Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Elements of Hindu Iconography v2.c16: Śiva

Elements of Hindu Iconography v2.c16

Language
English

Contents

Śiva

v2.c16.1

ONE of the most interesting chapters in Hindu Mythology is the history of Śiva, the god of destruction among the Hindu Trinity. In the *Ṛigveda*, the *Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā* of the White *Yajur-veda* and in the *Atharvaṇa-veda*, the word Śiva, meaning the auspicious, occurs as an epithet of Rudra. It is only Rudra, (and not Śiva) who is praised in all hymns; he is represented in these hymns as a malevolent deity causing death and disease among men and cattle and is therefore specially prayed to by the hymnists for allaying his wrath towards them, sparing them their families and cattle, and attacking and damaging their enemies and their belongings. The physical description of Rudra is found in a number of hymns in great detail. For instance, in some places he is said to be tawny in colour and in others of a very fair complexion, with a beautiful chin, wearing golden ornaments, youthful and having spirally braided hair on his head. He carries in his hands a bow and arrows and is described, in some hymns, as wielding the thunderbolt. He is, throughout the Vēdic period, identified with Agni and is also said to have given birth, by his contact with Pṛiśṇi (the earth), the Maruts (the winds). In the *Atharvaṇa-vēda* it is stated, that "Bhava (Rudra) rules the sky, Bhava rules the earth and Bhava hath filled the vast atmosphere"; in the same work we come across the names Bhava, Sarva, Sahasra-bāhu, Mahādēva, Paśupati, Rudra the slayer of Ardhaka (the Andhaka of the Purāṇic period), Ugra and Īśāna used as synonyms of Rudra; these names are also found in the *Śatarudrīya* along with Aghōra, Girīśa, Nīlagrīva, Kapardin, Sabhāpati, Gaṇapati, Sēnāni, Bhīma, Sitikaṇṭha, Śambhu and Śaṅkara. It might be remarked here that all the names given above are applied at the present time to Śiva-Rudra, who is a later addition to the Hindu triad. In the *Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa* we learn "Agni is a god. These are his names: Śarva, as the eastern people call him, Bhava, as the Bāhikas call him, Paśūnāmpati, Rudra and Agni. The names other than Agni are ungentle (*aśānta*), Agni is his gentlest designation (*śāntatma*)."

v2.c16.2

From the descriptions of Rudra given above it is patent that Agni, who is the same as Rudra,

v2.c16.3

had his abode in the sky as the sun, in the atmosphere as the lightning and on the earth as fire; in other words, the sky, the atmosphere and the earth give birth to Agni in his triple aspect of the sun, the lightning, and fire; hence he receives the name Tryambaka or Three-mothered. By the heat of the sun received by the earth winds are produced, a physical fact well-known even to school-boys. It is this natural phenomenon, the production of winds on the surface of the earth by sun's heat, that is poetically expressed in the Vēdic hymns as the sun begetting on the earth the Maruts. The winds cause the clouds to accumulate in the atmosphere and lightning and storm follow next; all these phenomena are traceable to Agni or Rudra. The stormy winds, the dark masses of clouds with flashing lightning in their midst are all sufficiently terrifying in their effect, and Rudra or Agni who is the cause of all these fearful phenomena is naturally treated as a terrific and malevolent deity always requiring propitiation. The sufferings caused to man and beast by storms, thunder and rain should naturally have induced the Vēdic bards to have attempted to appease the wrath of this fearful deity and to protect themselves and their possessions by praises and offerings.

v2.c16.4

The identity of Agni and Rudra also appears from the Mahābhārata. In narrating the birth of Skanda, it is stated in the Vana-parvan, that Svāha, the wife of Agni, assumed on six consecutive days the forms of the wives of six out of the seven *rishis* and enjoyed the company of her husband, who had previously abandoned her and retired to the forest, because he could not succeed in securing for himself the company of the wives of the *rishis* with whom he had fallen in love. The seed of Agni gathered on the six days by Svāha was deposited in a pit and covered with *kuśa* grass. On the sixth day the seed assumed the form of Kumāra (that is, Skanda). Again, later on, it is also said that Rudra, who was dallying with his consort Umā for a long time, was prayed to by the gods to assume his other functions; he let drop his seed on the earth. Agni was asked to take it in and develope it, but its burning effect was so great that he could not bear it; he dropped it in the river Gaṅgā and Skanda was born therefrom. From these two statements, the only conclusion possible is that Rudra, who was the same as Agni was the father of Skanda.

v2.c16.5

From occupying the minor position of Agni in the Vēdic period, Rudra emerges into one of the

v2.c16.6

supreme deities in the Purāṇic period; and he is often found to claim superiority over Viṣṇu and Brahmā. In the Purāṇic period also Rudra retains his attributes as the destroyer and the terrific; he is described as “assuming the forms of the gods Viṣṇu and Brahmā, of men, of bhūtas and other beings, of beasts and of birds; he is the soul of the universe; and pervades through it; he dwells in the heart of all creatures and knows all their desires; he carries a discus, a trident, a club, an axe and a sword; he wears a girdle of serpents, ear-ornaments composed of serpents and an Yajñopavīta of serpents; he laughs, sings and dances in ecstacy, and plays on a number of musical instruments; he leaps, gapes and weeps and makes others weep; speaks like a mad man or a drunkard, as also in sweet voice...........He dallies with the daughters and wives of the ṛishis; he has erect hair, looks obscene in his nakedness and has an excited look.” “Rudra has braided hair and matted locks, frequents cemeteries and performs awful rites; he is now a mild yōgi and is also very terrible. He is said to possess in every age the nature of Nārāyaṇa, that is, his tāmasic nature.” Such descriptions form the basis of the several purāṇic legends regarding Śiva, as also of the various images of this deity. For instance, Śiva is represented as dancing in an ecstacy; he is then known by the name of Naṭarāja; as a naked figure engaged in begging for cooked rice, when he is called the Bhikṣāṭana-mūrthi; and so forth. We are therefore concerned immediately with the various aspects of Śiva described in the Purāṇas.

v2.c16.7

The birth of Rudra is given in the Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa as follows: “Prajāpati (the lord of beings), who is identified with the Sun and also the year, (the beings of whom he is lord being the seasons), desired to have a son; he consorted, for that purpose, with Ushas and a son (Kumāra) was born. As soon as he was born the boy wept. The father asked why he wept. He replied he had got no name to take away the evil from him. Prajāpati gave him the name Rudra. Inasmuch as he gave him the name, Agni became his form, for Rudra is Agni; he was Rudra because he wept (arōdit, from rud, to weep). The boy said ‘I am greater than one who does not exist, give me another name’. Prajāpati replied ‘thou art Śarva’. Thus he obtained from Prajāpati the names Rudra, Śarva, Paśupati, Ugra, Aśani, Bhava, Mahāndēva, and Īśāna—eight names which are associated respectively with the *tattvas* of *agni*, (the fire), *jala* (the water), the plants, *vāyu* (the winds), *vidyut* (the lightning), *parjanya* (the rain), *chandramas* (the moon) and *āditya* (the sun). These are the eights forms of Agni and Kumāra is the ninth. This is the threefoldness (*trivṛitta*) of Agni. Since there are eight forms of Agni and the Gāyatrī metre has eight syllables, men say ‘Agni pertains to Gāyatrī’. This boy Kumāra entered into the forms. Men do not see Agni as a boy : it is these forms that they see: for he entered into these forms.” The same story is found in the *Sāṅkhāyana* and the *Kaushītaki-Brāhmaṇas*. This story forms the foundation for all the later accounts given in the *Purāṇas* of the birth of Rudra, as also of the *Aṣṭa-mūrtīśvaras* of the *Śaivāgamas*.

v2.c16.8

In the Puranas. The account of the birth of Rudra as found in the *Viṣṇu-purāṇa* which is almost identical with that given in the *Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa* runs thus: At the beginning of the *kalpa* (æon) Brahmā was meditating upon begetting a son similar to himself. At once a boy of blue and red colour was seen sitting on his lap and weeping loudly. Brahmā asked him why he was weeping. The boy answered ‘Give me a name’. Brahmā conferred upon him the name Rudra. But the boy wept again and again for seven times more and obtained seven more names, Bhava, Śarva, Īśāna, Paśupati, Bhīma, Ugra and Mahādēva.

v2.c16.9

Another version of the birth of Rudra is also given in the *Viṣṇu-purāṇa*. Sanandana and others who were first created by Brahmā for the purpose of creating the various beings became absorbed in meditation, attained all kinds of knowledge and became free from love and hatred. They neglected the business for which they were brought into existence by Brahmā. Seeing the indifference of his sons towards the creation of the worlds, Brahmā grew very angry and from the frowned forehead of this deity was born a son as resplendent as the sun. The body of this newly born being was half male and half female and it was terrific and large in size. Brahmā, commanding him to divide, disappeared. This being, known as Rudra, divided himself into two parts, of which one was male and the other female. The male portion further divided itself into eleven bodies of which some were pacific and some terrific in nature; in a similar way, the female portion divided itself in many forms some of black and others of white colour. Here is the origin of the Ēkādaśa Rudras and the multiform Śaktis of the later period of Hindu Mythology.

v2.c16.10

A third account of the birth of Rudra is as follows: When Madhu and Kaiṭabha, the two demons, attempted to kill Brahmā when he was created by Viṣṇu in the lotus that issued from his navel, Brahmā prayed to Viṣṇu that he might be saved from the demons. Pleased with the prayers of Brahmā, Viṣṇu grew fiercely angry with the Rākṣasas; from the frowned brows of Viṣṇu sprang forth a being named Śambhu, wielding a trident and possessing three eyes. Thus we see, as in the case of many other deities, there are various accounts of the birth of Rudra.

v2.c16.11

Before proceeding with the systematic description of the images of Śiva, it will be well to look into the import of the various names given to this god. When Śiva was besought by the gods to destroy the demons who were the dwellers of three castles, the Tripurāsuras, he sought and obtained one half of their strength from all the gods; he was thenceforth known among the gods as Mahādēva or Mahēśvara, because he became the greatest among them. Since he consumes flesh, blood and marrow (as Agni), is fiery and glorious, he is called Rudra. He is termed Dhūrjaṭi from his smoky colour, and since he makes

v2.c16.12

Explanation of the different names of Śiva.

v2.c16.13

Mahadeva.

v2.c16.14

Rudra, Dhurjati, Siva.

v2.c16.15

men prosper in all their actions, he bears the appellation Śiva (the auspicious). Śiva is known as Nīlakaṇṭha and Sitikaṇṭha. The following are the stories connected with these names: When the ocean of milk was churned for obtaining ambrosia for the gods, the first thing that came up from it was the all-destroying poison; the gods afraid of this dreadful poison withdrew from the churning; Śiva in his kindness to the gods, took up the poison and swallowed it; but Pārvatī who was near her consort would not permit the poison to get into the stomach of Śiva lest it should kill him; she pressed the throat of Śiva and the poison remained there. From that time the blue poison became visible through the fair skin of the throat of Śiva, and lent it a blue lustre, which accounts for his being known as Nīlakaṇṭha.* Again it is said in the Mahābhārata that when Śiva destroyed the sacrifice of Daksha, he

v2.c16.16

∗ In the Aitarēya-brāhmaṇa, Rudra is said to have drunk water (visha, which also means poison). Of the two meanings of the word visha, the latter seems to have given birth to the purāṇic legend of the later period. The statement made in the Brāhmaṇa is a poetic rendering of the physical phenomenon of Rudra, that is, the Sun or the fire drying up water.

v2.c16.17

**Sitikantha.** thrust his flaming trident again and again at Daksha and the assembled gods, and thus burnt everything with it. The trident having done its duty flew and fell near the *āśrama* (hermitage) of the *ṛishis* Nara and Nārāyaṇa at Badari with terrific force. The glow of the weapon was so great that the hair on the head of Nārāyaṇa turned green like the *muñja* grass. Nārāyaṇa thereupon repelled the trident, which returned to its owner howling. Śaṅkara, in anger, ran up to Nārāyaṇa, when the latter, fearing injury at the hands of Śiva, seized him by his throat. Hence the name Sitikaṇṭha (*mamapāṇy-aṅkitaś-chāpi śrīkaṇṭas tvam bhavishyasi*).

v2.c16.18

**Trinetra.** Śiva has three eyes; the third eye came into existence under the following circumstances. Śiva was sporting with his consort Pārvatī on the slopes of the Himālayas, when she playfully closed with her hands the two eyes of Śiva. The whole universe was at once submerged in cosmic darkness and all activity was suspended; sacrifices stopped and gods became quiescent. Mahādēva dispelled the darkness, by the fire bursting out of his forehead, in which a third eye, as luminous, as the sun, was formed.

v2.c16.19

In a number of places in the *purāṇic* literature we see a sort of fierce denunciation of Śiva and the Śaiva cult; this is perhaps on account of some of the revolting rites connected with the worship of Śiva. A graphic description of these rites as has already been mentioned, is given by Bhavabhūti in his *Mālati-Mādhava*.

v2.c16.20

At the time of the *Mahābhārata*, animals seem to have been offered systematically as sacrifices in the temple of Śiva, for, we hear Kṛiṣhṇa admonishing Jarāsandha for his cruelty to other kings: says he, “what pleasure can those princes have in existence, when they have been consecrated for slaughter and kept as victims in the temple of Paśupati....Thou king, hast set apart for sacrifice to Mahādēva Kshatriya princes........In so far as you have resolved to offer these kings to Rudra, the guilt committed by you by slaughtering them will also attach to us........and we have never seen such a thing as offering human beings in sacrifice and thou seekest to sacrifice to Śaṅkara human victims.” Daksha in his rage, denounces Śiva as the “Proud abolisher of rites and demolisher of barriers, such as by teaching the word of the Vēda to the Śūdras....,” as “roaming about in cemeteries attended by the host of *bhūtas* (goblins), like a mad man, naked and with dishevelled hair. He is seen laughing, weeping, covered with ashes gathered from the funeral pyres and wearing a garland of human skulls and ornaments of human bones: he pretends to be the auspicious (*Śiva*) while in reality he is *aśiva*; he is insane and is liked by the insane; and he is the lord of the Pramathagaṇas, beings whose nature is essentially darkness...........Let this Bhava, the lowest of the gods, never receive at the worship of the gods like Indra, Upēndra and others, any portion of the oblations with them.” It might be noted here that the conscious neglect of Daksha to offer a portion of the sacrifice to Śiva in his great *yajña* was certainly due to his hatred for Śiva and his cult. Mahādēva himself admits that from the beginning he was not given any oblations in sacrifices : addressing Umā, he says “the old practice of the gods has all along been that no portion should be offered to me in any sacrifice. By this custom, which is established by the earliest arrangement, the gods legitimately (*dharmatah*) decline to give me a share in the sacrifices.” From these statements we are led to infer that the Vēdic Indian looked upon Śiva as a low class deity and was not offering him any oblations along with Indra and other gods. By the entreaties of his wife Pārvatī, Śiva establishes for the first time in the *yāga* of Daksha, his right to receive oblations; this “lowest of the gods” gets up to the level of the Vēdic gods at a later period and is reconciled with the Vēdic Hindu. That the ways of the adorers of Śiva were indeed revolting is seen in the imprecation of Bhr̥igu found in the Śrī Bhāgavata. He says “ Let those performers of the rites of the Śaiva cult be heretics and opponents of the true Vēdas. Having lost their purity and misled in their understanding, wearing matted hair, ashes and bones, let them undergo the Śaiva initiation, in which liquor is the deity. Since you, the followers of the Śiva cult, revile the Vēda and the Brāhmaṇas, who are the only safeguards keeping intact the straying humanity, you have become heretics. For, the Vēda is the auspicious (Śiva) and the eternal path of the people, which has been followed by the ancients and of which Janārdana is the authority.” We obtain a glimpse of the real state of affairs at that time from the quotation from the Śrī Bhāgavata given above. People, including some Brāhmaṇas, left the fold of the Vēdic religion and joined the cult of Śiva, reviled the Vēdic religion, took to spirituous liquors and became celibate mendicants, daubing their bodies with the ashes of the cemeteries and adorning themselves with bones. They threw off the study of the Vēdas and violated their sanctity by teaching them to Śūdras and others. The conditions of the Vēdic Brāhmaṇas of that period is mirrored in the counter

v2.c16.21

imprecation pronounced by Nandīśvara, a devout follower of the Śiva cult. He tells us that the revilers of Śiva are sunk, out of the love of carnal pleasures, in domestic life, in which bad morals are not infrequent; they practise a number of ceremonies without understanding their real import and are degraded by the rules of the Vēdas. They smell strongly of liquor. Nandīśvara heaps up on the heads of the followers of the Vēdic religion the curse that these be ever sunk, deluded by the words of the Vēdas, in the mire of ceremonial ignorance. The complaint of the Śaiva against the vaidika is that the latter pays greater regard to the life of a house-holder and that he performs a number of ceremonies without understanding their meaning. It is in fact a rebellion against the ignorance of Vēdic rites and a denunciation of family life.

v2.c16.22

With the admission of Śiva into the fold of the higher gods, there seems to have come over the followers of both the Vēdic and Śaiva cults a strong desire for a sort of reconciliation. Thus, we see Arjuna praising Śiva, in the Vana-parvan of the Mahābhārata, as follows: “Adoration to Śiva in the form of Viṣṇu, to Viṣṇu in the form of Śiva........to Hari-Rudra.” Again, in the Śānti-parvan, we see it stated by Kṛṣṇa that, when the god of gods, Mahēśvara, is worshipped, the god Nārāyaṇa, the Lord, will also be worshipped, that he who knows and loves Rudra knows and loves Nārāyaṇa and that Rudra and Nārāyaṇa are but one in principle, divided into two and operating in the world in manifested forms. The same spirit of conciliation, by which Hari and Hara are viewed as one, is also found in the Harivaṃśa wherein we hear Mārkaṇḍeya saying to Brahmā: “When you show me this auspicious vision, I perceive that there is no difference between Śiva who exists in the form of Viṣṇu and Viṣṇu in the form of Śiva........He who appears as Viṣṇu is Rudra...........Bestowers of boons, creators of the worlds, self-existent, they are the (composite being) half male and half female (Ardhanārīśvara)....And just as fire entering into fire becomes nothing other than fire, so Rudra entering into Viṣṇu should possess the nature of Viṣṇu........Viṣṇu, the highest manifestation of Rudra, and Śiva, the highest manifestation of Viṣṇu, are only one god, though divided into two and move continually in the world. Viṣṇu does not exist without Śaṅkara nor Śiva without Keśava; hence, these two, Rudra and Upendra (Viṣṇu) have formerly attained oneness.” This reconciliation of Śiva with Viṣṇu seems to be based upon the re-discovery of the identity of Rudra, Agni

v2.c16.23

with Āditya, another modification of Agni, as found residing in the sky. The Vēdic Agni becomes Rudra or Śiva and the Vēdic Āditya becomes Viṣṇu, in the Purāṇic period.

v2.c16.24

The hatred of the followers of the Vēdic cult towards the Śaivas seems to have been also attributable to the worship by the latter of the phallic emblem. The very touch of the Śaiva was considered by the Vaidika as imparting pollution, because the former set up, from the earliest known times, material representations of the phallus in their temples and offered worship to them. That the phallic worship is foreign to the Vēdic religion becomes quite clear from the references we meet with in the Ṛig-Vēda. In one place it is stated “The glorious Indra defies the hostile kings; let not those whose god is the śiśna approach our sacred ceremony” and in another we read “Proceeding to the conflict, and desiring to acquire them, he has gone to, and in hostile array besieged, inaccessible places, at the time when, irresistible, slaying those whose god is the śiśna, he by his craft conquered the riches of the city with a hundred gates.”* The worship of the Phallus which the non-Aryans of India shared with other nations who inhabited on the borders of the Mediterranean sea, has survived in India to this day. The *Dhruvabēras* in all Śiva temples is the *Linga* surmounted upon the *Yōni* or the *piṇḍikā* (pedestal). It is only in very rare instances we meet with the anthropomorphic representations of Śiva set up as the principal deity in Śiva temples. This non-Aryan phallic emblem seems to have been identified at a later period with Skambha of the Vēdas, wherein Skambha is conceived as co-extensive with the universe and comprehends in him the various parts of the material universe, as also the abstract qualities, such as, *tapas*, faith, truth and divisions of time. He is distinct from Prajāpati, who founds the universe upon him. “The thirty-three gods are comprehended in him and arose out of non-entity, which forms his highest member, as well as entity is embraced within him”. The gods who form part of him do homage to him. In the praise of Skambha we meet with the following passages, namely, “Where Skambha, generating,

v2.c16.25

∗ “But, Sāyaṇa, following Yāska, interprets the word śiśnadēva of these two passages as referring to those who

v2.c16.26

sport with the *śiśna*, i.e., unchaste men. Durgāchārya also gives the same meaning: he says that the name is applied to those who are always dallying carnally with prostitutes, forsaking Vēdic observances.”

v2.c16.27

brought Purāṇapurusha into existence” and “Skambha in the beginning shed forth that gold (*hiraṇya*, out of which Hiraṇyagarbha arose) in the midst of the world” and lastly “He who knows the golden reed standing in the waters is the mysterious Prajāpati.” From the first two of the three passages quoted above, we see that one of the functions of Skambha is to beget Hiraṇyagarbha, or Purāṇapurusha, the god of reproduction. He pours forth his golden seed in begetting Prajāpati. The original of the third passage runs thus: *Yō vētasam hiraṇyayam tiṣṭhantam salilē vēda sa vai guhyah Prajāpatih*. In the *Ṛig-vēda* and the *Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa*, the word *vaitasa* has the sense of *membrum virile*. Hence the word *vētasa* in the present passage also might be understood to refer to Liṅga and the non-Aryan worshippers of the phallus might have based the identity of the Liṅga with the Skambha of the texts of the *Atharvaṇa vēda* quoted above. It is this same Skambha that has given birth to the purāṇic story of Śiva’s appearance as a blazing pillar between Brahmā and Viṣṇu when they were quarrelling about the superiority of the one over the other. At a later time a sort of philosophical clothing is given to the primitive Liṅga; by a section of scholars the Liṅga and its pedestal are viewed, with some justification, as the representation of the araṇis, the two pieces of wood which were rubbed together by the Vēdic Indian in making fire. At that period the upper stick was considered as male and the lower as female, by the co-operation of which fire was generated. If this explanation is to be taken, the object generated is the fire, which the Vēdic Indian identified with Rudra, same as Śiva of the later mythology and the objects that gave birth to Rudra cannot represent the hermaphroditic form of Rudra. Hence, it is undoubted that the Liṅga and the Yōni represent the Great Generative Principles of the Universe, Purusha and Prakṛiti. That in its earlier stages Liṅga worship was purely phallic can be established by means of a number of Sanskrit texts from various works of authority.

v2.c16.28

The earliest references to the phallic worship are, as we have seen above, to be found in the Ṛig-vēda, where the phallus is called śiśnadēva. When we come to the later or the purāṇic period the references are fuller and more explicit. In the Markaṇḍēya-Purāṇa there occurs the following story: Mārkaṇḍēya says that Rudra and Viṣṇu are the creators of the Universe and they form the Ardhanārīśvara aspect of the

v2.c16.29

References to Linga worship.

v2.c16.30

former deity. Here the allusion is to the Haryardha form of Śiva, in which the female generative principle is identified with Viṣṇu. That the male and the female principles are inseparable and are ever found together in cosmic evolution is the real import of the Ardhanārīśvara or Haryardha forms of Śiva; the same idea is also conveyed in a brief way by the symbols the *liṅga* and the *yōni*. In the *Bhāgavata-Purāṇa* (second *skanda*) Mahādēva is described by Brahmā as, “the Parabrahman, the lord of Śakti and Śiva, who are the womb and seed respectively of the universe, who, like a spider, forms it in his sport, through the agency of Śakti and Śiva, (who are one with himself), preserves and re-absorbs it.” The *Liṅga-purāṇa* also states that Pradhāna (nature) is called the Liṅga and Paramēśvara is called the Liṅgin (the sustainer of the Liṅga) and that the pedestal of the Liṅga is Mahādēvī (Umā) and the Liṅga is the visible Mahēśvara. A more express allusion to the generative power of the *Liṅga* and the *yōni*, the emblems of the Śaiva cult, is found in the *Viṣṇu-purāṇa*, wherein we are told that Brahmā asked Rudra, born of his anger, to divide himself; thereupon Rudra divided himself into two, a male and a female portion. The epithet *mahāśēpha* in *Ūrddha-kēśō mahāśēphō nagnō vikṛita lōchanah* occurring in the Mahābhārata is also worth noting in this connection. A further quotation from the same work is also to the point: “And since, standing aloft, he consumes the lives of men, and since he is fixed, and since his Liṅga is perpetually fixed, he is called Sthāṇu . . . and when his Liṅga remains continually in a state of chastity, and people reverence it, this is agreeable to the great God Mahā-dēva. The worshipper of the Liṅga who shall adore the image (vigraha) or the Liṅga of Mahādēva, enjoys continually great prosperity. It is the Liṅga, raised up, which the ṛishis, gods, gandharvas and apsarases worship;” and “He whose seed is raised up, whose Liṅga is raised up, who sleeps aloft, who abides in the sky....... The Lord of the Liṅga, the lord of the suras (gods)......the lord of the seed, the producer of the seed.” Śaṅkarāchārya in his Saundaryalahari (verse 1) also says “When Śiva is united with Śakti, he is able to create, otherwise he is unable even to move.” The Kuvalayānanda of Appayya Dikshita begins with “We praise the ancient pair, the parents of the universe; each is the end attained by the penance of the other.” In a work called Ānanḍānubhava it is stated that Śakti is of the form of the pleasure derivable from Guhya (the female organ) and that Śiva is the Liṅga; from the union of these two is the cause of the joy that is found in the universe.* Again, in an inscription found in the Mysore State, the following salutation to Śiva and his Dēvī is given.† “The only god, victorious is Śiva, the

v2.c16.31

*गुह्यानन्दात्मिका शक्तिः लिङ्गरूपः शिवः परः ।
तयोर्मिथुनकौशल्यं जगदानन्दकारणम् ॥
†एको देवः स जयति शिवः केवलज्ञानमूर्त्तिः
देवी सा च त्रिभुवनमिदं यद्विभूतेः प्रपञ्चः ।
यत्कूटस्थं मिथुनमविनाभावसम्बन्धयोगात्
मिश्रिभूतं तदखिलजगज्जन्मबीजं नमामि ॥
No. 242, Shikaripur Taluk, Shimoga District, Mysore.

v2.c16.32

Other references to the phallic nature of the *liṅga* are:—

v2.c16.33

1. वचनाद्वो महाभागाः प्रणम्योमां तथा भवत । सा भगाख्या जगद्धात्री लिङ्गमूर्तेस्त्रिवेदिका ॥ लिङ्गस्तु भगवान्दाभ्यां जगत्सृष्टिर्द्विजोत्तमाः । लिङ्गमूर्तिः शिवो ज्योतिस्तमसोपरि स्थितः ॥ लिङ्गवेदिसमायोगादर्धनारीश्वरोऽभवत् ॥ *Liṅgapurāṇa*, ch. 100, Vv. 6 & 7.

v2.c16.34

2. जाने त्वं ईशमीशं विश्वस्य जगतो योनिबिजयोः । शक्तेः शिवस्य च परं यत्तद्ब्रह्म निरन्तरम् ॥ त्वमेव भगवन्नेच्छिवशक्त्योः सरूपयोः । विश्वं सृजसि पास्यतिस क्रीडन्नूर्णपटो यथा ॥ *Bhāgavatapurāṇa*.

v2.c16.35

3. योनिलिङ्गप्रकारेण जगत्सृष्ट्यर्थकारणम् । तथासंयोगभावेन कर्मरूपमुदाहृतम् ॥ *Vātulaśuddhāgama*.

v2.c16.36

form of all wisdom, and also Dēvī; whose possession are the three worlds, unchangeable in the universe, ever united, through whose union the essence of all things is mingled, the seed from which the world is born—do I reverence.” In the *Śiva-Liṅga-Pratiṣṭhā-vidhi*, the author Aghorā-Śivācārya gives a mantra which runs thus: *Umāyai bhaga-rūpiṇyai liṅga-rūpadharāya ca Śaṅkarāya namastubhyam*........; and which means I salute Umā who is in the form of bhaga and Śaṅkara is in the form of Liṅga. We learn from the *Siddhāntasārāvaḷi* that the bringing about the union of the *pīṭha* which is the symbol of Śakti and the *liṅga*, that of Śiva, in accordance with the rules laid down in Śaiva *śāstras* is called *pratiṣṭhā*.* We

v2.c16.37

4. In marking the lines (*sūtras*) on the surface of the stone *liṅga*, it is stated that the part marked out thus should resemble the nut of the (human) *liṅga* :— “ . . . . . लिङ्गमूर्द्धेव मूर्द्धा”

v2.c16.38

Similarly in describing the form of the *pīṭha* for the *Liṅga*, it is required to be made in the shape of the *bhaga* (the human pudendum) :— “ पीठलक्ष्म भगाकृतिस्तु पुरस्तूर्ध्वाग्रकं पिण्डिका रन्ध्रस्यापि गुणांश-भागयुगळे मूले भ्रमद्वंद्वयुक् . . . . . ”

v2.c16.39

Siddhāntasārāvaḷi. उमायै भगरूपिण्यै लिङ्गरूपधराय च॥

v2.c16.40

Kāmikāgama. *पीठं लिङ्गमुमाशिवस्तयोर्योगः प्रतिष्ठोदिता विध्युक्तः . . . . .

v2.c16.41

can quote several such texts, but those already given are more than ample to show the phallic nature of liṅga worship. So much about the evidences gathered from literature. Let us now turn our attention to sculptural evidences.

v2.c16.42

The earliest known Liṅgas, so far as we know at present, are two; one comes from Bhiṭa and is, now preserved in the Lucknow Museum. It has been described in a brief account contributed by Mr. R. D. Banerji to the Annual of the Director General of Archæology for 1909—1910. About this liṅga of Bhiṭa Mr. Banerji writes, “The top of it is shaped as the bust of a male holding a vase in his left hand, while the right is raised in the abhaya mudrā posture. Below this bust, where the waist of the figure should have been, are four human heads, one at each corner. From the mode of dressing the hair and the large rings worn in the lobes of the ears, it appears that these are the busts of females. They are more or less defaced, but still retain sufficient detail to admit of identification. The upper part of the head of the male is broken, only the portion below the nose being extant. The male figure wears a cloth which is thrown over the left shoulder, the folds being shown by a double line running over the breast. The vase held in the left hand resembles to some extent, the ointment vessel found in the figures of Bōdhisatvas of the Gāndhāra school. The left ear of the male figure bears the circular pendants, which may be earrings. In front, immediately below the heads of two females, the phallus is marked by deeply drawn lines. To the proper left of this is the inscription to which I have already referred. The lower part of the stone has been shaped as a tenon to be fitted in a mortice.

v2.c16.43

“The inscription is in a good state of preservation, and with the exception of the last three letters, can be deciphered very easily.” The translation of the inscription is given by Mr. Banerji as follows: “The Linga of the sons of Khajahuti, was dedicated by Nāgasiri, the son of Vāsēṭhi. May the deity be pleased.”*

v2.c16.44

From the description given by Mr. Banerji it is evident that it is a *Mukhaliṅga* having five faces corresponding to the Īśāna, Tatpurusha, Aghōra, Vāmadēva and Sadyōjāta aspects of Śiva. In the description of *Mukhaliṅgas* given elsewhere in this book, it will be seen that the face representing Īśāna should be on the top, while the other four should face the east, south, west and north respectively.

v2.c16.45

∗ The text of this inscription reads as follows : *Khajahuti-putanam li[ṁ]gō patiṭhāpitō Vāsēṭhi-putēna Nāgasirinā piya-ytā[m] d[ē]vatā.*

v2.c16.47

Three different views of the Bhīṭa Liṅgam : Stone.

v2.c16.48

The four faces on the four corners which are believed by Mr. Banerji might be of females are really those of male figures. (See Pl. I.)

v2.c16.49

The palæography of the inscription found engraved at the bottom of this Liṅga is its most important feature, for, it enables us to determine the approximate age of this most interesting antiquarian object. With the help of the characters, Mr. R. D. Banerji has correctly guessed the age of the Liṅga to be the first century B.C.

v2.c16.50

The second most ancient Liṅga is the one discovered by me at Guḍimallam some years ago and which has not been described in detail hitherto. It is one of the most perfect pieces of sculpture of its class and is of great value in connection with the history and nature of the liṅga worship. Guḍimallam is a village situated at a distance of six miles to the north-east of Reṇiguṇṭa, a railway junction station on the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway. In this place, there is an ancient temple with several inscriptions in it; the god of that temple, the Liṅga under consideration, is known from ancient times by the name of Paraśurāmeśvara and the liṅga is still in pūjā. Being a badly managed temple, scarcely any oil is spent upon bathing the images, a fact which accounts for the liṅga being in the same condition as when it was carved; there is no oily dirt on it and the high polish is in no way lost; but there are a few chips here and there, and it is not known if they have existed from the beginning or came into existence at a later period. It is very probably the latter. The liṅga is made of a reddish igneous rock, very brittle and compact in its composition which takes very high polish and which is found in the Tirupati hills which pass near the temple of Paraśuramēśvara. The Liṅga is set directly on the floor of the central shrine and the piṇḍikā or the pedestal is cut out in the form of a quadrangular ridge on the ground; it is exactly five feet in height and bears upon its front portion a beautiful figure of Śiva. This figure of Śiva has two arms, in the right one of which a ram is held by its hind legs and with its head hanging downwards (see fig. 4, Pl. V); in the left one is held a water-pot (fig. 3, Pl. V), and a battle-axe (paraśu) rests upon the left shoulder (fig. 2, Pl. V). On the head of the figure of Śiva is a covering, resembling a turban, of plaited,—not matted,—hair (see Pl. III and fig. 9, Pl. IV). The face is distinctly Mongoloid in its features, with a somewhat snub nose, high cheek-bones, narrow forehead and oblique eyes. This last item agrees well with Virūpāksha (he with oblique eyes), one of the

v2.c16.51

Front View.

v2.c16.52

Side View : Gudimallam Linga Stone

v2.c16.53

SECTION AB.

v2.c16.54

Back View

v2.c16.55

Bust of the image of Śiva on the Guḍimallam Liṅga.

v2.c16.56

Details of ornaments in the Guḍimallam Sculpture.

v2.c16.57

Fig. 1.

v2.c16.58

Fig. 2.

v2.c16.59

Fig. 3.

v2.c16.60

Fig. 4.

v2.c16.61

Fig. 5.

v2.c16.62

Fig. 6.

v2.c16.63

Fig. 7.

v2.c16.64

names of Śiva. There are *kuṇḍalas* in the ears (fig. 1, Pl. IV), the lobes of which are distended so as to hang down as far as the shoulders; on each of the upper-arms is a highly finished ornamental band (*aṅgadā*) and on the forearms five bracelets of different patterns (see figs. 2—7, Pl. IV). Round the neck is to be seen a necklace of rare workmanship (fig. 8, Pl. IV); it is noteworthy that there is no *yajñōpavīta*, the Brāhmanical sacred thread, which is insisted upon in all *Āgamas*. The image wears a cloth on the loins, which, from its sculpture, appears to be of a very fine texture, for the thighs and the organ are visible through it very distinctly. The creases and smaller folds of the cloth running across the thighs are very well executed, and the larger and heavier folds flow down between the two legs.

v2.c16.65

The figure of Śiva stands astride upon the shoulders of a Rākshasa—the Apasmāra-purusha—who is sitting on the ground on his haunches and supporting himself with his hands which are planted on the ground near the feet. He too has a sort of *jaṭāmakuṭa* on his head and a *hāra* of beads round his neck. He is swarthy and burly in the build of his body, possesses a pair of pointed animal ears and is, withal, jolly and happy, as is evidenced from the broad grin on his face.

v2.c16.66

The Linga itself is composed of two parts, the nut and the shaft of the *membrum virile*, each of them shaped exactly like the original model, in a state of erection. On Pl. II are given the front, the side and the back views of the Linga, a reference to which will enable the reader to form an excellent idea of the exactitude with which the sculptor has modelled this Linga in imitation of the human *phallus*. The longitudinal facets on the erect organ (*ūrddhava-rētas*) are also represented in this Linga.

v2.c16.67

There is a very close resemblance of the figure of Śiva on this Linga to that of a *yaksha* in the Śāñchi Stūpa, figured on page 36 of Grunwedel’s “Buddhist Art in India” (translated by Gibson and Burgess); the face, the ear and the ear-ornament, the arms and the ornaments thereon, the necklace the details of the workmanship of these jewels and the peculiar arrangement of the drapery, particularly the big folds that descend between the legs,—all these are exactly alike both in the image of Śiva on the Linga at Guḍimallam and in the picture of the *Yaksha* referred to above. The date of the sculpture represented in the latter picture has been fixed to be the second century B.C.*

v2.c16.68

∗ “143 Before Christ (cir.). Probable date of Sanchi gateways.” Grunwedel, p. 5.

v2.c16.69

(Fig. 4.)

v2.c16.70

(Fig. 3.)

v2.c16.71

(Fig. 2.)

v2.c16.72

(Fig. 1.)

v2.c16.73

This naturally leads us to the inference that the image of Śiva might also belong to the first century at least of the Christian era, if not to a still earlier period. Again, from the exact likeness of the Guḍimallam Liṅga to the human phallus, it is certain that Liṅga worship was not of a mere symbol (liṅga), nor of a simple pillar (sthāṇu), but is beyond doubt phallic in its nature.* That this is the real origin of Liṅga worship even at the present day is easily seen from the rules laid down in the Āgamas for making a Liṅga, as also from the innumerable sculptures of Liṅga, found throughout the length and breadth of India. (For an exhaustive treatment of Liṅga, see the Chapter on Liṅgas).

v2.c16.74

Because it is established to be phallic in its nature, some may be inclined to consider Liṅga worship obscene and immoral. There is nothing in it to be ashamed of; the two great Generative Principles of the Universe, Śiva and Śakti, or Purusha and Prakṛiti, the father and mother of all creations, the energy and matter of the physical scientist, is symbolised briefly in the form of the

v2.c16.75

∗ For a third ancient liṅga which is also sculptured like the human phallus, see fig. 1, Pl. V. It is set up in the central shrine of the Śiva Temple at Chennittalai, a village in Central Travancore.

v2.c16.76

*linga* and the *yōni*. For the past two thousand years at least, the Hindus, males and females, have been offering worship to this symbol of the Great Architect of the Universe, without in the least adverting to or feeling conscious of the so-called obscenity of this pure symbol of the fatherhood and motherhood of the supreme deity; to them it is a symbol and nothing more; there is nothing obscene in connection with its worship; the simplest and the purest materials, such as water from a well reserved for ceremonial purposes, flowers, incense and freshly cooked rice and cakes, are used in the worship of the *Linga*. If there be any the slightest lack of cleanliness and purity on the part of the officiating priest, it would be passed over unnoticed in a *Vishṇu* temple; but never in a *Śiva* temple, where absolute purity and cleanliness are rigorously demanded from the *pūjāri*. Thus, whatever might have been the original setting and the import of the symbolism, at the present time they are forgotten and lost; and the worship of the *Linga* and the *yōni*, is absolutely* and thoroughly

v2.c16.77

∗ The attention of the reader may here be drawn to a little book entitled "Primitive Symbolism as illustrated in Phallic Worship" by Hodder M. Westrop, published by Messrs. Geo. Redvay in London. In this, the author has collected information about the existence, in the past and

v2.c16.78

free from even the remotest associations of any kind of immorality or indecency.

v2.c16.79

The great antiquity of Śiva worship is established by a number of references in ancient inscriptions; some of these references are given on page 8 of the General Introduction in Volume I of this publication.

v2.c16.80

Having considered at some length the history and nature of Śiva worship, I now proceed to a systematic description of the various images of Śiva in the subsequent chapters.

v2.c16.81

present, of phallic worship in several countries—Greece, Egypt, Rome, Assyria, Ancient Amercia, &c. Liṅga worship or worship of Priapus, or fascinum or Pripe-gala continued to exist, according to Boudin, till the 12th century A.D. in Germany, Slavonia and France. In France a document entitled Sacerdotal Judgments on Crimes, of the 8th century A.D. is said to contain the following: "If any one performs enchantments before the fascinum, let him do penance on bread and water during three lents."

Lingas

v2.c16.s1.1

SIVA is worshipped in a number of anthropomorphic forms, as also in the symbol of Liṅga. The more common representation is the latter. As has been said already, the chief image in the central shrine of a Śiva temple, is, in a large majority of instances, the Liṅga. Very rarely do we meet with anthropomorphic images of Śiva in the central shrines, and where they are seen, as in some temples of the Pallava period in South India, they occupy a position subordinate to the Liṅga.

v2.c16.s1.2

Liṅgas are broadly divided into two classes, namely, the *chala-liṅgas* and the *achala-liṅgas*, that is, the moveable and the immoveable Liṅgas. To the latter class belong the large and heavy stone Liṅgas which are permanently set up in the central shrines of Śiva temples. A description of the different varieties of the *chala-liṅgas*, had better be given first before proceeding to deal with the important class of *achala-liṅgas*.

v2.c16.s1.3

The *chala-lingas* are divided into *mṛṇmaya* (those made of earth), *lōhaja* (of metals), *ratnaja* (of precious stones), *dāruja* (of wood), *śailaja* (of stone) and *kṣaṇika lingas*, (those made for the occasion and disposed of immediately their use is over). The *mṛṇmaya lingas* may be of baked or unbaked clay. For making an unbaked clay *liṅga* it is stated in the *Kāmikāgama* that white clay, gathered from pure places, such as the tops of hills and banks of rivers, should be mixed with milk, curds, ghee, as also the flours of wheat and barley, the barks of milky trees, powdered sandal paste, mercury, etc., and the whole mass is then well mixed up and kneaded and kept for a fortnight or, at the most, a month. The *liṅga* is then shaped according to the instructions given in the *Āgamas* for that purpose. The baked clay *liṅga* is used for *ābhichārika* purposes; that is, for incantations such as those made to bring about the destruction of an enemy.

v2.c16.s1.4

The *lōhaja liṅgas* may be made of the following eight metals, namely, gold, silver, copper, bell-metal, iron, lead, brass and tin. Similarly, the *ratnaja-liṅgas* may be carved in pearls, coral, cat's-eye

The Chala or Jangama Lingas

The Mrinmaya Lingas

The Lohaja Lingas and the Ratnaja Lingas

v2.c16.s1.t3.1

(vaiḍūrya) quartz crystal, topaz (puṣyarāga), emerald and bluestone; that is, the ratnas or precious stones employed in making lingas are seven in number. The Dāruja lingas are made of the timber of the śami, madhūka, karṇikāra, maṇḍūka, tinduka, arjuna, pippala, and udumbara trees; besides these, the timber of all such trees as have barks which exude a milky latex when cut, is also mentioned as good for making lingas; one such tree is the jack and it is very largely employed in the Malabar Coast for carving very fine specimens of images. The Kāmikāgama adds many more trees, such as the khadira, the chandana, the sāla, the bilva, the badara and the dēvādaru, the timber of which is also fit for making lingas. The stone lingas included in the class of chala-lingas are perhaps those small ones which are worn on the person by the people of the sect of Śaivas known as the Jaṅgamas, Liṅgavantas or Liṅgāyats, or Vīra Śaivas. The kṣaṇika-lingas are those that are made then and there for pūjā and are, after the pūjā is over, cast away. They may be made of saikatam (sand), uncooked rice, cooked rice, river-side clay, cow-dung, butter, rudrākṣa seeds, sandal paste,

v2.c16.s1.t3.2

The Daruja Lingas.

v2.c16.s1.t3.3

The Sailaja Lingas.

v2.c16.s1.t3.4

The Kshanika Lingas.

v2.c16.s1.t3.5

kūrcha grass, flowers, jaggery, and flour. It is said that worshipping a *liṅga* made of gold grants wealth (*śrīpradam*) *; one of uncooked rice, *vibhava*; a *liṅga* made of cooked rice, grants the worshipper plenty of food; a *liṅga* made of clay gathered from river banks, grants landed estates; of cow-dung, removes all disease; of butter, gives one a jovial temper; of *Rudrāksha* seeds, grants knowledge; one of sandal paste, is prescribed for those who desire *saubhāgya*, while that of *kūrcha* grass for seekers after soul-liberation; a *liṅga* composed of flowers grants long life; one made of jaggery confers all desired ends and that made of flour strength.

v2.c16.s1.t3.6

* In the *Uttara-kāṇḍa* of the *Rāmāyaṇa* it is stated that wherever Rāvaṇa went, he carried with him a golden *liṅga* for his worship: placing that *liṅga* in the midst of a pedestal of sand, Rāvaṇa made *pūjā* to it with incense and flowers of fine smell (*yatra yatra cha yātisma Rāvaṇō rākshasēśvara jāmbūnadamayam liṅgam sthāpya Rāvaṇaḥ archayāmāsa gandhaiśchāmṛita gandhibhiḥ*). The commentator remarks " that the golden *liṅga* was intended for constant worship. He worshipped it from the desire of sovereignty. For it is prescribed in the *Tantras* that a golden *liṅga* should be worshipped when any one desires sovereignty. (*Tal-liṅgam jāmbunadamayam nitya-pūjā liṅgam aiśvarya kāmanāya hi tal-liṅga-pūjā Rāvaṇasya aiśvarya kāmasya sauvarṇa-liṅga-pūjāyastantrēshūktah.*)

v2.c16.s1.t3.7

It is further stated that the *lingas* made of metals, precious stones etc., should have only the *pūjā-bhāga* or the portion which is projecting above the pedestal in *achala-lingas*, together with the *piṇḍikā* or the pedestal ; in other words, these *lingas* need not be made with the *Brahmabhāga* and the *Viṣṇu-bhāga* and then set up in a separate *piṇḍikā* ; the *piṇḍikā* and that portion of the *linga* which is to be visible and which is known by the name of the *Rudra-bhāga* are to be either carved out of a single block of precious stone or cast in metals. No rules need be observed, as in the case of *achala-lingas* in shaping the *chala-lingas* and they need not bear on them the lines that are required to be marked on the *achala-lingas*.

v2.c16.s1.t3.8

The *achala* or *sthāvara-lingas* are, according to the *Suprabhēdāgama*, classified under nine heads, namely, the Svāyambhuva, the Pūrva (or Purāṇa), the Daivata, the Gāṇapatya, the Asura, the Sura, the Ārsha, the Rākshasa, the Mānusha, and the Bāṇa lingas.∗ these, the Svāyambhuva, are said to belong to the uttamōttama (most superior) variety of liṅgas; those belonging to the Daivata and the Gāṇapatya classes, are of the Uttamamadhyama (middling superior) variety; whereas the Asura, the Sura and the Ārsha liṅgas belong to the uttamādhama (lowest among the superior) variety. The Mānushaliṅgas belong to the madhyamādhama (middling among the inferior) variety.

v2.c16.s1.t3.9

∗ The *Mānasāra* has another classification according to which the *achala-lingas* are of six kinds, namely, Śaivalinga, Pāśupata-Linga, Kālāmukha-Linga, Vāma-Linga, Bhairava-Linga and a variety which is not mentioned ; but it gives no description of any of these *lingas*. लिङ्गमानविधिं सम्यल्लक्षणं वक्ष्येऽधुना । शैवं पाशुपतं चैव कालामुखमुदाहृतम् ॥ वामं च भैरवं चैव लिङ्गमानंतु षड्विधम् ।

v2.c16.s1.t3.10

Their classification.

v2.c16.s1.t3.11

The Makuṭāgama recognises only four classes of sthira-liṅgas, namely, the Daivika, the Ārshaka, the Gāṇapa, and the Mānusha liṅgas, whereas the most authoritative of all the Śaiva Āgamas, the Kāmikāgama states that the sthāvara-liṅgas are divided into six classes, the Svāyambhuva, the Daivika, the Ārshaka, the Gāṇapatya, the Mānusha and the Bāṇa liṅgas. Though there is apparent diversity among the statements of the various Āgamas in the classification of the sthāvara liṅgas, practically there is no difference at all in them; some of them include the minor varieties under the major heads and swell the list, while others are somewhat more rigorous in keeping apart the major and the minor divisions among the sthāvara liṅgas.

v2.c16.s1.t3.12

The Svāyambhuva Liṅga is described in the Kāmikāgama as one which rose up and came in into existence by itself and had existed from time immemorial. As such, even if these are slightly damaged by causes such as fire, wild elephants, inundation or encroachment of rivers, enemies of religion like the Tulushkas,[*] madmen or men possessed by devils, they need no re-setting up (jirṇoddhāra). If anything at all is necessary, it

v2.c16.s1.t3.13

∗ While commenting on the word ripavah, Nigamajñānadēva, son of Vāmadēvasivāchārya says, ripavah śatruvastulushkādaya : Vāmadēva was a contemporary and protege of a king called Sambhuvarāya. There are three or four Sambhuvarāyas, (that is, members of a dynasty of chiefs who styled themselves Sambhuvarāyas), of whom the Sambhuvarāya, the patron of Vāmadēva seems to be Rājanārāyaṇa Sambhuvarāyar, whose initial date is A. D. 1322-23. In one of the inscriptions discovered by me at Tiruvāmattūr and which is dated 1335-6 A.D., it is said that the Turukkar invaded some time previously and caused ruin to the country and that the pūjā in the Śiva temple at Tiruvāmattūr was suspended for want of funds and that Rājanārāyaṇa Sambhuvarāyar granted some lands and money to revive the pūjās. This Rājanārāyaṇa constructed a gōpura in the Aruṇāchalēśvara temple at Tiruvaṇṇamalai; sitting in this gōpura, Vāmadēva wrote the original and commentary of the Jirṇoddhāra daśaka. Hence, the invasion and havoc caused to the temples by the Mussalmans under Malik Kafur, the general of Alla-ud-din Khilji, were fresh in the mind of the author who, therefore, includes in the term ripavah, the Tulushkas.

First 97 of 816 passages. Read on

Linked texts (44)