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Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India c11: Chapter IV: Costumes and Ornaments

Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India c11

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Chapter IV: Costumes and Ornaments

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THE importance of Western Indian paintings does not only lie in the fact that they fill up a gap in the history of Indian painting between the wall-paintings of Ellura and the beginning of the Mughal school, but also in the fact that they throw considerable light on the life and culture of the people of Western India from the twelfth to sixteenth century. The artists, though considerably hampered in their expression owing to the restricted space of the palm-leaf, nevertheless, tried to give as many details as possible of the contemporary life, even sometimes at the cost of the composition. To quote one instance, we are aware of the ancient calico-printing industry of Gujarāt and the great demand of the printed fabrics of Gujarāt outside India from the 11th to 15th century. But beyond this scrappy information about such an important industry, we do not know anything about the technical processes involved and the favourite patterns used in this industry. All this ignorance is due to the fact that no printed calico has survived in India of this period due to climatic conditions. Happily, as we will have the occasion to refer later on, the examples of the mediaeval printed fabrics from Gujarāt preserved in the sand covered ruins of Fustāt, in the suburbs of Cairo, tell us a lot about the technical processes employed in printing, the lovely dyes and well-balanced patterns. From the Indian side, however, the only evidence of the patterns and dyes used in textile printing of those days is obtainable from the miniatures of Western India. If we compare the patterns obtained from this source with those obtained from Fustāt, we will be at once struck with the fact that Western Indian miniatures have preserved faithfully the contemporary patterns in calico-printing.

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Western Indian miniatures are also of great importance for the study of the Gujarātī costume from the 12th to 16th century. The contemporary sculpture of Gujarāt is highly stylised, and does not care to represent the contemporary costumes of the people with accuracy, but the contemporary painting, following the traditions of Ajaṇṭā and Ellura, has kept a faithful record of the costumes of Gujarāt. The miniatures also represent faithfully various fashions in wearing coiffure and ornaments, both by men and women. The restricted space, however, has precluded the representation of finer details. In this chapter we propose to deal with all the information which Western Indian miniatures provide us about the printed calicoes, costumes, ornaments and coiffures.

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Fig. 190

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Fig. 191

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Fig. 192

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Fig. 193

Printed Calico

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Before going into the details of the patterns used in the textile printing of Gujarāt it is necessary to know the outlines of the history of textile fabrics in Gujarāt and its export to foreign lands in ancient days. It is mentioned in the *Periplus of the Erythrean Sea* (1st cen. A.D.) that Broach was the principal port of India doing business with the Occident. Barygaza, Broach as was known to the Greeks, exported the best broad sort (called Monāche) and a coarse cotton (called Sagmatogene), probably used for stuffing and padding, and a third kind of coloured cloth dyed with a product of the Indian Hibiscus produced in Gujarāt.¹ It is mentioned that even at such a remote period the Gulf of Broach was difficult to navigate. But, in spite of all the difficulties of transport, such was the renown of Indian muslin that the Occident imported it, and there was a very good demand for it in the isles of Socotra and the ports of the Red Sea.²

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¹ Schoff, *Periplus of the Erythrean Sea*, pp. 72, 73, 179-180.

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² Dioskorides, 31, 6.

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In the Middle Ages the cotton industry of Gujarāt not only supplied the home demands but also exported a large surplus to the Far East and other Islamic countries. Chao-Ju-Kua, the inspector of foreign commerce in the port of Ts'iuan-chu (Fu Kien), gives a list of products from Western Asia, Africa and China.³ He mentions the cotton products of Malabar (which he takes to be the sea-coast from Nellore to Cambay),⁴ and multicoloured cotton goods from Gujarāt.⁵ All these fabrics are expressly mentioned in the lists of the indigenous products of each country; the word 'foreign' signifying the types different from those known in China.⁶ Nan-ni-hua-lo or Sindh⁷ produced white cotton goods, flowered or of pea green colour known as 'Chite' or 'chintz'. While speaking of the Persian Gulf, the author points out that every year, the Arab caravans brought for loading the boats fine cotton goods and red plants used for making red dye, which, according to the translator, was madder.⁸ Marcopolo who passed seventeen years (1275—1292 A.D.) in the service of the Mongol sovereign gives us some interesting information about Indian cotton goods in his voyage to India. In Chapter 177 he mentions that Malabar produced fine buckram. In Chapter 179, buckram, as the product of the Kingdom of Thānā (20 miles north-east of Bombay), is mentioned. The Kingdom of Cambay (Chap. 180) is said to have produced indigo in abundance; fine buckram was manufactured there, and the country exported lot of cotton.

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³ Chao-Ju-Kua, *His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the 12th and 13th centuries*, entitled *Chu-fan-chi*, translated by F. Hirth and W.W. Rockhill, St. Petersburg, 1912.

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⁴ *Ib.*, p. 83.

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⁵ *Ib.* p. 92.

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⁶ R. Pfister, *Les toiles imprimees de Fostatet l' Hindoustan*, p. 13, Paris, 1938.

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⁷ Chao-Ju-Kua, loc. cit., p. 98.

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⁸ *Ib.*, p. 134, fn. 2.

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The import of cotton and cotton goods was at its maximum under the southern Sung dynasty in the 11th and 12th centuries.⁹ We have a detailed account of the several voyages of the eunuch Cheng-Huo, which have come to us in two forms, the original given by Ma Huan, and a refacimento by Fei-Sin.¹⁰ Both the redactions say that in all the coastal districts of South Asia as well as in the islands, the printed cotton goods formed the most important item of export. Speaking of the Indian Coast, the account says that it was the Kingdom of Ku-li, stretching from Cochin in the south to Cannanore in the north, which produced a good deal of printed calicoes.¹¹ This Ku-li should then be Calicut, but the neighbouring country of K'an-pa-yi, according to M. Pelliot¹², could not be Cambay which lies much farther to the north, but Coimbatore. It, however, does not seem possible that Cheng-Huo, who made many voyages to Calicut, could never reach Cambay, the principal producer and exporter of cotton goods.

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⁹ W. W. Rockhill, *Notes on the relations and trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago and the coast of Indian Ocean during the fourteenth century*, Toung Pao, XV (1914), p. 419.

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¹⁰ These two redactions have been mixed up by W. W. Rockhill, *Toung Pao*, XVI (1915), p. 61, ff. The true state of affairs has been re-established by P. Pelliot, *Toung Pao*, XXX (1933), p. 237. The text of Ma-Huan merits more confidence than the other.

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¹¹ Rockhill, *Toung Pao*, 1915, p. 455.

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¹² *Toung Pao*, 1933, p. 410.

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We have good accounts of Indian commerce since the time the Portuguese opened the sea-route to India *via* the Cape of Good Hope. Before this discovery the Arabs and Persians had a complete monopoly of Indian trade with the countries of the Far East. They were the masters of the sea-routes passing through the Persian Gulf and South Arabia on the one hand, and, on the other, they were in the centre of the land routes which passed through Syria and Mesopotamia to India and China. The Venetian merchants were obliged to seek for Indian goods at Alexandria and other trading centres on the Mediterranean. The knowledge of the sources of the exotic products which the Venetian merchants desired was, however, kept hidden from them.

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It speaks very highly of the business zeal of the Portuguese that they penetrated the mysterious Orient as soon as the new sea-route was open to them. Duarte Barbosa started in about 1500 A.D., and spent sixteen years in India in the service of the Portuguese.¹³ Barbosa mentions the importance of Aden from where the Indian products were taken to Alexandria by caravans. A few years after Egypt fell to the Turks who already possessed Aleppo, the greatest emporium of the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese counteracted this by occupying Ormuz, but the trade with Alexandria still flourished. Barbosa talks about the great quantity of cotton goods, which Aden received from Cambay (Chap. 34), as also Zanzibar (Chap. 14). Thus Gujarāt, with Cambay as its principal port, was the chief exporter of cotton goods, but it was already under the Muslim rulers who were allied with the Turkish and Egyptian Sultans, the Portuguese found great difficulty in breaking the Muslim monopoly of the Oriental commerce. The population of Gujarāt was cosmopolitan, specially in the sea ports; Turks, Mamelukes (of Egypt), Persians (of the Gulf), and Khorasanis came to stay there from the sea or the north. These Moors of Cambay spoke various languages, Arabic, Turkish and Gujarātī¹⁴. They carried business transactions with rich Hindu merchants whom Barbosa calls gentios or gentils. Cambay was an ancient port touched by the boats sailing to the Occident even in the days of the Periplus, but Broach (Barygaza) on the river Narbadā was no longer a port; Barbosa like his predecessors speaks of the dangers of the Gulf for navigation.¹⁵ Later on, Cambay was abandoned for Surat, which in the course of time was eclipsed by Bombay.

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¹³ Mansel Longworth Dames, *The Book of Duarte Barbosa*, 2 vols., Lond. 1918. The first volume contains 1—87 chapters and the second from 88—127 chapters.

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¹⁴ Mansel Longworth Dames, The Book of Duarte

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¹⁵ Ib., I, p. 138. [Barbosa, Vol. I, p. 121.

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Fig. 194

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Fig. 195

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In the time of Barbosa, Cambay produced white cotton fabrics and also printed calicoes. Both the varieties were exported by sea to Arabia, Persia, other parts of India, Malacca, Sumatra, Meylindi, Magadoxo and Mombasa.¹⁶ Situated more to the south, Chaul (now abandoned) exported to Arabia and Persia good quality of muslin for turbans¹⁷. The other varieties of calico were bleached and then two pieces joined and printed. Barbosa also mentions Pulicat (Chap. 100) manufacturing great qualities of printed cotton very much in demand in Malacca, Pegu, Sumatra and in the kingdoms of Gujarāt and Malabar for making garments. Pegu was visited by a number of Muslim navigators who brought there good quantity of printed calico and multi-coloured silk goods from Cambay and Pulicat (Chap. 105). Siam also imported textile fabrics from Cambay (Chap. 109). The isles of Timor (Chap. 117), Banda (Chap. 118), Moluccas (Chap. 120), Celebes (Chap. 121) and China (Chap. 126) also received calico from Cambay and Pulicat.

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¹⁶ Ib., p. 154.

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¹⁷ Ib., I, p. 161.

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From the accounts of the travellers we get an impression that the sea coasts of India, since the beginning of the Christian era, were great exporters of cotton fabrics, and since the beginning of the 16th century the Muslim merchants of Persia and Arabia assured their distribution into the countries of the Near East, East African coast and China. Gradually, certain regions acquired the veritable monopoly of this export; Barbosa speaks of the predominance of two centres—Gujarāt with Cambay on the Western coast, and Pulicat on the Eastern coast of India.

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After the period with which we are concerned in this chapter, India became accessible to the Portuguese, the Dutch and the French, who set up their organisations in this country, and the cotton fabrics, which were very little known in Europe till then, and printed cloth, began to play an important role in the exports from India to the West.

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We have so far been taking notice of the plain or printed calico of Gujarāt and its export to different parts of Asia and Africa. The notices taken by the foreign travellers are, however, cryptic, and we are not told anything about the technical processes involved in weaving and printing. This ignorance about one of the oldest handicrafts of this country would have continued, had not two factors come to our rescue—the publication of Western Indian miniatures from the 12th to the 16th century, which have preserved in the treatment of the costumes the patterns employed in textile printing, and the discovery of a number of printed calico pieces from the sands of Fustāt, ably discussed and classified by R. Pfister in his work *Les toiles imprimees de Fostat et l'Hindoustan*. In this book the learned author has come to the conclusion that, of a very large number of printed calico pieces discovered at Fustāt, a very small part is of Egyptian origin, the rest being from India. The author himself admits the difficulties besetting such a pioneer study, because, firstly, India does not supply any textile fabric manufactured between the 12th and 16th centuries, and, secondly, because India had already, before the Muslim conquest, submitted to the influence of the neighbouring countries, such as Persia, Central Asia and China, and, in the art of printing, these foreign influences are much more pronounced than in the monumental art whose sacerdotal character resisted innovation. The textile patterns in the contemporary literature remain superficially touched. As we shall see later on such kind of painstaking research gives a chronological basis for the patterns used in the printed calicoes of Gujarāt from the 12th to 16th century.

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Roughly speaking, the patterns found in Western Indian miniatures may be divided into two parts: (1) the patterns found in the palm-leaf miniatures, dating roughly from 1100 to 1350 A.D., and (2) the patterns found in the palm-leaf miniatures from 1350 to 1450 A.D., and also in the miniatures on paper. There is, however, no great difference in the patterns of both periods.

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In the painted wooden book-covers, datable to the middle of the 12th century, the following patterns appear:—

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(1) Plain stripes with certain panels decorated with closely placed horizontal lines¹⁸ (Fig. 190).

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¹⁸ *Bhāratīya Vidyā* (Hindi-Guj.), III, Pl. *a*.

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(2) The field decorated with what appear to be tie-dyed patterns; the borders decorated with the zig-zag¹⁹ (Fig. 190).

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¹⁹ *Ib.*

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(3) In the *sārīs* of the womenfolk, the field is divided into a number of compartments some filled with closely placed horizontal stripes and spirals, criss-cross, zig-zag and closely assorted flowers ²⁰ (Fig. 209).

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²⁰ *Ib.*, Pl. *i*.

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(4) Cross stripes and the simple circles of the tie-dye (Fig. 210) ²¹.

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²¹ *Ib.*, Pls. *i-i*.

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In the palm-leaf manuscripts, dated 1171 A.D., the following interesting patterns appear on the *sārīs* of the sixteen Vidyādevīs:—

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(1) The field divided into compartments decorated with simple meanders (Fig. 211) ²².

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²² *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Fig. 16.

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(2) The field decorated with blocked squares on which fourleaved flowers appear (Fig. 212) ²³.

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²³ *Ib.*, Fig. 17.

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(3) Peacock feather design (Fig. 213)²⁴.

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²⁴ *Ib.*, Fig. 19.

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Fig. 196

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Fig. 197

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Fig. 198

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(4) Panels filled with denticular patterns and chevron (Fig. 214) 25.
(5) Rosettes, and small flowers with closely placed petals (Fig. 215) 26.
(6) Expanded lotuses with their pericarps; there is no rim (Fig. 216) 27.
(7) Rimmed rosette in a circle (Fig. 217) 28.
(8) Simple cross pattern (Fig. 218) 29.
(9) Zig-zag alternating with floral meander (Fig. 219) 30.
(10) Zig-zag alternating with solid lozenges (Fig. 220) 31.
(11) Tie-dyed circles with four petalled flowers (Fig. 221) 32.
(12) Denticles alternating with chevron (Fig. 222) 33.

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Patterns from the palm-leaf manuscript of the *Neminātha-charita* dated 1241 A.D.

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(1) Thick cross pattern (Fig. 223) 34.

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Pattern from the *Kalpasūtra*, dated 1279 A.D.

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(1) Stepped square pattern (Fig. 224) 35.

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Pattern from the *Kalpasūtra* dated 1372 A.D.

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(1) Geese pattern.—The blue *sārī* decorated with the rows of geese carrying what appear to be pearl necklaces in their beaks (Fig. 225) 36.

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The geese pattern was very favourite with the calico-printers of ancient India. In the *Kādambarī* (7th century) 37 white *dhotī* decorated with the geese pattern is mentioned. 38 In a communication to M. Pfister, 39 who discovered a printed calico piece from Fustāt, Dr. Coomaraswamy was inclined to give this pattern a northern or Gujarāt origin.

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(2) Delicate three petalled flowers in red on white ground. 40

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Patterns from the palm-leaf manuscript of the *Kalpasūtra* from Idar; end of the 14th century.

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(1) Dotted pattern (Fig. 226). 41
(2) Horizontal blue stripes alternating with the panels of dotted circles in red (Fig. 227). 42
(3) Cheques with the compartments filled with diamonds (Fig. 228). 43
(4) Chequered square blocks (Fig. 229). 44

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²⁵ *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Fig. 20.

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²⁶ *Ib.*, Fig. 22; *see also* Pfister, *loc.cit.*, Pls. VI and c.

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²⁷ *Ib.*, Fig. 23.

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²⁸ *Ib.*, Fig. 26.

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²⁹ *Ib.*, Fig. 28.

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³⁰ *Ib.*, Fig. 29.

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³¹ *Ib.*, Fig. 31.

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³² *Ib.*, Fig. 32.

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³³ *Ib.*, Fig. 34.

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³⁴ *Ib.*, Fig. 45.

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³⁵ *Ib.*, Fig. 49.

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³⁶ *Ib.*, Figs. 79, 184, 186, 191, 198.

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³⁷ *Kādambarī*, p. 19.

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³⁸ *Harshacharita*, p. 198. For further references see Dr. Coomaraswamy's article on *Hamsa-dukūla* sārī, in the Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin, Boston, June 1927.

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³⁹ Pfister *loc. cit.*, Pl. II, a, pp. 32-34.

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⁴⁰ *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Fig. 79.

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⁴¹ *Ib.*, Fig. 83.

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⁴² *Ib.*, Fig. 84.

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⁴³ *Ib.*, Figs. 86-89.

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⁴⁴ *Ib.*, Fig. 92.

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Patterns from the *Kalpasūtra* in the Dayāvimala collection; 15th century.
(1) Stylised flowers (Fig. 230).⁴⁵
(2) Rosettes; the interspaces filled with small four petalled flowers (Fig. 231).⁴⁶
(3) Arabesque (Fig. 232).⁴⁷
(4) Flowers with curled stems (Fig. 233).⁴⁸
(5) Solar symbol or sun-flower (Fig. 234).⁴⁹
(6) Panels of chevron alternating with denticles (Fig. 235).⁵⁰
(7) Cheques with compartments decorated with four petalled flowers (Fig. 236).⁵¹
(8) Appears like Chinese cloud pattern (Fig. 237).⁵²
(9) Arabesque and solar symbol (Fig. 238).⁵³

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⁴⁵ Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma, Fig. 117; see Pfister, loc. cit., Pl. IV-c.

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⁴⁶ Ib., bottom panel.

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⁴⁷ Ib., Fig. 119.

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⁴⁸ Ib., Fig. 120.

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⁴⁹ Ib., Fig. 122.

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⁵⁰ Ib., Fig. 129.

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⁵¹ Ib., Fig. 132.

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⁵² Ib., Fig. 141.

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⁵³ Ib., Fig. 140.

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Patterns from a *Kalpasūtra* of the 15th century.
(1) Compartments filled with arabesque and criss-cross (Fig. 239).⁵⁴
(2) Animals and birds pattern; the field divided into compartments filled with the figures of geese, elephants and horses (Fig. 240).⁵⁵
(3) Rosettes with the interspaces filled with stylised leaves (Fig. 241).⁵⁶

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⁵⁴ Ib., Fig. 196.

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⁵⁵ Ib., Fig. 1.

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⁵⁶ Ib., Fig. 187.

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Analysing the patterns described above, we find that the following motifs were common; plain stripes, denticles, tie-dyed circles, spirals, cheques, meanders, blocked squares, chevron, rosettes, lozenges, cross pattern, small flowers, dotted circles, stylised flowers, arabesques, wheel pattern and zig-zag. As the space at the disposal of the painters was limited, all the details of the contemporary textile patterns could not be represented. But whatever details they have given show that the craft of calico printing was very much developed.

Costume: Period I, A.D. 1100—1300

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Interesting details of the Gujarātī costumes and ornaments are preserved in Western Indian miniatures, which confirm the description of the costume of Gujarāt given by Ibn Haukal (11th century), Chao-Ju-Kua (12th century), and Duarte Barbosa (stayed in India from 1500—1516 A.D.). Ibn Haukal says⁵⁷ that the people of the Gulf of Cambay and Malabar coast wore *izār* and *mizār* after the fashion of the Muhamadans settled there. This costume acted as a guard against the extreme heat, and for that very reason it was adopted by the people of Multān. The merchants wore the respective costume of their countries. Chao-Ju-Kua⁵⁸ describes the costumes and ornaments of the 12th century Gujarātīs, both men and women as follows : “ Both men and women have double rings hanging down their ears ; they wear tight clothes, and are wrapped in plain cotton cloth ; they wear on their hair white hoods, and on their feet shoes of scarlet leather.” From the above descriptions of the costumes of the Gujarātīs in the 11th and 12th centuries, it is clear that the men, perhaps after the fashion of the Muhammadans, wore shorts and jackets, as the light clothes of Chao-Ju-Kua and the *izār* and *mizār* of Ibn Haukal would signify. Then, according to Chao-Ju-Kua, the women wore *sārīs*. Both men and women also covered their heads with scarves and perhaps wore shoes.

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⁵⁷ M. Renaud, Mémoire geographique historique et scientifique sur l'Inde, p. 283 Paris, 1849.

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⁵⁸ J. R. A. S., 1896, p. 481.

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Fig. 199

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Now reverting to Western Indian miniatures from roughly 1100 to 1300 A.D. we find that the observations of Ibn Haukal and Chao-Ju-Kua about the costume of the Gujarātīs are true to a very great extent. The following costumes types may be distinguished in this period.

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The typical costumes of the princes, bankers and merchants, as represented in the painted wooden book-covers from the Jaisalmer Jñāna Bhaṇḍār⁵⁹, are of two types. In the Jain temple and in the presence of Śrī Jinadatta Sūri, the men wear tight fitting shorts made of elaborately embroidered or printed materials; zig-zags, cheques and small flowers being the chief patterns (Fig. 242). The shorts are tightly secured with the *kamarbands* to which are attached *paṭkās*. On the shoulders may be seen *dupaṭṭas* with their both ends dangling. In one case at least, the *dupaṭṭa* is worn transversely across the chest. The upper parts of their bodies is devoid of any clothing, and this may be due to their presence in a temple whose sanctity demands uncovering of the body.

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⁵⁹ *Bhāratīya Vidyā* (Hindi-Guj.), III, Pls. a—i.

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In the scene representing Kumuda-chandra and Devasūri the true costume of the people is shown. Their shorts, *kamarbands* and *paṭkās* are of the same type, but there is an addition of an open, half-sleeved, tight jacket reaching to the waist (Fig. 243). These jackets were made of plain or tie-dyed materials. The musicians and the gate-keeper wear the same type of costume. That this type of costume was worn by the princes or at least rich merchants is evident from the costume of Kumārapāla depicted in a palm-leaf miniature dated 1237 A.D.⁶⁰ Here the king is shown wearing an ultra-marine open jacket and shorts with the pattern in yellow indicating gold.

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⁶⁰ *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Fig. 13.

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For this open jacket the *Mānasollāsa* seems to have used the word *aṅgikā* while describing the costume of a king.⁶¹ For shorts *kaipika*? (amended *kośika*) has been used. Elsewhere in the *Mānasollāsa*⁶², the shorts are called *dvipaḍī*, which was worn by both men and women while hunting.

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⁶¹ *Mānasollāsa*, II, p. 89, s. 32.

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It would be interesting to trace the origin of the jacket. It does not seem to be of Indian origin, as it does not occur in Ajaṇṭā paintings. Perhaps, it is of Central Asiatic or Persian origin brought over to Gujarāt by the merchants from those countries, as observed by Ibn Haukal.

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In the late 12th century painted wooden book-cover, representing a fight between Bharata and Bāhubali, the typical military costume of the period is indicated. It consisted of a half sleeved indigo coloured tunic, tight fitting shorts made of striped material, *kamarband* and top-boots. The head seems to have been covered with a scarf (Fig. 244).

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The Śvetāmbara Jain monks wear a white *dhotī* and a *chādar* worn transversely across the chest (Fig. 245).

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In the illustrated palm-leaf manuscript, dated 1278 A.D., from Pāṭan, the Śvetāmbara nuns are shown wearing what appears like a *sārī*, loose tunic and a *chādar* (Fig. 246). All parts of their bodies are fully covered.

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The following varieties in the costume of the womenfolk may be distinguished:—

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In the illustrated book-cover representing Jinadatta Sūri in his audience hall, the two women represented wear *sārīs* and tight *chādars* covering their coiffure and falling at their back (Fig. 247). It is remarkable that no bodice covers their breasts. This may be due to their deference to the temple custom.

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The typical costume of the women of Gujarāt in the 12th century is illustrated in the figures of the Vidyādevīs in a palm-leaf manuscript from Chhāṇi, near Baroda, dated 1161 A.D.⁶³ Their dress consists of richly patterned *sārīs* reaching the ankles, *paṭkās* matching the *sārīs*, tight half-sleeved *cholīs* covering the entire chest and the stomach and the light scarves worn on the shoulders (Fig. 248). That the *cholīs* did not always cover the entire chest is evident from the illustrated book-cover depicting the battle between Bharata and Bāhubali. Here the women are shown wearing striped *sārīs* and *paṭkās*, and their breasts are covered with half-sleeved *cholīs*, made of striped or flowered materials which leave the stomach exposed (Fig. 249).

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⁶³ *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Figs. 16–36.

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The preference for bodice by the Gujarātī women is referred to in the contemporary Sanskrit literature. Thus, the *Mānasollāsa*⁶⁴ mentions that the Gujarātī women wore full sleeved bodice (*āpāṇikṛta-kañchuka*). In the commentary of the *Kāvya-Prakāśa* (5th Ullāsa), the covered breasts of Gujarātī women are mentioned (*no gurjāristanaivātitarām nigūdhah*).

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⁶⁴ *Mānasollāsa*, II, p. 101.

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The dancing girl, depicted in the wooden cover representing Devasūri and Kumuda-chandra, wears half sleeved *cholī* covering the breasts, tight shorts and the *kamarband* whose ends flutter in the whirlpool action of the dance.

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In the *Pañchatīrthīpaṭ*, a hunting woman is shown wearing a short skirt and the *cholī* (Fig. 250).

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Fig. 200

Costume: Period II, 1300—1560 A.D.

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Gujarāt, though it had felt the might of the rising power of Islam as early as 1009 A.D., and had also suffered from the invasions of Mahumūd of Ghazna in 1024, was finally conquered by Alāuddin in 1296. During the 14th century, the province of Gujarāt formed a part of the Sultanate of Delhi. In 1396, however, Zafar Khān, the governor of Gujarāt, revolted and formed the kingdom of Gujarāt which was finally annexed to the Mughal empire by Akbar in 1573 A.D.

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Ahmad Shāh founded Ahmadābād, the new capital of Gujarāt, in 1412 A.D. The building of this new city laid the foundation of the beautiful and interesting Islamic architecture of Gujarāt, which drew inspiration from the indigenous forms it tried to replace.

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In the period under review, Gujarāt had passed from the hands of the Hindu rulers to, Muslims, with the consequence that the early culture phase with predominantly Indian elements was closed, and a new culture phase started, in which Islam was destined to play an important part. This should not mean that there was any revolution in the indigenous culture of Gujarāt, as the traditions of the ancient culture were too deep-rooted to be displaced within a short time. Nevertheless, there was a definite change, and that change is reflected in a marked degree in the costume of the people. The shorts and jackets are discarded, and the *dhotis* and scarves are of much finer material and reflect the luxury of the age. Duarte Barbosa, who visited Gujarāt between 1500 and 1516 A.D., describes the costume and ornaments of the people. His accuracy is vouchsafed by Western Indian miniatures of the 14th and 15th centuries. I quote his description below:

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They wear the hair very long like the women in Spain, and they wear it gathered at the top of the head, and made into a band which is much adorned, and upon this a cap to fasten it; and they always wear many flowers stuck into their hair, and sweet smelling things. They also anoint themselves with white sandal mixed with saffron and other scents; they are much given to fall in love. They go bare, only covering themselves from the waist downward with very rich silk stuffs; they wear embroidered shoes of very good leather, well worked and some short silk skirts and other short ones of cotton, with which they cover their bodies. They do not carry arms, only small knives garnished with gold and silver, for two reasons—one because they are persons who make little use of arms, the other because the Moors forbid it to them. They use many earrings of gold and jewellery in the ears, and many rings, and belts of gold and jewellery upon the cloth with which they gird themselves. The women of these Gentiles have very pretty delicate faces and well made bodies, a little dark. Their dress is silk stuff like their husbands as far as the feet, and the jackets with narrow sleeves of silk stuff, open at the shoulders, and other silk clothes with which they cover themselves in the manner of *Morisco almalafas*; their heads bare, the hair gathered up upon the head; they wear thick ankle rings of gold and silver on the legs, and rings on their toes, and large coral beads on their arms, with beads of gold filigree, and gold and silver bracelets; and round thin necks necklaces of gold and jewellery fitting

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closely; they have large holes pierced in their ears, and in them rings of gold and silver large enough for an egg to pass through them.”⁶⁵

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⁶⁵ Duarte Barbosa, *The Coast of East Africa and Malabar*, p. 52.

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From the above description it is clear that the Gujarātīs of the 15th century wore *dhotīs* and *chādars* and small caps on their bun-like coiffure. The women wore *sārīs* and scarves. Now if we go into the details of the Gujarātī costume, as preserved in the illustrated manuscripts of the *Kalpasūtra* and the *Kālakāchārya Kathā*, dating from 1370 to 1426 A.D., we are convinced of the truthfulness of the observations of Barbosa. In the manuscript of the *Kalpasūtra*, dated 1370, in the scene depicting the birth of Mahāvīra⁶⁶, the dress of Triśalā is typical of a highly placed woman in the 14th century Gujarāt. She wears an indigo coloured *dhotī* worked with the geese pattern, a graceful scarf covering her coiffure and a part wrapped round the waist, and half sleeved green bodice (Fig. 251). In another 14th century *Kalpasūtra* manuscript from Idar⁶⁷, the typical costume of menfolk is heavily ornamented *dhotī* and scarf (Fig. 252). These typical costumes are followed without variation in all the subsequent miniatures.

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⁶⁶ *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Fig. 80.

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⁶⁷ Ib., Fig. 91.

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In the *Vasanta Vilāsa* the men wear *dhotīs* reaching upto the knees with a short scarf thrown across the shoulders, leaving the upper half of the body uncovered. The *pāijāmah* appears to have been totally unknown, as also the turban. The headgear is usually a peaked cap or *mukuṭa*.⁶⁸

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⁶⁸ Mehta, *Studies in Indian Painting*, p. 19.

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While the male costume followed more or less the ancient modes as depicted in the paintings of Ajaṇṭā, the female costume underwent radical changes. The *sārī* typical of modern Gujarāt was unknown. The women in the paintings of the *Vasanta Vilāsa* wear a long, gaily coloured scarf coming down from the shoulders and hanging loose below the knees. The lower part of their bodies are invariably covered with a *dhotī*, much in the same way as is done in the present days in Bengal and the United Provinces. The skirt seems to have been unknown. The women also wore a bodice (*cholī*) covering the bust almost down to the waist, a little above the navel (Fig. 253). Women of lower classes went about bareheaded, and the *mukuṭa* seems to have been a monopoly of the female aristocracy.⁶⁹

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⁶⁹ Ib., pp. 20, 21.

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Some very interesting details of the costumes of the female dancers are preserved in the decorative figures on the borders of the two early 15th century illustrated manuscripts of the *Kalpasūtra*. In one type, the dancer wears closely fitting shorts, *paṭkā*, half-sleeved closely fitting *cholī* reaching a little above the navel, scarf (*dupaṭṭā*) covering the shoulders, and a scarf tied round the hair (Fig. 254).⁷⁰ In the second type, the shorts are replaced by the *sārī* (Fig. 255).⁷¹ In the third type (Fig. 256)⁷², she wears what appears to be close-fitting trousers, the *cholī*, and a transparent *jāmah*. In the fourth type (Fig 257)⁷³, she wears a full sleeved *cholī* and a straight edged skirt.

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⁷⁰ *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Figs., 114-15.

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⁷¹ Ib., Figs., 116-125.

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⁷² Ib., Fig. 126.

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⁷³ *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Figs. 127—130, 132, 134-35, 137—140.

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Fig. 201

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Fig. 202

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We have already observed that Gujarāt in the beginning of the 14th century came under the Muslim rule. We know from the accounts of the contemporary travellers and historians the costumes of the Muslim kings, courtiers and soldiers, but it is only in Western Indian paintings that we find them visualised. We find that the costume was Turkish with strong Mongol influence. Al Qalqshandī, in his *Subh ul A'sha*⁷⁴, devotes a few chapters to India, one of which deals with the costume of the people. "The dress of the soldiers including Sultāns, Khāns, Maliks and the other officers," observes al Qalqshandī, "are given on the authority of Sheikh Mubarak ul Anbati as, 'Tartaric gowns (*Tatariyat*), *Jakalwat* and Islamic *qabas* of Khwarizm buckled in the middle of the body and short turbans which do not exceed five or six forearms (*dīra*). Their dress is of Bayd and Jūkh '."⁷⁵

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⁷⁴ *An Arab account of India in the fourteenth century*, tr. by Otto Spies, *The Muslim University Journal*, June, 1935.

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⁷⁵ *Ib.*, p. 69.

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"It is related on the authority of Ash-Sharif Nasīr-al-Dīn Muhammad Al-Husaynī al-Adamī that their usual dress is gold embroidered Tartaric gowns : some of them wear gold embroidered sleeves and the others put the embroidery between their shoulders like the Mughals. Their headdress is four cornered in shape, ornamented with jewels and mostly with diamonds and rubies. They plait their hair in hanging locks as it used to be done in the beginning of the Turkish rule in Egypt and Syria except that they put silk tassels in the locks. They bind gold and silver belts tightly round their waists, and wear shoes and spurs and do not girt the swords round their waists except when on journey."⁷⁶

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⁷⁶ *Ib.*, pp. 69—70.

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"The dress of the Vazīrs and Kātibs is like that of the soldiers except that they have no belts. But sometimes they let down a piece of cloth in front of them as Sufis do."⁷⁷

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⁷⁷ *Ib.*, p. 70.

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"The judges and the learned men (*ulamā*) wear ample gowns (*farajiyat*) that resembles Janādiyat⁷⁸ and Arabic garments (*durra*)."⁷⁹

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⁷⁸ Striped material manufactured at Janad in Yaman and hence a gown made of that stuff.

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⁷⁹ A garment opening in front and buttoned is an Arab cloth like the *Jabā* originally from Persia.

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"It is related on the authority of Qāḍī Sirāj-al-Dīn al-Hindī that none among them wears cotton clothes imported from Russia and Alexandria except he whom Sultān clothes with it. Their dress is made of fine cotton which resembles the Baghdādī one in beauty."

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From the above description of the costume of the ruling classes, it is evident that they wore sewn garments which were quite different to the articles of costume worn by the Indians. The exact shapes of these garments are, fortunately, preserved in the illustrated manuscripts of the *Kālakāchārya Kathā*, where, under the guise of the ancient Saka chiefs and their followers, the contemporary costume of the members of the ruling race are preserved. In a miniature from the *Kālakāchārya Kathā*, dated 1458 A.D., ⁸⁰ the Turkish costume is shown to consist of a full long sleeved Tartaric gown, half sleeved *qaba*, full boots and a pointed cap ⁸¹ (Fig. 258). This dress bears a remarkable resemblance to the 15th century costume of the Mughals from Herāt. There is, however, one difference that, while turban was worn by the Mughals of Herāt, the Indian Turks preferred pointed caps.

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⁸⁰ Norman Brown, *The Story of Kālaka*, Figs. 1, 22, 24, 30, 33, 37.

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⁸¹ Ib., Fig. 22.

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We have seen in the accounts of Nāsir-al-Dīn that the Turks in India wore their hair in hanging locks decorated with silken tassels. This characteristic mode of hair dressing is illustrated in the *Kālakāchārya Kathā*.⁸²

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⁸² Ib., Figs. 28, 33.

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The following variations in the Muslim costume may be noted. The king wears sometimes a cape attached to the *qaba*⁸³ (Figs. 259—61). On the battlefield, however, the *qaba* is replaced by a *jāmah* flying on the right and reaching a little above the ankles. There is also a *kamarband* with its ends fluttering in the air (Fig. 262).⁸⁴

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⁸³ Ib., Figs. 21, 24, 28.

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⁸⁴ Ib., Fig. 29.

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The cap worn by a king or a soldier is not of a fixed type. Sometimes it is pointed with a boss at the tip ⁸⁵ (Fig. 259). It is also conical with broad upturned brim ⁸⁶ (Fig. 258), triangular ⁸⁷ (Fig. 260), or four pointed ⁸⁸ (Fig. 261). At one place, it is dome-shaped⁸⁹ with seams visible in the middle.

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⁸⁵ Ib., Fig. 21.

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⁸⁶ Ib., Fig. 22.

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⁸⁷ Ib., Fig. 24.

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⁸⁸ Ib., Fig. 28.

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⁸⁹ Ib., Fig. 29.

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While talking of caps, it is interesting to note that some of the types described above are found on the Kushāna heads from Mathurā as early as the 1st century A.D. The cap, however, was not adopted by the Indians, who continued to wear the turban or scarf as a head-gear for a very long time. In the 10th century the cap, under its modern Hindi designation *topi*, seems to have been known. Thus Pushpadanta describes a variegated cap which covered both the ears ⁹⁰ (*siritopīdiṇṇau vaṇṇavaṇṇa, sā jhampavi saṃthiyaḍoṇakaṇṇa*). Such a cap seems to have been worn by Indra in the battle scene between Bharata and Bāhubali (Fig. 199). It is, however, certain that this cap was not very popular. Barbosa also says that in the 15th century the Gujarātīs wore caps to keep their hair in place, but this is apparently intended for the *mukuṭa* which both men and women of the upper classes seem to have worn.

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⁹⁰ *Jasaḥarachariu*, I, 6, 4, ed. by P. L. Vaidya, Poona, 1931.

Ornaments and Coiffure

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The Gujarātīs, from the 12th to 15th century, were extraordinarily fond of ornaments with which both men and women bedecked their persons. Barbosa, as already quoted, emphasises the love of the Gujarātīs for ornaments. The style of the ornaments did not change to any appreciable extent within the four hundred years under review. We propose to describe below the various ornaments without any chronological sequence.

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Fig. 203

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*Karṇaphūla*.—Large circular pearl earrings were worn both by men and women. In the 14th century, however, women wore two rings, one in the lobe and the other on the top of the ear ⁹¹ (Fig. 55).

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⁹¹ *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Fig. 79.

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*Necklaces (hāra)*.—Both men and women wore pearl necklaces made of either pearls or flat beads. They had one or more strands.

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*Bangles*.—Both men and women wore bangles and armlets. The men, however, wore only one or two *kaḍās*, but the women covered their forearms with the bangles (*cūḍīs*), over which they wore *kaṅkaṇa*, *chhanda* and *pachhelī*.

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*Armlets*.—They were worn both by men and women, and were made either of pearls or flat beads. They were at times of elaborate workmanship (Fig. 252)⁹².

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⁹² *Ib.*, Fig. 112.

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*Anklets*.—Both men and women wore anklets and rings.

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*Nose-drops*.—In the *Vasanta Vilāsa* miniatures, while the nose-ring is unknown, the women wear a diamond or pearl as a nose-drop.⁹³

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⁹³ Mehta, *Studies in Indian Painting*, p. 21.

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*Mukuṭa*.—Elaborately decorated *mukuṭas*, roughly triangular in shape, were worn by men and women of the upper classes.

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*Headmarks*.—The Indians were very fond of decorating their foreheads with various symbols which were purely decorative in the beginning but took religious meaning at a much later period. In Western Indian miniatures, the following marks were used to decorate the forehead.

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*U-shaped mark*.—This symbol has been designated as a Vaishṇavite *tilaka*, and has been taken to represent the Vaishṇavite influence in Gujarāt. This U-shaped *tilaka*, however, appears in Western Indian miniatures as early as the 12th century and Vaishṇavism does not seem to have anything to do with it. As early as the beginning of the Christian era, there was a decorative pattern known as the *tilaka-ratna*⁹⁴, described in the commentary as a head-mark. In the architectural pieces recovered from the great Jain Stūpa at Mathurā, this symbol is the same as the *triratna* symbol of the Buddhists. It is made of two *makaras* joined with their heads with a rosette inside. This original motif underwent certain changes in the course of time, the *makaras* losing their animal character at every step till the symbol becomes roughly W-shaped. There is little doubt that the U-shaped *tilaka* in Western Indian miniatures is a further abbreviation of this symbol, and does not carry any religious significance, though in the very early times it is possible that the symbol was imbued with some sacred character.

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⁹⁴ *Rāyapaseniya Sūtra*, p. 160.

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Circular spots.—It is known as *ṭīkā*, and the forehead was often marked with it (Figs 190–192).

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Khaura.—The women also seem to have besmeared their foreheads with the sandalwood paste ⁹⁵ (Figs. 17–42).

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⁹⁵ *Jaina-chitra Kalpadruma*, Figs. 16–31.

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Coiffure.—We have been told by Barbosa that the Gujarātīs wore their hair very long and gathered it at the top of their head. It is evident from Western Indian miniatures that both men and women arranged their coiffure in the manner described above. The men generally wore beards and moustaches.

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In the 14th and 15th centuries, however, some new styles in the coiffure of the women-folk are found. Thus, in a miniature of 14th century *Kalpasūtra*, Triśalā’s hair is braided. The dancing girls of the 15th century invariably wore their hair in long plaits. Their coiffure was arranged in one, two or three braids (Figs. 108, 131)⁹⁶, and was decorated with tassels.

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⁹⁶ *Ib.*, Figs. 119, 142.

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Fig. 204

Linked texts (9)