The Geography of the Puranas c9: Chapter VII Regions of Jambu Dwipa: Bhadravarsa

The Geography of the Purāṇas c9

Language: English

Chapter VII Regions of Jambu Dwipa: Bhadravarsa

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ALL the Purāṇas agree that this major region of Jambū Dwīpa extended from the eastern margin of Ilāvṛta to the eastern seaboard and was bounded by the Nila range in the north, the Niṣadha range in the south and Devakūṭa in the west. Its area was approximately the same as that of Ketumāla and slightly less than that of Bhāratavarṣa or Uttara Kuru. This region can be easily located with the help of the topographical details given in the Purāṇas. The Purāṇic accounts, discussed below, lead one to the conclusion that it was identical with the basins of the Tarim and Hwangho rivers, i.e., the whole of Sinkiang and Northern China (see Fig. 11).

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The topographical features of Bhadravaṛṣa are given in greater detail in the Vāyu Purāṇa than in others, although they are not presented in one place. References to the rivers, mountains, valleys and plains occur in various chapters and under different headings in that Purāṇa and one has to put this scattered information together to get a complete picture of Bhadravaṛṣa and adjoining regions.

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The mountains forming the boundaries of Bhadravaṛṣa, as mentioned earlier are the Nila and the Niṣadha. The Nila is the Tienshen range and the Purāṇics extended it further towards the east to include the Bagdu Ula, the Barkol and the Karlik Tagh ranges in order to give it a parallelism with the southern range, the Niṣadha. As mentioned earlier the Niṣadha or rather its eastern extension is the Kunlun range, while, as will be seen later, the Devakūṭa, from all descriptions coincides with the Nan Shan and the Tsing-Ling ranges which run across China very nearly to the sea, since it is expressly mentioned in the Purāṇas that 'the lower part of this Devakūṭa mountain spreads up to the sea.'¹

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Other mountains of Bhadravaṛṣa and bordering regions are also mentioned in different contexts in different chapters of the Purāṇas. The text and its explanation are given below.

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'On the eastern side (of Meru) there are two mountains namely the Jaṭhara and the Devakūṭa which run north to south and stretch up to the Nila and Niṣadha mountains.'²

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The Kuruk Tagh and Altin Tagh mountains of Sinkiang practically close the Tarim Basin on the east and if the Altin Tagh-Nan- Shan-Tsing-Ling is taken to be the Devakūṭa which appears to be correct, Kuruk-Tagh must necessarily be the Jaṭhara of the Purāṇas. The Devakūṭa (i.e. Altin Tagh-Nan Shan-Tsing-Ling) thus fulfils both the conditions; along with Jaṭhara (Kuruk-Tagh) it joins the Nila (Tien-Shan) and the Niṣadha (Kunlun) and also extends to the sea.

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In another chapter of the Vāyu Purāṇa, the following list of mountains is given with reference to the Aruṇoda Lake which lies to the east of Meru (Pāmirs):

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I will now describe those mountains which are located on the east of Aruṇoda Lake. The names of these mountains are the Sitānta, Kumuñja, Sudhīra, Vaikāṅga, Manīśaila, Kṛṣṇa, Mahā Nila, Savindhu, Mandara, Reṇumāna, Sumedha, Niṣadha and Devācala.³

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The Nila, the Niṣadha and the Devācala (Devakūṭa) as identified earlier are obviously to the east of Meru (and incidentally, also of Aruṇoda Lake). The rest of these mountains may be identified with the help of the account of the eastern river given in the Purāṇas which runs as follows:

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This river (coming out of the Meru region) falls again on the east of Mandara. The same heavenly river after coming out from Aruṇoda Lake falls on the Sitānta mountain. It is then named Sita. It is obstructed by gardens and is further divided into several branches. From the peak of the Sitānta mountain it falls on the Mukuñja (or Kumuñja) mountain. The river then falls on the Sumuñja mountain. From that mountain it falls on the Mālyavān mountain and comes to the Vaikāṅga mountain. It passes from the Vaikāṅga mountain to the Manīśaila and then ultimately falls on the Ṛṣabha mountain, which is full of several caves. In this way this river passes through thousands of mountains and falls on the great Jaṭhara mountain; from there the river again falls on the Devakūṭa mountain. The lower part of this Devakūṭa is spreading up to the sea. In this way this river reaches the plains. The river passes through thousands of valleys, hundreds of mountains, strange forests and a variety of gardens and flows on after meeting hundreds of rivers. That great river crosses great dwipas and after irrigating Bhadravaṛṣa falls into the Eastern Sea.⁴

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Sitānta means 'end of cold', i.e., a range which marks the dividing line between the cold and hot regions. If the river Kizil-Su represents the headwaters of the Purāṇic river Sitā, Sitānta is obviously the Kashghar range, i.e., the last longitudinal range of the Pāmir region facing the Tarim basin, on the east. It is a range which, to a traveller coming from the east across the hot and sandy Tarim Basin, stands athwart the route towards the west and promises a cool climate beyond. It is an effective climatic barrier which separates a hot and dry desert on the east from a cold plateau on the west. Coming from the west it literally marks the ‘end of cold’ and is therefore rightly qualified for its name, Sitānta.

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In the above paragraph we have presumed that the Kizil-Su represents the headwaters of the Sitā river. There are strong reasons for this assumption. Firstly, the river is supposed to rise in the ‘northern peaks of Meru’. Secondly, it has a lake—Lake Arunoda—at its source and thirdly, it first of all ‘falls on the east of the Mandara mountain’ and thereafter on the Sitānta mountain and ‘obstructed by gardens further splits into several branches’. A topographical map of the Tarim basin will show that the Tarim river receives two main tributaries from the west, i.e., the Kashghar (or Kizil-Su) and the Yārkand. Of these two the former satisfies all the three conditions mentioned above. On the other hand the Yārkand, though bigger in volume, rises behind the Kunlun range (the Niṣadha of the Purāṇas) and not in the Pāmīrs (Meru). Besides, it never crosses the two longitudinal ranges which bound Meru on the east so explicitly mentioned in the Purāṇas. We are also not aware of any lake which feeds or may have fed the Yārkand river in the past.

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Once we have identified the Sitā of the Purāṇas with the Kizil-Su-Kashghar-Tarim river, the mountains of the Tarim Basin can be identified with the help of the two paragraphs quoted above from the Vāyu Purāṇa.

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The lake Arunoda is the Kara Kul which lies on the north-eastern corner of the Pāmīrs (Meru) near the source of Kizil-Su. The Kizil-Su (Sitā) crosses the Sarikol range, (i.e., the Mandara mountain of the Purāṇas). It then ‘falls’ on the Kashghar range (Sitānta). As the Kizil enters the basin and reaches the town of Kashghar it receives two tributaries from the north and two from the south. The northern ones rise in the two offshoots of the Tien Shan Mt., i.e., the Sumuṅja and Kumuṅja, the latter being fairly extensive and running parallel to the main Tien Shan range up to the river Akṣu. The two right bank tributaries of the Kizil which meet it from the south rise in the Kungur and the Mustagh Ata—the Vaikāṅga and Malyavān of the Purāṇas respectively. As the river flows past the Kashghar town it is known as the Kashghar river which a few hundred miles down below receives the other important affluent of the Tarim, i.e. the Yārkand River, which rises behind the Mustagh range. This range is therefore the Māniśaila of the Purāṇas. The combined waters of the Taushkan Darya and Kim Arik rivers flow across Akṣu. The former rises north of the Tien Shan in the Vṛṣabha mountain mentioned in the Purāṇas in connection with the Northern River. The latter rises near the Khan Tengri (Mahā Nīla) peak of the Tien Shan range. Below its confluence with the Akṣu the Tarim practically receives no waters from the north or south except through minor intermittent streams, the Kanche Darya and he Quruq Darya which come down the Quruq or Kuruk Tagh (‘Desert Range’) or the Jathara of the Purāṇics.

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After ‘falling’ on the Jathara range the river Tarim (or Sītā) takes a southerly course towards the Altin Tagh or the ‘Gold Mountain’, the Devakūṭa of the Purāṇas and finally ends in Lop Nor, the salt lake which lies at the foot of that range.

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The Purāṇic account of the river Sītā does not end here. It presumes that the river traverses the Devakūṭa, the Altin Tagh–Nai Shan Block through underground channels, reappears on its eastern margin and flows through Bhadravaṛṣa to the Eastern Sea. Obviously the continuation of the Tarim towards the east refers to the Hwangho river of China. Thus the Purāṇic Sītā represents the Tarim-Hwangho rivers taken as one—uninterrupted in its career from the Pāmirs to the Pacific Ocean.

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The belief that a river passes right across a mountain chain appears to have been applied by the Purāṇics on many occasions where:

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(i) two rivers flow in the same direction on the opposite sides of a mountain range, block or massif, particularly when

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(ii) one river falls in a lake at the foot of the obstructing range and another river rises or flows on its opposite slope, provided the two rivers are correctly aligned; or

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(iii) a lake occurs on one side of a range and the river rises near it on the opposite slope. As examples of such Purāṇic notions may be mentioned the Syr Daria and the Irtysh (Bhadrasomā), the Tarim and the Hwangho (Sītā), Karakul and Kizil-Su across the Mandara, Gilgit river–Lake Manasarovar–across the Nisadha and the Hemakuṭa, etc.

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This belief is not peculiar to the Purāṇas only. The Chinese for instance represented the Tarim and Hwangho as one river. Huan Tsang says, “This river (Sītā-Tarim) on the east enters the sea. Passing through the salt lake Yen-Tse (Lop Nor) it flows underground and emerges at the Tsih-Shi mountains (west of Lao-Chou?). It is the origin of our (Yellow) river.” The Persians and the Arabs borrowed the same idea from the Purāṇas as is evident from the following passage. ‘Another river Wajakh rises on the eastern side of the said mountain Mawisa at the extreme limit of the desert. It skirts the towns of Thajakh, Bariha and Kuskan, flows on through the province of Khotan and while passing through the region of Shachoer forms a swamp (Lake Lop Nor). Thence it flows down to the limits of Kucha, then passes through the province of Kursh and the province of Farjakali and empties itself into the Eastern Ocean.’

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In the accompanying map of the Purāṇic Bhadravaṛṣa or the Basin of the Tarim-Hwangho, the names of identified topographical features which occur in the basin have been entered. Unidentified or doubtful features have been omitted.

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Let us now check the above observations with the help of minor regional descriptions given under the heading 'Valleys between Mountains' in the 37th chapter of Vāyu Purāṇa. These accounts are very vivid, detailed and quite often picturesque so much so that in some cases the poet and the priest throws the bewildered geographer into entire confusion. Here are a few examples:

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There is a valley between Sitānta and Kumuñja ranges where birds sing and numerable creatures live. It is 300 Yojanas in length and 100 Yojanas in breadth. There is a lake and its water is beautiful clear and of a pleasant taste. The valley is beautified by fine-smelling lotuses. Big Durdharsā snakes are found there. In its clear water Devas and Demons always bathe. This sacred Sri Sar is famous in heaven and Mritya Loka... On the eastern side of the lake saints (siddha-jana) reside. There is a big and beautiful garden full of flowers and fruits. It is 100 Yojanas in breadth and 30 Yojanas in length. It is full of thousands of large trees which are half a Kos in height... It is full of golden and green fruits, sweet-smelling and large. When they fall on the ground after ripening, the whole area is covered by them. It is known as Srivan and there are Gandharvas, Kinnaras, Yaksas and Mahānāgas who move freely in it. In that forest Goddes Lakṣmi* herself resides and saints pay their respects to her.⁹

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⁹ *

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2. The next valley which is described is the one between Vikaṅka and Maṇiśaila:

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The Campaka forest measuring 200 Yojanas by 100 Yojanas is located between Vikaṅka and Maṇiśaila. Here too the saints live The flowers make the forest glow, as if it were on fire. The branches of those trees with big trunks are full of leaves which spread for about half a Kos upwards... It also contains yellow-coloured saffron... This forest is served by Demons, Devas, Gandharvas, Yakṣas, Kinnaras and Apsarās. Here is also the āśrama of god Kaśyapa where saints and priests are found in large numbers and the four Vedas are read.¹⁰

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¹⁰ 10

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3. The third valley mentioned in the same sequence contains:

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The beautiful talwan (Palm) forest which is 50 Yojanas long and 30 Yojanas broad, lies between Mahā Nila and Mukuñja. Palm trees are half a 'Kos' in height... It is said that Indra's King of Elephants, Airāvata used to live in this forest...¹¹

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¹¹ 11

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The above descriptions clearly refer to three important oases which occur on the margin of the Tarim basin, where the rivers Kizil-Su, Yārkand and Akṣu enter the sandy belt of the basin from the mountains. The first of the valleys mentioned above is clearly the oasis of Kashghar, which is by far the richest in the whole of the Tarim basin. The second corresponds to the Yarkand oasis and the third is the palm forest which is located in and around Aksu. All the 3 oases lie between 3,300 and 4,500 feet a.s.l. and are strikingly similar. The first two are much bigger and are justly famous for polar willows and their orchards and arbours with their inviting shade and their plentiful produce of fruits. It will be seen from the map that the Kashghar oasis lies between the Sitānta and Kumuñja, Yarkand between Vaikanka and Maṇiśaila and Aqsu or Akṣu between Kumuñja and Mahā Nila. This confirms the location of the Sitānta mountain which was identified with the Kashghar range. Similarly the relative position of the other mountains, the Kumuñja, the Vaikanka, the Maṇiśaila and the Mahā-Nila appear to be correct with reference to these oases on the one hand and the river Tarim and its affluents on the other. It is to be noted that the last one, i.e., the Akṣu oasis which is said to be between the Mahā Nila mountain and the Mukuñja or the Kumuñja is the only oasis which is actually located at the foot of the Tien-Shan, others are at some distance from the main ranges. The cities of Kashghar, Yarkand and Aksu (and Khotan) have been described time and again by travellers in ancient and medieval times. Their accounts show that they, particularly the first two, have been important centres of administration, culture, trade and commerce for centuries. Their products, agricultural and mineral, had acquired fame all over the known world. The beauty of these oasis towns, their arbours and meadows, irrigation channels and lakes, houses and temples, flowers and fruits, and all these in the midst of a desert—qualified them for the epithet, 'paradise', commonly used for describing them. It is no wonder therefore that the Purāṇics honoured these 'paradises' by associating them with the Goddess Lakṣmī, God Kāśyapa and Lord Indra to keep fresh in their memories the beauties of the land which was under their influence for a long time.

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Two other regions are described in the Vāyu Purāṇa with reference to the mountain mentioned earlier. It is said that:

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There is a plain which is seventy thousand Yojanas long and hundred¹² Yojanas in breadth lies between Venumān (or Renumān) and Sumedha mountains. In this plain there are no trees, creepers and gardens and no creatures live there. Only green meadows occur here and there.¹³

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The extent and nature of the 'Plain' depicted above shows without any doubt that it refers to the Taklamakan desert which forms the core of the Tarim basin—the Dead Heart of Asia. The two mountains between which it lies belong to the southern rampart of the basin (i.e., the Altin Tagh) and not to the northern range (Tien-Shan), since they are not mentioned along with those mountains which flank the Tarim (Sītā) river. They are therefore the eastern and western spurs of the former between which the desert lies.

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The other regions are described in the following words:

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North of Niṣadha-śaila and Deva-śaila, the ground is thickly covered with broken stones and is a thousand Yojanas long and a hundred Yojanas in breadth. Even here there are no trees and creepers, although a small amount of water spreads all over the place. Brāhmaṇas: I have described in sequence all the valleys of all shapes and sizes which are located on the east of Meru.¹⁴

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On the southern border of the Tarim basin lies the great mountain rampart of Kunlun and the subjacent range, the Altin Tagh. The few streams which break through the outer ranges into the basin to the north run through deep-cut inaccessible gorges. The outer slopes of these mountains are extraordinarily barren and forbidding. Throughout their whole length from east to west, the foot of their northern slopes is formed by a glacis of piedmont gravel attaining in parts a width of 40 miles and more and everywhere they are utterly barren. However, a few streams which have cut across this belt of gravel support some vegetation near its outer margin. It is, therefore, clear that this region is described very precisely by the Purāṇas—as regards its position (north of Niṣadha and Devakūṭa), extent and nature.

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Besides these mountains, valleys and the rivers Tarim and Hwangho (called Sītā) the Purāṇics also mention forty-two other streams of Bhadravaṛṣa (North China or the basin of the Hwangho)¹⁵. It is difficult to identify them for two reasons: (1) the Chinese names of these streams differ considerably from the Indian names; (2) the changing courses of the rivers of North China have produced a drainage pattern which is substantially different from what it was about a thousand years ago. However, the long list of rivers brings out the fact that the major part of Bhadravaṛṣa is a well-watered land of ample rainfall, crossed by innumerable streams irrigating a level land. This confirms the identify of Bhadravaṛṣa with northern China where identical conditions of rainfall and drainage prevail.

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The Purāṇas deal with the population and settlements of the Tarim basin and North China (i.e., Bhadravaṛṣa and its eastern extension) under three heads:

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(a) The oases settlements of the Tarim Basin.

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(b) 'Delightful places on mountains', i.e., the settlements in the mountainous zone of this region.

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Of these (a) has already been discussed earlier in this chapter. As regards (b), the distribution of population and settlement is given in the Vāyu Purāṇa as follows:¹⁰

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(i) Sitāntā mountain (Kashghar range). The slopes of this mountain are depicted as full of waterfalls, extensive forests and abundance of flowers and fruits which make it the most desirable mountain among men and gods alike.

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A large number of creatures live in them due to abundance of food. That mountain has a large number of caves in which people live. There lies the playing ground for god Indra and there is his famous Pārijāta forest famous in all the three Lokas... Devas, Demons, Pannagas, Yakṣas, powerful Gandharvas, Siddhas, Kinnaras, etc. always play in that beautiful Indra-Vana.

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It is evident that this description fits in with the Kashghar range with pleasant forested slopes, sufficient moisture and presence of precious minerals. There are no cultivated fields or terraces on the mountain, hence no compact settlements occur on its slopes, although some people live scattered in mountain caves or isolated valleys. Naturally no cities or settlements are associated with this mountain in the Purāṇas.

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(ii) The Kumuñja mountain lying east (rather north-east) of the Sitāntā mountain is full of waterfalls and caves. ‘On its summit there are eight big cities (aṭhipuras) belonging to demons’. The Demons signify powerful and warlike people of alien races; in this case probably Tartars, of the adjacent highlands north of Kashghar and Akṣu who live by plundering the agricultural settlement on the basin below or robbing the caravans on the Great East-West routes.

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(iii) The Vajraka mountain or the northern rim of L. Bagrash and the Mahā Nila, i.e. the Tien-Shan and its eastern offshoots also accommodated the ‘Demons’ (Toghuzhuza, and ‘horse-faced Kinnaras’ (Mongols) who live in the caves of the former mountain, and in fifteen colonies (or cities as mentioned in the Purāṇa) or on the heights of the latter range. These highlanders lived in enclosed settlements and high-walled houses in the Turfan basin and Karashahr. The description of this area is fairly accurate in the Purāṇas.

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(iv) On the Veṇumāna mountain which according to our identification lies near the southern border of the Tarim basin are the ‘cities of scholars’. The names of these big cities are not given but the names of their ‘owners’ are mentioned: On the Veṇumāna mountain there are three cities of scholars which are fifty yojanas long and thirty yojanas in breadth. Powerful like Indra, three scholars named Uluka, Romesh and Mahā Netra are their owners'. Obviously this refers to three settlements in the Khotan-Kerya-Charchan region of the Tarim basin.

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(v) The description of cities or settlements on or near the Devakūṭa range (i.e., the Altin Tagh-Nam Shan range) as given in the Purāṇas is more precise, it runs as follows:

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On the extensive peak of Maryāda mountain named Devakūṭa is the abode of Vinitanandan Suparṇa. That land stretches for about a hundred Yojanas and contains numerous majestic houses. The king of birds, Mahātmā Garuḍa resides in Śalmata dwipa where innumerable birds of Garuḍa's species live. On the southern side of that mountain there are seven strange peaks. Several big houses have been constructed there by Devas and decorated with golden garlands. There are seven cities of Gandharvas which are forty yojanas in length and thirty yojanas in breadth. Men and women live there. Powerful Agneyas and Gandharvas of powerful Kubera are the owners of these cities. On the northern peak of Bhuvana Mountain is the residence of Sanghi-Kayo who is the enemy of Devas. The outer circle of that city measures 30 Yojanas. It is inaccessible to enemies.... There is an inaccessible city of demons named Kāli Kāya full of rows of big houses of different colours on the next Maryāda mountain.17 There are big roads and numerous houses decorated with gold and precious stones. They are always crowded by happy men and women... The city named Sunassa is 100 Yojanas in length and 60 Yojanas in breadth and looks like a cluster of clouds. On its southern peak there is a big city stretching 60 yojanas in length and 20 yojanas in breadth which belongs to Autkatch demons, with good physique. The city which is located on the central peak of Devakūṭa mountain is full of garlands and golden furrows....18

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This passage evidently deals with two types of cities, situated in the Altin Tagh-Nan Shan regions: (a) cities of Gandharvas; (b) cities of demons (Kāli-Kāya) and enemies of Devas (i.e., Sanghi-Kāya).

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Under category (a) fall the flourishing cities which existed between the Peishan and Nan Shan massifs and which were situated on the great ancient route from the west to the east. These include important towns like Sachow, Yumen, Ansi, Suchow, Kanchow, etc. In the second category are included the Tartar and Mongol towns of Qara-Shan, Turfan and Burkol which lie away from the main route and were inhabited by powerful people of the north.

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The Vāyu Purāṇa gives a list of the provinces of Bhadravaṛṣa proper (N. China) and mentions:

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There are several countries (in Bhadravaṛṣa) where a great variety of people are living. These people are looked after by several kings. In these countries (or provinces) many powerful peoples are living. These countries are famous all around. The names of these countries located on even and uneven land are:

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Sumangala, Suddha, Candrakānta, Sunandana, Vrajaka, Nila Mauleya, Sauvīra, Vijaysthala, Mahāsthala, Sakāma, Mahakaśa, Sumurdhaja, Vatranāh, Sapasanga, Parivaya, Parachak, Samvakra, Mahendra, Saivala, Satnap, Kumuda, Sakmund, Urali-Sankirna, Bhaurnaka Yomaka, Vatsaku, Varāha, Harvahaka, Sankha, Bhavimardra, Uttara, Haibhauma, Krsnabhauma, Subhauma and Mahābhauma.

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In that country (Bhadravarsa) people of yellow colour reside. These men are good-statured and powerful.¹⁹

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Although the names of the provinces cannot be properly identified, the long list of provinces and the general fact that Bhadravarsa is the land of the 'yellow people' confirms that Bhadravarsa included only North China. Southern China south of the Tsing Ling mountain which was a densely forested, rugged and inaccessible region was excluded from Bhadravarsa. In fact South China was occupied by man more than a thousand years after he had settled down in North China.

Linked texts (1)

Vāyupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit