—

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I. Vairāja—square (vv. 21-22)—includes the same nine kinds, but (7) Nandika is read as Nandana, and (6) Charuka is correctly read as Ruchaka (vv. 24-25).

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II. Pushpaka—rectangular (vv. 22-23)—includes nine kinds where (10) Valabhī is correctly spelt, (13) Viśāla is read as Vimāna, which is apparently a mistake in the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa*, because (3) Vimāna is a kind of building included in the square (I) Vairāja class. But the reading of class (II) seems better in the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa*, which may be quoted—(10) Valabhī, (11) Gṛiharāja, (12) Śālāgṛiha, (13) Mandira, (14) Viśāla (text has Vimāna), (15) Brahmamandira, (16) Bhavana, (17) Uttambha, and (18) Śibikā-veśma (vv. 26-27).

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III. Kailāśa—round (vv. 21—23)—has nine kinds, again perhaps with better readings—(19) Valaya, (20) Dundubhi, (21) Padma, (22) Mahāpadma, (23) Mukuli (in place of Varddhanī), (24) Ushṇīshi, (25) Śaṅkha, (26) Kalaśa, and (27) Guvā-vṛiksha (vv. 28–29).

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IV. Maṇika—oval (vv. 30)—has nine kinds, of which (31), (32), and (33) are read as Garuḍa, Siṁha, and Bhūmukha respectively (vv. 29–30).

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V. Trivishṭapa—octagonal (vv. 21, 23)—has nine kinds, readings again seem better here—(37) Vajra, (38) Chakra, (39) Mushṭika (preceded by Babhru, vv. 31), (40) Vakra, (41) Svastika, (42) Khaḍga, (43) Gadā, (44) Śrīvṛiksha, and (45) Vijaya (vv. 31–32).

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4. The *Matsya-Purāṇa*, Chapter 269—

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The description of the general plan (verses 1–7) is followed by that of the special plan (vv. 8–20).

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The names (vv. 28–30), description of architectural details (vv. 31–46), measures (vv. 47–51), and division (vv. 53–54) of twenty types of buildings—

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(1) Meru has 100 cupolas (*śṛiṅga*), 16 storeys (*bhūmika*), many variegated steeples (*śikhara*), and is 50 cubits broad (vv. 28, 31, 53) ; (2) Mandara has 12 storeys, many steeples and faces, and is 45 cubits broad (vv. 28, 37, 47, 53) ; (3) Kailāśa has nine storeys (many steeples and faces), and is 40 cubits broad (vv. 32, 47, 53) ; (4) Vimāna-chchhanda has eight storeys, many steeples and faces (*ānana*), and is 34 cubits broad (vv. 25, 32, 33, 47, 53) ; (5) Nandi-vardhana has seven storeys, and is 32 cubits broad (vv. 29, 33, 48, 53) ; (6) Nandana has seven storeys, and is furnished with *vishāṇa* or horns, and is 30 cubits broad (vv. 29, 33, 48, 53) ; (7) Sarvatobhadra has five storeys, 16 corners with various shapes, is furnished with art galleries (*chitraśālā*), and is 30 cubits broad (vv. 29, 34, 35, 48, 53) ; (8) Valabhī-chchhandaka has five storeys, many steeples and faces, and is 16 cubits broad (vv. 35, 50, 53) ; (9) Vṛisha should resemble the height and length of the bull, be round and without corners, should have five cupolas, two storeys, and should be 4 cubits broad at the central hall (vv. 30, 36, 44, 45, 53) ; (10) Siṁha resembles the lion and is 16 cubits broad, is adorned with the famous *chandra-śālā* (top rooms, gable windows), and by the width of the front neck six storeys high (vv. 29, 36, 40, 49, 53) ; (11) Gaja resembles the elephant, and is 16 cubits broad, and has many *chandraśālās* or top rooms (vv. 36, 41, 49, 53) ; (12) Kumbha resembles the water-jar, has nine storeys, five cupolas (*aṇḍas*), and is 16 cubits broad (vv. 37, 49, 53) ; (13) Samudraka has 16 sides around, 2 *chandraśālās* (top rooms) at the two sides, two storeys (vv. 38, 53) ; (14) Padma has three storeys, 16 corners, a variegated steeple, and is 20 cubits broad (vv. 30, 39, 49, 53) ; (15) Garuḍa has the bird-design around, seven storeys, three top rooms, and is 8 cubits broad, and there should be 86 (?) compartments (*bhūmika*, *lit.* storeys, v. 42) all round the outside (vv. 41, 43, 51). There is a similar Garuḍa building with ten storeys, and a second Padmaka-building with two storeys more (? 12 storeys, v. 43) ; (16) Haṁsa, is 10 cubits broad (vv. 36, 51) ; (17) Vartula is 20 cubits broad (vv. 29 49, 53). No special description is given of the remaining : (18) Chaturaśra (four-cornered, vv. 28, 53) ; (19) Ashṭāśra (eight-cornered, v. 29, 53) ; (20) Shoḍaśāsra (sixteen-cornered, vv. 29, 53).¹

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¹ Compare the three divisions of these buildings according to sizes.

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Similar types of buildings are described almost in the same way in both the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa* and the *Brihat-saṁhitā*.

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5. The *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*, Book I, Chapter CXXX, names (vv. 23–26), description of the architectural details and measures (vv. 27–35) of the twenty kinds of buildings (same as in the *Brihat-saṁhitā*, *see* below)—

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(1) Meru, 39 cubits high and 32 cubits broad, has 12 storeys, various windows (*kuhara*), and four gateways (v. 27).

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(2) Mandara, 30 cubits broad, and has ten storeys (v. 28).

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(3) Kailāśa, 28 cubits broad, has steeples and eight storeys (v. 28).

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The description of the following is clearer in the *Brihat-saṁhitā*, quoted below ; the names may be given here—

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(4) Vimāna, with latticed windows (v. 29).

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(5) Nandana (v. 29).

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(6) Samudga (v. 30), Samudra (v. 24) as in the *Brihat-saṁhitā* (LVI, 28, 5).

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(7) Padma (v. 30).

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(8) Garuḍa (v. 31).

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(9) Nandi-vardhana (v. 28, Naṁdī, v. 31).

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(10) Kuñjara (v 32).

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(11) Gṛiharāja (v. 32), *Brihat-saṁhitā* (LVI, 25) has Guharāja.

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(12) Vṛisha (v. 33).
(13) Haṁsa (v. 33).
(14) Ghaṭa (v. 33).
(15) Sarvatobhadra (v. 34).
(16) Siṁha (v. 35).
(17) Vṛitta (as in the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, LVI, 29, 49); but here (v. 33) it reads Vṛisha-like (12), which is apparently a mistake (*see* v. 30).

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No special description is given of the remaining—

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(18) Chatushkoṇa, four-cornered (v. 25), *Matsya-Purāṇa* (Chapter CCLXIX, vv. 28, 53) has Chaturasra ; and *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* (VI, 28) has Chaturasra.

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(19) Ashṭāsra, octangular (v. 25).

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(20) Shoḍaśāsra, sixteen-cornered (v. 25).

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Varāhamihira seems to have taken these from an earlier *Purāṇa* and improved them in the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*.

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6. The *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, LVI, 1–19—

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The religious merits acquired by building temples (vv. 1–2); suitable sites—in the garden, wood, banks of rivers (seas), tanks (vv. 3–8); ground (v. 9); general plan (v. 10); situation of doors (v. 10); comparative measures of length, breadth, and height (v. 11), of the adytum (*garbha*, v. 12), of the doors and their different parts (vv. 12–14); carvings on the door (v. 15); comparative measures of the idol, pedestal, and door (v. 16); the heights of storeys (v. 29–30).

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This is followed by a classification (vv. 17–19) and an account of the architectural details (vv. 20–28) of the same twenty kinds of temples (*prāsāda*) as are given in the *Matsya-Purāṇa* and the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*. The names of these buildings are given below, details being almost the same as in the *Purāṇas*—

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(1) Meru (v. 20).
(2) Mandara (v. 21).
(3) Kailāśa (v. 21).
(4) Vimāna-(chchhanda) (vv. 17–22).
(5) Nandana (v. 22).
(6) Samudga (v. 23).
(7) Padma (v. 23).
(8) Garuḍa (v. 24).
(9) Nandivardhana (v. 24).
(10) Kuñjara (v. 25).

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(11) Guharāja (v. 25).
(12) Vṛisha (v. 26).
(13) Haṁsa (v. 26).
(14) Ghaṭa (v. 26).
(15) Sarvatobhadra (v. 27).
(16) Siṁha (v. 28).
(17) Vṛitta (vv. 18–28).
(18) Chatush-koṇa (vv. 18–28).
(19) Ashṭāsra (v. : 18–28).
(20) Shoḍaśāsra (vv. 18–28).

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7. The *Kāmikāgama*,¹ *Paṭala* LV— The four classes— Jāti (verse 128), Chhanda (v. 129), Vikalpa (v. 130), and Ābhāsa (v. 130).

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¹ This *Paṭala* refers to the description of a single building and its component parts. So also does the *Paṭala* XLV (see under *Mālikā*), it is named *Mālikā-(lakshaṇa)* and does not mean anything but *Prāsāda: cf. Prāsāda-vyāsa-dīrghochchā proktā prāsāda-mālikā* (11, 4).

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*Paṭala* XLV— Further classifications—
(1) Saṁchita, Apasaṁchita, and Upasaṁchita (v. 6).
(2) Nāgara (vv. 6, 12, 13), Drāviḍa (vv. 6, 14, 15), and Vesara (vv. 7, 16, 18).
(3) Jāti (vv. 7, 19), Chhanda (vv. 7–20), and Vikalpa (vv. 7–20).
(4) Śuddha (vv. 7, 21), Miśra (vv. 7, 22), and Saṁkīrṇa (vv. 7, 22).
(5) Puṁ-liṅga, or masculine, also called Saṁchita (vv. 8, 9), Strīliṅga, or feminine (vv. 9, 10), and Napuṁsaka, or neuter (vv. 11).

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This class (5) does not refer (like the *Mānasāra*) to the sexes of the deities. Here they appear more like residential buildings; their characteristic features are determined by architectural details. The distinguishing marks of the divisions in the other four classes (1 to 4) are similar to those of the *Mānasāra* noticed above.

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In *Paṭala* XXXV, Śālās, in almost the sense of Prāsāda, are divided into five classes: Sarvatobhadra (vv. 87, 88), Vardhamāna (vv. 87, 88), Svastika (vv. 87, 89), Nandyāvarta (vv. 87, 90), and Charuka (vv. 87, 91).

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Their technical names²—
(1) Sindhuka (XLV, vv. 23–28), (2) Saṁpūrṇa (vv. 29–30), (3) Merukūṭa (v. 31), (4) Kshema (vv. 32–34), (5) Śiva (vv. 35–38), (6)

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² For further details, see the writer's *Encyclopaedia* under these terms and *Mālikā*.

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Harmya (vv. 39-40), (7) Saumya (v. 40), (8) Viśāla (v. 41), (9) Sarvakalyāṇa (vv. 43-49), (10) Vijaya (v. 50), (11) Bhadra (v. 51), (12) Raṅgamukha (v. 52), (13) Alpa (vv. 53-54), (14) Koṇa (vv. 55-58), (15) Geya (vv. 58*a*-59), (16) Sāra (v. 60), (17) Pushkara (vv. 61, 63), (18) Adbhuta (v. 61*a*), (19) Saṁkīrṇa (62), and (20) Daṇḍa (v. 64).

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8. The *Suprabhedāgama, Paṭala* XXXI (named Prāsāda)— Three styles of temples—Nāgara, Drāviḍa, and Vesara (vv. 38-39). Different kinds of temples—(1) Kailāśa, (2) Mandara, (3) Meru, (4) Himavat, (5) Nishadha (also called Nilaparvata, Mahendra), (6) Nalinaka, (7) Pralinaka, (8) Nandyāvarta, (9) Śrivarta (? Śrīpada), and (10) Parvata (vv. 40-52).

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Maṇḍapas are first divided into four classes— Deva-maṇḍapa, Snapana (bath)-maṇḍapa, Vṛisha (bull)-, Nandi-maṇḍapa, and Nṛitta (music)-maṇḍapa (vv. 96-97, 98-99) ; and further classified under epithets, Nandavṛitta, Śriyāvṛitta, Vīrāsana, Jayabhadra, Nandyāvarta, Maṇibhadra, and Viśāla (vv. 110-104).

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The attention of readers is invited to the lists of the buildings described in the eight works under observation.

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The list in the *Mānasāra* contains in 12 classes (storeys) 98 types of buildings ; the *Agni-Purāṇa* has in five classes (or divisions) 45 types ; the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa* also has in the same five classes (or divisions) the same 45 types ; the *Matsya-Purāṇa* has in three divisions 20 types ; the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa* has left out the broader divisions but contains the twenty types ; the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* in the very same way contains the twenty types ; the *Kāmikāgama* has in three divisions (of various kinds) twenty types ; and the *Suprabhedāgama* has left out all the minor divisions, but preserves the most important one, namely, the three styles (Nāgara, Vesara, Drāviḍa), which comprise ten types of buildings.

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The various broader divisions, such as Śuddha, Saṁchita, Sthānaka, Jāti, Puṁliṅga, etc., we have seen in the *Mānasāra*, are repeated in the same terms and same sense as in the *Āgamas*. The most important division into the styles—the Nāgara, Vesara, and Drāviḍa—is also preserved intact in the latter works. These are purely architectural divisions, and they are not taken into consideration in the non-architectural treatises like the *Purāṇas* and the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*. Even the broadest division into storeys, under which the *Mānasāra* describes the buildings in 12 or 13 chapters, has lost its prominence in the latter works.

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Thus the *Mānasāra* has the largest number of the types, namely, 98. The *Agni-Purāṇa* and the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa* have 45 types each. The *Matsya-Purāṇa*, the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, and the *Kāmikāgama* have twenty types each. The *Spurabhedāgama* has the smallest number of types, namely ten.

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The technical names of these types of buildings are, as we have seen above, common in many cases. We have also seen that in some instances the architectural details are identical. The lists of the *Agni-Purāṇa* and the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa* on the one hand, and the *Matsya-Purāṇa* the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*, and the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* on the other, are strikingly similar. Of the works containing the lists of twenty types, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* has the best description. In respect of brevity, explicitness, and precision, the *Suprabhedāgama*, which contains the smallest number of types, surpasses all; and it happens that the smaller the types the better the description.

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The common names of the types, the identity of their details, and the similarity in the description may not be accidental. The grades in the linguistic style and in the explicitness and precision of the description do not seem unconnected; while the variations in the number of types of buildings treated in these works also may not be meaningless. Before hazarding an opinion, it will be better to compare some of the other important points of similarity between the *Mānasāra* and the architectural portions of other works.

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Amongst others, the three crucial features in architecture, at least so far as these ancient records are concerned, seem to be the measurement, the orders or columns, and the styles. Similarities in these respects are hardly accidental and may be ascribed to a common origin.

The Measurements

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(A) The linear measurement is divided into six kinds¹ :
(1) *Māna*, (2) *Pramāṇa*, (3) *Parimāṇa*, (4) *Lamba-māna*, (5) *Unmāna*, and (6) *Upamāna* (*M.*, LV, 3–9).

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¹ Measurement from the foot to the top of the head is called *Māna* (which is nothing but height); *Pramāṇa* is the measurement of breadth; *Parimāṇa* is the measurement of width or circumference (*paritaḥ*); *Lamba-māna* is the measurement by the plumb-lines or the lines drawn perpendicularly through different parts of the body, the *māna* or the measurement of height being taken by the surface of the body; *Unmāna* is the measurement of thickness (*nimna*) or diameter; *Upamāna* is the measurement of interspace (*antara*), such as that between the two feet of an image. *Parimāṇa*, *unmāna*, and *māna* are also mentioned in the *Śukra-nīti* (I, 310), but their meanings are not quite clear.

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References to these measurements are met with, also, in non-architectural treatises, like the *Matsya-Purāṇa* (Chapter CCLVIII, verse 16) the *Suprobhedāgama* (*Paṭala* XXXIV, verse, 35), as well as in the *Bimbamāna* (British Museum, MSS. 658, 5292, verse 9).

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(B) The primary measurement (*ādimāna*) refers to comparative measurements and is divided into nine kinds.

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The height of an image is determined by comparing it with the
(1) breadth of the main temple,
(2) height of the adytum,
(3) length of the door,
(4) measurement of the basement,
(5) cubit,
(6) *tāla*,
(7) *aṅgula*,
(8) height of the worshipper, and
(9) height of the riding animal (*M.*, LV, 10–15).

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Each of the measurements is again divided into nine kinds (*M.*, LV, 22).

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Under (1), (2), (3), and (4), the proportions naturally vary on various occasions, but the general methods are similar in these treatises; compare for instances the *Suprabhedāgama* (XXXI, vv. –15).

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The *aṅgula* (finger-breadth) and the *hasta* (cubit), (7) and (5), measures are in fact of the same class. The finger-breadth, equivalent to 3/4 inch, is perhaps the earliest unit of measurement invented by human brain. Though not liable to being lost in the course of time, it has its own defects, namely, the finger of two persons is hardly of equal breadth and the finger of a person is liable to change owing to various natural causes. Apparently with a view to avoiding these defects, finger-breadth is ascertained by the measures of certain other objects, atom, car-dust, hair-end, nit, louse, and barley corn.¹ The largest size of finger-breadth is stated to be equal to 8 barley corns, the intermediate 7 barley corns, and the smallest 6 barley corns. Again, for the same purpose, this standard measure is divided into three kinds—*mānāṅgula*, *mātrāṅgula*, and *dehalabdhāṅgula*. Of these, *mānāṅgula*, which is equal to 8 barley corns, is meant to be the unit proper. *Mātrāṅgula* is the measure taken by the middle finger of the master who makes an image (or a building), *dehalabdhāṅgula* is the measure equal to one of the equal parts into which the whole height of a statute is divided for sculptural measurements.²

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¹ 8 atoms = 1 car-dust. 8 car-dusts = 1 hair-end. 8 hair-ends = 1 nit. 8 nits = 1 louse. 8 lice = 1 barley corn. 8 barley corns = 1 *aṅgula*.

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² For further details, *see* the writer's *Encyclopaedia* under *Aṅgula*.

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This *aṅgula* measure is practically the same in almost all the Indian works bearing upon measurement, for instance :
(1) *Mānasāra* (II, 40-45, 46-47, 48-52, 53-64, LXIV, 19-53, etc.).
(2) *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* (LVIII, 1-2).
(3) *Siddhānta-śiromaṇi*, ed. Bāpūdeva (p. 52).
(4) *Rāja-vallabha-Maṇḍana*, ed. Bhārati (Introduction).
(5) *Brahmāṇḍa-Purāṇa* (Part I, section 2, Chapter VII).
(6) *Matsya-Purāṇa* (Chapter CCLVIII, verses 17-18).
(7) *Vāstu-vidyā*, ed. Gaṇapati Sāstri (I, 3-5f).
(8) *Bimbamāna* (British Museum, MS. no. 558, 5292, verse 9f).
(9) *Suprabhedāgama* (XX, 1-9, 10-16, 20-26, etc.).
(10) *Kauṭilīya-Artha-śāstra*, ed. Shama Sastri (p. 106). Compare also :
(11) *Manu-saṁhitā* (VIII, 271).
(12) *Rāmāyaṇa* (VI, 20, 22).
(13) *Śata-patha-Brāhmaṇa* (X, 2, 13, III, 5, 4, 5).
(14) *Aitareya-Brāhmaṇa* (VIII, 5).

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(15) *Chhāndogya-Upanishad* (V, 18, 1, etc).
(16) *Śulva-Sūtra of Baudhāyana* (*J. R. A. S.*, 1912, pp. 231–233, notes 1, 2).

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The *tāla-māna* (under 6) is a sculptural measure. The length of face is taken as the unit of measurement.¹ But it seems more convenient to have the particular span, namely, the distance between the tips of the fully stretched thumb and middle finger, which is technically called *tāla*, as the unit.² It admits of many varieties : ten-*tāla* measures are mentioned in the *Mānasāra*,³ while the *Bimbamāna* has reference to twelve kinds.⁴ Each of these ten or twelve varieties is again divided into three types, namely, *uttama* or large, *madhyama* or intermediate, and *adhama* or small. Thus an image is of the ten-(*daśa*) *tāla* measure when its whole length is ten times the face. In the large type of the ten-*tāla* system, however, the whole length is divided into 124 equal parts, which are proportionately distributed over the different parts of the body ; in the intermediate type the whole length is divided into 120 equal parts ; and in the small type into 116 equal parts. In the nine-(*nava*) *tāla* system, the whole length would be nine times the face, in the eight-(*ashṭa*)-*tāla*, eight times, and so forth.

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¹ *Matsya-Purāṇa*, Chap. CCLVIII, verse 19 : *Mukhamānena kartavyā sarvāvayava-kalpanā.*

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² *Aṁśumadbheda* of Kāśyapa, fol. 251. (MS. Egg., 3148, 3012).

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³ One to ten *tāla* (*M.*, LX, 6–35, etc.).

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⁴ One to twelve *tāla* (Appendix).

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The principle of the *tāla* measure is fundamentally the same in all the works dealing with the subject, although certain differences in matters of details are noticed, compare for instance :
(1) *Mānasāra* (LX, 6–35 ; LVII, LIX, 14–64 ; 67–100 ; LXVI, 2–78 ; LXV, 2–179).
(2) *Bimbamāna* (verses 17–72, 91–138, and Appendix X).
(3) *Suprabhedāgama* (XXXIV, 30–34 ; XXX, 31–40).
(4) *Brihat-saṁhitā* (LVIII, 4).
(5) *Aṁśumadbheda* of Kāśyapa (fol. 251, Eg. 3148, 3012).
(6) *Bramhāṇḍa-Purāṇa* (Part I, *Anushanga-pāda*, VII, 97).
(7) *Matsya-Purāṇa* (Chapter CCLVIII, verse 19).

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The details of the *tāla* measures from the following authorities are given by Mr. Rao⁵ :
(8) *Śilpa-ratna*.

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⁵ *Elements of Hindu Iconography*, by T. A. Gopīnāth Rāo, Appendix B, pp. 9–28.

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(9) *Aṁśumad-bhedāgama*.
(10) *Kā(?ki)raṇāgama*.
(11) *Vaikhānasāgama*.
(12) *Kāmikāgama*.

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Another exclusively sculptural measure is that mentioned under (8), (9), namely, the height of an image as compared with the height of the worshipper (*yajamāna*), and the height of the riding animal (*vāhana*) as compared with the height of the main idol. Each of these admits of nine varieties. The height of an image may be equal to the full height of its worshipper, and may extend up to his hair-limit on the forehead (sometimes it is stated to be the eye-line), nose-tip, chin, arm-limit to the shoulder, breast, heart, navel, and sex organ. The height of the riding animal is in the same manner compared with the height of the main idol.¹

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¹ *Mānasāra*, LV, 30–33, etc.

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Corresponding to the above-mentioned sculptural measures there are exclusively architectural measures also.

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The architectural *gaṇya-māna*,² or the comparative heights of the component members of a structure, correspond to the sculptural *tāla-māna*, or the comparative heights of the component limbs of a statue.

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² See the writer’s *Encyclopaedia*; and compare the *Mānasāra*, XXVII, 36–40; XXIX, 35–38; XXXIII, 134–145, 216-217, 248; XLV, 86, 97–101; LIII, 29–34; XIII, 36–40, etc.

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The *ghana-māna*, or the measurement by the exterior, and the *aghana-māna*, or the measurement by the interior of a structure, are also exclusively architectural.³

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³ See the writer’s *Encyclopaedia*, *sub voce*.

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In another architectural measure the height of a structure is compared with its breadth. It admits of five proportions, technically called, *Sāntika*, *Paushtika*, *Jayada*, *Sarva-kāmika* or *Dhanada*, and *Adbhuta*, the height being respectively equal to breadth, 1¼, 1½, 1¾, and twice of the breadth.⁴

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⁴ See the writer’s *Encyclopaedia*, under *Utsedha*. When a large number of absolute measures are prescribed for the one and the same object, the right proportion is selected by the test for the six formulas technically called, *āya*, *vyaya*, *riksha*, *yoni*, *vāra*, and *tithi* or *aṁśa* (see details in the writer's *Encyclopaedia* under *Shaḍ-varga*).

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These latter items, highly technical and extremely minute in detail, are found in no other treatise under observation than the *Mānasāra*. Thus in respect of at least purely architectural and sculptural measurements the *Mānasāra*, of all these works, should occupy the first place.

The Five Orders

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Like the five Græco-Roman orders, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite, columns in ancient India also were divided into five main orders or classes. In the *Mānasāra*¹ they are called *Brahma-kānta*,² *Vishṇu-kānta*, *Rudra-kānta*, *Śiva-kānta*, and *Skanda-kānta*. These divisions are based on the general shapes of columns. With respect to dimensions and ornaments the five orders are called *Chitra-karṇa*, *Padma-kānta*, *Chitra-skambha*, *Pālikā-stambha*, and *Kumbhastambha*. A sixth variety in the latter division is pilaster and not pillar proper, and is called *Koshṭha-stambha* and *Kuḍya-stambha*.³

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¹ Chapter XV, 20–23, 31, 39, 40, 73, 204.

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² Also mentioned in *Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum*, Vol. III, p. 252, 253, *Epigraphia Indica*, XII, pp. 212, 216 verse 151.

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³ *Mānasāra*, XV, 84.

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Among the *Purāṇas*, these details are very clear only in the *Matsya-Purāṇa*. In this *Purāṇa*,⁴ as well as in the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*,⁵ the five orders are called *Ruchaka*, *Vajra*, *Dvi-vajra*, *Pralīnaka*, and *Vṛitta*.

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⁴ *Matsya-Purāṇa*, Chap. CCLX, vv. 1–6.

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⁵ *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, LIII, 27–30, also *J. R. A. S.* (N. S.), VI, p. 285, notes 1, 2.

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Of the *Āgamas*,⁶ the *Suprabhedāgama* contains the essential details. The names of the five orders according to this *Āgama*⁷ are *Śrī-kara*, *Chandra-kānta*, *Saumukhya*, *Priya-darśana*, and *Śubhaṅkarī*; the last one is stated to be the Indian composite order, being a compound of *Saumukhya* and *Priya-darśana*, just as the Græco-Roman composite order is a compound of Corinthian and Ionic.

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⁶ *See*, for instance, the *Kāmikāgama*, Paṭala XXXV, 24–26, 161, LV, 203, etc.

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⁷ *Suprabhedāgama*, Paṭala XXXI, 65–67.

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Between the European and the Indian columns, however, there is obviously a striking point of difference. Of the Græco-Roman orders the five names have been left unchanged, while in India the names of the five orders have varied in various treatises referred to above. It is true, all the same, that the criteria of divisions are essentially the same in the *Mānasāra*, the *Āgamas*, the *Purāṇas*, and the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*.⁸ We have also seen above that the *Mānasāra* contains two sets of names of the five orders, one set referring, like the *Āgamas*, the *Purāṇas*, and the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, to the shapes of the columns, or more precisely the shafts, while the other refers mostly to the capitals. The works, other than the *Vāstu-śāstras*, as represented by the *Mānasāra*, have not kept this distinction clear. What we can reasonably infer from this as regards the mutual relation of these treatises will be further elucidated by a consideration of the component parts of the column. The question of variation of the names of the five orders in the Indian works can perhaps be explained. While in Europe the origin of the names of the five orders is traced to historical geography,¹ in India the names were based on the shapes of columns. And as the Indians are comparatively religious and poetical, rather than historical in temperament and imagination, they chose mythological and poetical names according to the spirit of the times when these various works were composed. Thus in the *Mānasāra* we see the orders bearing the names of mythological deities, Brahmā, Vishṇu, Rudra, Śiva, and Skanda; as well as called *Chitra-karṇa* (variegated ears), *Padma-kānta* (graceful like lotus), *Chitra-skambha* (of variegated shaft), *Pālikā-stambha* (edged like a measuring pot), and *Kumbha-stambha* (of jug-shaped capital); while, in the Āgama, they bear highly poetical names: *Śrī-kara* (beautifying), *Chandra-kānta* (graceful like the moon), *Saumukhya* (of very charming face), *Priya-darśana* (sight-pleasing), *Śubhaṅkarī* (auspicious). In the *Purāṇas* and the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* they are called *Ruchaka* (beautiful, pleasing), *Vajra* (club, hence lasting), *Dvi-vajra* (doubly lasting), *Pralīnaka* (firmly attached, hence a pilaster), and *Vṛitta* (round, hence solid and dignified).

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⁸ *See* references given above, and for further details consult the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under Stambha.

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¹ Doric is derived from the species of columns first seen in the cities of Doria (*Vitruvius*, IV, 1). That species of which the Ionians (inhabitants of Ionia) were the inventors has received the appellation of Ionic (*ibid*). Callimachus constructed columns after the model of the tomb in the country about Corinth, hence this species is called Corinthian (*ibid*). The other two orders, Tuscan and Composite, are of Italian or Roman origin. The Tuscan order has reference to the country of Tuscany, formerly called Etruria, in Italy (Gwilt, *Encyclopaedia of Architecture*, article 178).

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With regard to the names and the functions of the component parts of the column, the variation is a little less marked; but these subservient parts, called mouldings and common to all orders, vary in number. Thus in the *Mānasāra*, which of almost all the treatises deals separately and exhaustively with the pedestal, the base, and the entablature, mention is made, in connexion with the pillar, of five mouldings,² apparently of the shaft, namely, *bodhikā*, *mushṭi-bandha*, *phalakā*, *tāṭikā*, and *ghaṭa*. The *Suprabhedāgama* describes two sets of seven mouldings,¹ one set referring to the column of the main building and the other to that of the pavilion—*daṇḍa*, *maṇḍi*, *kaṇṭha*, *kumbha*, *phalakā*, *vīra-kaṇṭha*, and *potikā*; and *bodhikā*, *uttara*, *vājana*, *mūrdhikā tulā jayantī*, and *tala*. These increasing number of mouldings reached the significant number of eight in the *Matsya-Purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, and the *Kiraṇa-tantra*, and bear the very same eight names,² to wit, *vahana*, *ghaṭa*, *padma*, *uttaroshṭha*, *bāhulya*, *bhāra* (or *hāra*), *tulā*, and *upatulā*.

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² *Mānasāra*, XLVII, 16–18.

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¹ *Suprabhedāgama*, Paṭala XXXI, 56–60, 107–108.

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² *Matsya-Purāṇa*, Chap. CCLV, 1–6f, *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, LIII, 29–30, *Kiraṇa-tantra*, *J. R. A. S.* (N. S.), VI, 285, notes 1, 2.

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The significance of the number eight referred to above lies in the fact that the component parts of the Græco-Roman orders also are eight in number,³ and like the five orders themselves, their names are always the same ever since their introduction, though most of them have been given more than one name. They are called: (1) the ovolo, echinus, or quarter round; (2) the talon, ogée, or reversed cyma; (3) the cyma, cyma-recta, or cyma-tium; (4) the torus; (5) the scotia or trochilos; (6) the cavetto, mouth, or hollow; (7) the astragal; and (8) the fillet, listel, or annulet.

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³ See figures 867–874 and articles 2532, Gwilt, *Encyclopaedia of Architecture*, and *Glossary of Architectural Terms*, plate XXXIV.

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The *Mānasāra* refers to five mouldings; the *Suprabhedāgama* describes seven; and the *Matsya-Purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, and *Kiraṇa-tantra* each makes mention of eight mouldings. But if the very large number of mouldings,⁴ described in the *Mānasāra* in connexion with the pedestal, the base, and the entablature, be also taken into account, the *Mānasāra* will certainly exceed all other treatises under notice. Thus in the *Mānasāra* we can detect the following mouldings⁵: (1) *abja*, *ambuja*, *padma* or *saroruha* (cyma); (2) *antara*,

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⁴ See the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Upapīṭha*, *Adhishṭhāna* and *Prastara*.

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⁵ There are mouldings which bear a large number of names or synonyms, e.g.:

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(i) *Kapota*, *prastara*, *mañcha*, *prachchhādana*, *gopāna*, *vitāna*, *balabhī*, and *matta-vāraṇa*.
(ii) *Prati-prastara*, *prati-vājana*, *anvanta*, *avasāna*, *vidhāna* and *vidhānaka*.
(iii) *Prati-rūpa*, *dalākāra*, *vījana*, *vājana*, *kshepaṇa*, *vetra*, *paṭṭa*, *uttara*, *paṭṭikā*, *kampa*, *trika*, *maṇḍa*, and *antarita*.
(iv) *Tulā-daṇḍa*, *jayantī* and *phalakā*.
(v) *Kapota*, *vakra-hasta*, *lupā*, *gopānaka* and *chandra*.
(vi) *Saṁgraha*, *mushṭi-bandha*, *maddala*, *uddhṛita-hasta*, *valabhī* and *dhāraṇa*.
(vii) *Nāṭaka*, *anta*, *mṛiṇālikā*, *vallikā*, *chitrāṅga* and *kulikāṅghrika*.
(viii) *Uttara*, *vājana*, *ādhāra*, *ādheya*, *śayana*, *uddhṛita*, *mūrdhaka*, *mahātaulī* and *svavaṁśaka*

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*antarita*, *antarāla* or *antarika* (fillet) ; (3) *aṅghri* ; (4) *aṁśu* ; (5) *argala* ; (6) *ādhāra* ; (7) *āliṅga* ; (8) *āsana* ; (9) *bhadra* ; (10) *bodhikā* ; (11) *dala* ; (12) *dhārā-(kumbha)* ; (13) *gala*, *grīva*, *kaṇṭha* or *kandhara* (dado) ; (14) *ghaṭa* ; (15) *gopāna-(ka)* ; (16) *hāra* (bead) ; (17) *janman* (plinth) ; (18) *kapota* ; (19) *kampa*, *kampana* (fillet) ; (20) *karṇa* ; (21) *kumbha* ; (22) *kumuda* (torus or astragal) ; (23) *kendra* ; (24) *kshepaṇa* ; (25) *mushṭi-bandha* ; (26) *mūla* ; (27) *mṛiṇāla* or *mṛiṇālikā* ; (28) *nāṭaka* ; (29) *nāsī* ; (30) *nimna* (drip) (31) *paṭṭa* or *paṭṭikā* (fillet) ; (32) *prati* or *pratika* ; (33) *prati-vakra* ; (34) *prati-vājana* ; (35) *prati-bandha* ; (36) *pratima* ; (37) *pāduka* ; (38) *prastara* ; (39) *phalakā* ; (40) *ratna*, compounded with *kampa*, *paṭṭa*, and *vapra* ; (41) *tāṭikā* ; (42) *tuṅga* ; *uttara* (fillet) ; (44) *upāna* (plinth) ; (45) *vapra* or *vapraka* ; (46) *valabha* or *valabhī* ; and (47) *vājana* (fillet).

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There are a number of compound mouldings also, such as *kampa-karṇa*, *karṇa-padma*, *kshudra-kampa*, *kshudra-padma*, *kshepaṇāmbuja*, *mahāmbuja*, *padma-kampa*, *ratna-kampa*, *ratnapaṭṭa*, *ratna-vapra*, *vajra-paṭṭa*, etc.

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Again, of all these treatises, only the *Mānasāra* and the *Āgamas* refer to certain highly technical and purely architectural matters. Thus in the *Mānasāra* we find the measurements and other details of 64 varieties of bases divided into nineteen classes,¹ called (1) *pāda-bandha*, (2) *uraga-bandha*, (3) *prati-krama*, (4) *kumuda-bandha*, (5) *padma-kesara*, (6) *pushpa-pushkala*, (7) *śrī-bandha*, (8) *mañcha-bandha*, (9) *śreṇī-bandha*, (10) *padma-bandha*, (11) *kumbha-bandha*, (12) *vapra-bandha*, (13) *vajra-bandha*, (14) *śrī-bhoga*, (15) *ratna-bandha*, (16) *paṭṭa-bandha*, (17) *kukshi-bandha*, (18) *kampa-bandha*, and (19) *śrī-kānta*.

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¹ *Mānasāra*, XIV, 11–387. See details in the writer’s *Encyclopaedia*, under *Adhishṭhāna*.

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In the *Suprabhedāgama* only four classes² of bases are mentioned, namely, *padma-bandha*, *chāru-bandha*, *pāda-bandha*, and *prati-krama*. The *Kāmikāgama* has only the general description of the base.³

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² *Suprabhedāgama*, XXXI, 17 f.

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³ *Kāmikāgama*, XXXV, 22, 23, 114, 116, 122, LV, 202.

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In the *Mānasāra* sixteen types of pedestals are described in detail under three classes,⁴ namely, *vedi-bhadra*, *prati-bhadra*, and *mañcha-bhadra*.

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⁴ *Mānasāra*, XIII, 37–127. See details in the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Upapīṭha*.

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Only scanty information of the pedestal is found in the *Kāmikāgama*,¹ the *Suprabhedāgama*,² and a Tāmil version of the *Mayamata*.³

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¹ Paṭala XXXV, 115, 122.

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² Paṭala XXXI, 12.

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³ *Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus*, Rām Rāz, pp. 23, 26.

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As regards the entablature, various mouldings and their measurements are described under eight classes in the *Mānasāra*.⁴ The *Kāmikāgama*,⁵ the *Suprabhedāgama*,⁶ and the *Vāstuvidyā*⁷ have only briefly referred to the general description of the entablature.

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⁴ Chapter XVI, 22–149. *See* details in the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Prastara*.

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⁵ XXXV, 27–29, LIV, 1–4, 7-8, 9–46, 47.

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⁶ XXXI, 68–71, 72–74.

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⁷ Ed. Ganapati Śāstrī, IX, 23, 26.

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The comparative measurements of the column proper and the pedestal, the base, and the entablature, are also given in more detail in the *Mānasāra* than in the *Āgamas* and some of the architectural treatises.⁸

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⁸ *See* details in the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Stambha*, *Upapīṭha*, *Adhiṣṭhāna* and *Prastara*.

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Thus in respect of the names of columns, the number of their subservient parts called mouldings, and also the base, the pedestal and the entablature, as well as their comparative measurements, the *Mānasāra* will always occupy the first place among all the treatises under observation.

The Three Styles

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The style is also a technical and purely architectural subject. Thus it is not dealt with in the *Purāṇas*, not to speak of the epics or other poetical works where, as shown above, casual references to architecture and sculpture are met with. In some of the epigraphical documents and the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* mention of the styles is occasionally made. The *Āgamas* contain a little more detail, while in the *Mānasāra* the subject is exhaustively treated.

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The *Nāgara*, *Vesara*, and *Drāviḍa* are the three broad styles distinguished in the *Mānasāra*.¹ They are applied to both architecture² and sculpture.³ With reference to the construction of cars or chariots a fourth style is mentioned.⁴ This is called *Randhra*, which seems to be a corrupt form of *Andhra*. In an epigraphical record,⁵ *Kaliṅga* is mentioned as a distinct style of architecture. But if the identification of *Vesara* with Telugu or *Tri-Kaliṅga* be accepted, the *Kāliṅga* and the *Andhra* would be the two branches of the *Vesara* style. In the case of twelve-storeyed buildings, which are the most magnificent and imposing edifices as described, twelve special types, not necessarily the styles, of residential dwellings are also mentioned in the *Mānasāra*.⁶ All these names are geographical, implying the twelve provinces into which the then India was divided architecturally, if not also politically. And these types are distinctly based on geographical divisions, in exactly the same way as the three styles, the *Nāgara*, *Vesara* and *Drāviḍa*, as also the two branches of the *Vesara*, the *Kāliṅga* and *Āndhra*, are based. The Græco-Roman orders, on which the European styles of architecture are mainly based, are also but geographical names.¹

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¹ *Mānasāra*, XVIII, 92–104. The *Nāgara* style is distinguished by its quadrangular shape, the *Vesara* by its octagonal or hexagonal shape, and the *Drāviḍa* by its round shape. For details, *see* pp. 258–259 and the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Nāgara*.

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² *Mānasāra*, LIII, 53–54; XXI, 72–73; XXVI, 76; XLIII, 124–125, etc.

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³ *Mānasāra*, LII, 78, 100; LIII, 46–47, etc.

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⁴ *Mānasāra*, XLIII, 124–125.

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⁵ In the record itself, it is, however, stated that the *Nāgara*, *Vesara*, *Drāviḍa*, and *Kāliṅga* are four types, not styles, of buildings. (An inscription on the capital of a pillar in the Amṛiteśvara temple at Holal, Government of Madras G. O. no. 1260, August, 1915, Progress Report of the Assistant Superintendent for Epigraphy, Southern Circle, 1914–15, p. 90.)

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⁶ *Pāñchāla*, *Drāviḍa*, *Madhyakānta*, *Kāliṅga*, *Va(Vi)rāṭa*, *Kerala*, *Vaṁśaka*, *Māgadha*, *Janaka* and *Sphū(Gur)jaka* (*Mānasāra*, XXX, 5–7). We have seen in the previous section ninety-eight kinds of mansions are described in the *Mānasāra*. In the above-mentioned Holal inscription a reference is made to sixty-four kinds of mansions.

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¹ See p. 202 and footnote 7.

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In the *Kāmikāgama*, as well as in the *Suprabhedāgama*, frequent references to the three broad styles, the *Nāgara*, *Vesara*, and *Drāviḍa*, are made.²

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² *Kāmikāgama*, LXV, 6–7, 12–18, etc., *Suprabhedāgama*, XXXI, 37–39, etc.

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The distinguishing features of these styles are practically exactly the same in all the three works, namely, the *Mānasāra*, the *Kāmikāgama*, and the *Suprabhedāgama*.³ The *Āndhra* and the *Kāliṅga* branches of the *Vesara* style are not mentioned in the Āgamas. But we have seen that the *Kāmikāgama*, like the *Matsya-Purāṇa*, the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*, and the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, describes twenty kinds of mansions, while the *Suprabhedāgama* has reference to ten kinds. These varieties of buildings, as also the sixty-four kinds mentioned in the Holal inscription, and the ninety-eight kinds described in the *Mānasāra*, do not, however, represent the styles which fall only under three broad divisions, namely, the *Nāgara*, *Vesara*, and *Drāviḍa*.

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³ For details, see the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Nāgara*.

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In the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*,⁴ clear mention is made only of the *Drāviḍa* style in regard to the measurement of the face, although the other styles may be said to have been implied. It is stated that according to one's own *aṅgula* (finger's breadth) the face (of an image) should be twelve *aṅgulas* (nine inches) broad and long; but as stated by the architect Nagnajit the face should be twelve *aṅgulas* long and fourteen *aṅgulas* broad in the *Drāviḍa* style. Obviously, therefore, the former measurement refers to other existing styles or those which are not specified here.

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⁴ Chapter LVIII, 4.

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In regard to the styles also, therefore, the *Mānasāra* must be undoubtedly given the first place amongst all these works which for the purpose of the present item of comparison comprise practically the Āgamas.

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In the light of all these facts—merely to deal with the question in its aspects as they concern the *Mānasāra*—it seems to me impossible to resist the following conclusion. There appears to have been a relation of indebtedness between the *Mānasāra* and the other works, both architectural and non-architectural. Except in a few instances noted above, it is, however, difficult to state definitely that the *Mānasāra* is the debtor or creditor to this or that work in respect of this or that matter. Most of the difficulties, it is needless to observe, hinge upon the chronology, which is the irritating point in the Sanskrit literature. If the chronology of the works discussed above were definitely known, it would have been easier to assume that the works earlier than the *Mānasāra* had been known to its author and those later than the *Mānasāra* had been influenced by it. Except in cases of support by archaeological records, epigraphical or non-epigraphical, the dates assigned to Sanskrit works are mostly but provisional. I have discussed elsewhere the available materials and the reasons which have induced me provisionally to place the *Mānasāra* somewhere in the fifth to seventh century of the Christian era. In view of the essential points of comparison and the accepted chronology of the works which have been critically studied by scholars, I should say that the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, and the later Āgamic and Paurāṇic works in respect of architectural and sculptural matters, as well as most of the avowedly architectural texts, are debtors to the *Mānasāra*; while it is a debtor itself in respect of the same matters to the Vedic and the early Epic works, as also to the early polytechnical treatises (like the *Kauṭilīya-Artha-śāstra* and the *Kāmandakīya*), and to the avowedly architectural works of the thirty-two authorities mentioned in the *Mānasāra*, which might have existed till its own time. Besides, it cannot but have been based on the actual observation and measurement of extant architectural and sculptural objects; in this matter lies the special importance of the *Mānasāra*.

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